Question 1: - Cornell University



Question 1: Cognitive ergonomics- the degree of understanding how to use technology; comprehension of how to operate/utilize the environment+1 HER Process+2 DefinitionTOTAL POINTS= 3Pilots prefer the diagram on the right because for them their frame of reference for location is the plane that they are in. This example illustrates the concept of (mis)affordance or mapping because the designers “map” a mental model of orientation in the space similar to the left picture. Pilots would more likely use the plane as the frame of reference and therefore prefer the picture on the right.+1 Correct diagram choice+2 Explaining why the diagram is correct+2 Incorporating the HER ProcessTOTAL POINTS= 5The two concepts not incorporated in part b. are visibility and feedback. Visibility means one’s ability to actually perceive (see) what they need to do in order to use/operate the environment. Feedback refers to differentiation in feedback with variability in use. When I act on the environment (technology) in one way vs. another, the feedback I get from my use is related to how I use it. To enhance visibility I would locate the GPS in a place where it does not interfere with my view of the road but at the same time can easily be seen without taking my eyes off the road. So, for instance, I might put some large graphics right above the steering wheel, which I can easily see without having to look down or away from the windshield. For feedback, two possibilities come to mind: prior to any decision I have to make re: route, the GPS would display an audio and verbal announcement of impending direction. This should be synchronized with speed so the time interval from current location to when the choice has to be made is held constant (e.g., 60 seconds). Another aspect of enhancing feedback would be when an error occurs instead of “recalculating”, the GPS instead informs the dricver exactly what to do (e.g., “make a U-turn as soon as it is safe to do so” or “continue until second left, then turn left on DEA Street”).+4 GPS Design+2 (x2) For each Cognitive Ergonomic Concept+1 (x2) For each Concept DefinitionTOTAL POINTS= 10For a person with memory impairment, I would shorten the time interval between the presentation of information and the decision. I would also add an additional sign such as a green light and/or an auditory warning to indicate that a decision is upcoming or that an error just occurred. Another approach might be to combine with the visual/auditory signals above, an overall but simplified diagram/map with a moving car on it to represent the vehicle, as it is moving along the route. Both ideas would enhance visibility. The second option layers in feedback of actual location in real time. +3 Modify one aspect of GPS Design+2 Cognitive ergonomic concept+2 Explanation on why the innovation helpsQuestion 2 a. The fact that there is some degree of consensus for evaluating this setting as high in scenic quality contradicts the adage that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Theoretically this is important because it means that it is possible to build a model or theory of scenic quality specifically or aesthetics more generally. We can derive standards for beauty. Furthermore by having some understanding of how or why places or objects are scenic/beautiful we gain insight into how people make such judgments. Practically speaking, US environmental law requires evaluation of environmental impacts for projects involving federal and in some cases, state funds. A component of this evaluation is scenic quality impact. Another practical implication of this is that artists/designers often wish people will like their work. This means that an understanding of some underlying principles of aesthetics makes it more likely that a larger number of the audience will respond positively. 8 points: 4 for theoretical and 4 for practical b. water, high relative relief, compatible land use, small amount of human influence, superior view (prospect and refuge). Ok to just list. There was an error in the question since it asked for physical elements linked to high scenic quality. Actually only three would apply in this example: water, high relative relief, and compatible land use. The view is inferior not superior and there is no discernable human influence. However any four of these five elements were counted because of the error. 4 points, one each Given error in question, persons who only listed three that were present got full credit. c. complexity a moderate amount of complexity is preferred. This scene has variety in landforms, texture, materials, color, but in each case the levels are not exceptionally high or very homogenous. Proportion this theory says that proportionality of objects or scenes influences aesthetic judgments. In this scene the relative width and height of the mountains and the water approximate the ideal proportionality (Golden section). The forested portion of the scene is actually too wide relative to its height. The proportion of water to land elements to sky is also good in terms of ideal proportionality. The symmetry of the elements and their reflection also has good proportionality. Information theory this theory emphasizes the tension between making sense of things but also finding them interesting (prediction is possible but not trivial). Several of the elements of this theory are in this scene such as coherence and legibility. There are discernable patterns such as water in front of forest with mountains off in the distance. Similarly if one were to move through the space there is an order of the different landforms. At the same time these are balanced by complexity and mystery. As indicated above there is a moderate amount of complexity in several respects. Mystery or the promise of further information upon exploration is illustrated for instance by the partial occlusion of the mountains, suggesting that there may be something behind the forest. The forest itself also provide some partial vistas but also expectations of what might be discovered through further exploration.2 points each for total of 6 pointsd. The graph should look like a capital M but the middle point is higher than the two endpoints for reasons explained below. Two upside down U s is not correct but given 1 pt. Graph itself worth 2 pointsThe prototype or 0 on the X axis means there is low mystery or complexity and thus there is little to puzzle over or a challenge to solve. The aesthetic judgment will be relatively low. To put it differently the prediction is trivial. I already know/expect what it is going to look like. However at the extremes (-10 or +10) things are so different from expectations that it is likely to be near impossible to comprehend or understand what is depicted. A high level of unpredictability or chaos will be present making prediction essentially impossible. According to information theory we prefer a balance between making sense and challenge or interest. Thus optimum aesthetics will be in between the prototype (0) and the extremes. 5 pts for explanation. If drawing correct but explanation didn't include why prototype is moderate preference, -2. -3 for incorrect drawing but explanation consistent with incorrect graph. Common -3 e.g. is two upside down U s and then explained drawing.Question 3a. 6 points. 2 points for describing the graph, 2 points for explaining the importance in terms of environmental problems and 2 points for explaining the importance in terms of their solutions. Answer: This graphs shows that over time it is taking more energy to produce the same amount of food. Food production is becoming less efficient. This is important in terms of environmental problems for several reasons. First of all energy production is the cause of many environmental problems because of fossil fuel combustion emissions. Second, energy production uses resources which many species depend on such as land or water. Third, this graph is likely a corollary of diminishing returns. Total surplus of food is likely to diminish as population grows.The reason this graph is important to the solution of environmental problems is because it indicates that there may be critical limitations on what technology can do to help deal with diminishing returns as we approach carrying capacity. The "technological fix" may not work. Given a finite amount of energy, if we need more energy to produce the same amount of food, at some point we will not be able to produce enough energy to fuel the technology being used to grow more and more food.b. 4 points. Relate this graph to Malthus’ arguments about carrying capacity 2 points and how does this graph relate to critiques of Malthus 2 points. Answer: Malthus argues that with population growth an ecosystem [the planet] has inherent limitations in resources that can only support a population of a given size. This point is called carrying capacity. Eventually the population > resources (exceed carrying capacity) causing mass catastrophe (war, disease, starvation) because there will not be sufficient resources such as food, land, water, etc. to provide for the population. Eventually this will lead to a collapse of the ecosystem marked by loss of population. In terms of critiques of Malthus, the most fundamental one is that Malthus did not take into account human ingenuity (inventions) to counteract the pressure of population growth. When diminishing returns are noted, people/societies come up with inventions to cope with impending carrying capacity. This graph however indicates that there may also be limits the capabilities of technology to enhance carrying capacity. c. 6 points. 3 points each for responses from DSP and NEP. Lacking explanation will lose 1 point. Answer: DSP response might include: i. we can invent technology that can grow food that is more efficient than those under current use; ii. there will be more resources available; iii. more people is actually a good thing because then there will be more potential ideas for solutions to environmental problems such as insufficient food production NEP would argue that this graph confirms concerns about population growth and reliance on technology to offset that population growth. No matter what we invent, at some point there is simply not going to be enough resources such as food to support a global population that keeps increasing. NEP would also argue that while technology can be helpful, we know that byproducts of major sources of energy production to fuel innovations have byproducts (CO2 ) that cause environmental damage. d. 9points. The program needs 3 parts—attitudes, knowledge and ecological behavior. Each part worth 3 points. Answer: Need to design an intervention that is related to changing population growth and/or dependent on technologies that increase carbon footprint. One of these types of behaviors is the desired endpoint of the intervention.In order to do this, answer has to address one factor that can influenceAttitudesKnowledgeThen show that this leads to greater Behavioral Intention .Then the Behavior Intention needs to be converted into Ecological Behavior (i.e., the desired outcome of less population growth and/or diminished carbon footprint) Some of the factors to be explained for each of these major components are:Note: just need one of these within each category.Attitudes Increase educational levels persons with more education are more NEP More scientific education persons with more scientific knowledge are more NEP Educate within religious beliefs alternative or balanced views to counter anthropocentrism such as stewardship or nature as gift to human beings that also reflects deity's concern for all living things. Traditional/fundamentalist beliefs emphasize anthropocentrism and in some cases nature as temptation. Politics evidence that conservative beliefs about purity, structure, and order along with patriotism can be used to frame educational campaigns that will increase support for conservation Gender women tend to be more NEP because of feminist beliefs. This suggests that education about feminist beliefs and values could increase men's affinity for NEP . Local exposure to environmental threats evidence that people most directly affected by environmental problems are also more concerned, more NEPKnowledge Awareness hands on environmental education effective such programs increase env concerns and eco behaviors Feedback to increase awareness of personal behaviors env impact energy use coupled directly with behaviors reduces energy use (e.g. electric meter, gas consumption, dashboard showing energy use in buildings) Prompts immediate reminders of desired behavior increase the behavior (flyers to recycle, recycling option next to landfill trash bin) Knowledge of implementation information about contraception along with education reduces fertility; knowledge about how to use mass transit increases use; Credibility more credible sources such as scientist, neighbor, local govt leads to more uptake on energy audits, use of solar power, curbside recycling compared to commercial or regional/federal govt information Norms understanding that others engage in ecological behavior promotes individual likelihood of doing same litter experiments with models picking up litter, recycling lines and towels, water usage reductionConverting Behavioral Intention to Ecological BehaviorKey concept here is altering the incentives. Making it easier to do the right thing; harder to do the wrong thing. Two general strategies.Change the delay in the long term reinforcement Pay higher costs for healthcare, education if you have more than one child (Singapore family planning model) Add punishment to current behaviors that are bad for env. E.g. shock when smoking Pay full costs of automobile use (e.g. EU tax on fuel use and disposal at end of car life) Pay for solid waste disposal according to amount of garbage. Leads to dramatic reductions in solid waste in landfills (e.g. Tompkins county solid waste disposal plan)Add a counter reinforcement Reduce barriers to engagement in ecological behaviors. Make it easier. Proximity to recycle; more efficient public transit Coupons for use of mass transit; subsidized public transit to reduce costs Energy audit and savings plans that gives consumer free installation and then over time shares savings to pay back rather than pay upfront (Minneapolis energy plan) Priority car lanes for buses and carpools Another approach is to overcome environmental helplessness Helping people with meaning focused coping in order to counter feelings of powerlessness. e.g. I have faith in humanity;we can fix problems I have faith in people engaged in environmental organizations I trust scientists to come up with a solutionPersons with high NEP who were less helpless more engaged in env activism. Self or collective efficacy plus attitudes increase ecological behaviorsExposure to models where individuals have made a large difference by organizing people. Question 4a. 0pts for having picture b. 9pts totalEach HER process gets 3 pts: Name HER process & Define HER process +1Explain how the HER processes help make the space work well +2 c. 6pts totalEach HER process gets 2pts: List the physical elements that relate to each of the processes d. 6 pts total Each HER process gets 2pts: 1 pt for correctly describing research 1pt for linking research to the physical elements identified earlier e. 4 pts total 2pts describe an aspect of your social identity that changes how the space affects you2 pts explain how the space effects someone who doesn’t identify with your social identity Overall HER PROCESSESEnvironmental stimulation the quality or quantity of sensory information Homeyness feelings of familiarity, belonging, comfort, identity and attachment to your residence [note: an example of latent function of residence]Personal space spatial zone or bubble around our bodies, interpersonal distance maintained between individualsTerritoriality defense or control over specific space; attachment and identity with a space Privacy dynamic, optimization of the relation between desired and achieved social interactionHousing Quality the height or type of residence; structural quality Defensible space design and arrangement of settings in relation to crimePRINCIPLESPerson x environment interaction the effects of the HER process are not uniform. This principle is often interconnected to social identities. Different social identities may alter how the environment affects our biology, health, emotions, or performance.Environmental determinism the environment has a direct effect on human health or behavior. These reactions are not influenced by what people think about the environment. The meaning or symbolism of the environment does not affect human responses.Cognitive appraisal human reactions to the environment are influenced by the meaning and symbolism of the object or setting. Manifest and latent function manifest functions are the identified properties, the purpose, the objective function, the explicit meaning of environments or objectsLatent functions are symbolic, embodied with sociocultural meanings, values, concerns the implicit meaningUser-designer gap the lack of understanding/insight about user needs that can occur between the designer and user of any designed object or space. An outcome of this gap is incongruence or poor person – environment fit. Frequently this is caused by variation in the social identities of the respective parties. Confounding is an alternative factor or explanation for what is believed to be the cause of a measured effect or impact. Selection bias is a prominent example of confounding. It refers to the fact that when people choose an environment some characteristic of the individual other than the environment might be what is causing an effect of impact. For example, better quality neighborhoods are associated with longer lifespans. However higher SES individuals may self-select into neighborhoods because they can afford to do so. Thus neighborhood quality can be confounded with SES. Post occupancy evaluation (POE) evaluating satisfaction of user needs in a setting or with an object [can inform how big the gap is between the designer and the user]Programming determination of the performance requirements of a setting or object; what is the space or object supposed to do; what functions does it serve; what are user needs and goals; are there subgroups of users with variable needs/goals that may be differentially served by the setting/object?Preliminary Examination II HER Processes (note the principles from Prelim I are still relevant: environmental determinism and cognitive appraisal, person x environment interaction, manifest and latent function, user designer gap, confounding, post occupancy evaluation, programming)Behavioral toxicology interdisciplinary field on borders of medicine, environmental science, public health, and psychology. Study of effects of toxic substances on behavior.Noise unwanted soundCrowding too much, unwanted social interaction; perception of inadequate spaceEnvironmental stress effects of environmental conditions that produce stress; stress happens when environmental demands tax or exceed our capability to respondEnvironmental perception acquisition of sensory information from the environment; an active, constructive processEnvironmental cognition processes involved in the representation of geographic information in the brain Preliminary Examination III HER ProcessesIndoor Air Quality degree and types of air pollution inside of buildingsTemperature climatic conditions related to thermal environmental conditionsCognitive ergonomics degree of understanding how to use technology; comprehension of how to operate/utilize the environmentAnthropometrics/biomechanics measurements of the human body/operating characteristics of the human body as it interfaces with the environmentLight levels and types of illuminationColor hue, brightness, and saturation of lightSmall group ecology the placement and design of semi fixed feature space (often furniture)Enclosure and layout enclosure refers to the degree of physical barriers between different spaces ranging from no barriers to a full height wall; layout describes the floorplan or configuration of spacesRestoration the therapeutic properties of the environment; provision of cognitive and mental resourcesAesthetics theories and explanation for beauty; preferences for spaces and objectsEnvironmental attitudes values and beliefs about environmental quality; affective responses to/concerns about the health of the environment or state of the planetEcological behaviors decisions and actions that have consequences for the health of the environment or state of the planet ................
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