Review Sheet #1



Name________________________________________Per.___________Date_______________

Midterm Review Sheet

Introduction and Scientific Research Methods: Modules 1-8

Background terms from the book intro:

- Words of the day: empiricism, structuralism, functionalist, humanistic psychology, natural selection, nature-nurture, levels of analysis, hindsight bias, confirmation bias, sample size, false consensus, overconfidence, illusory correlation, correlation does not imply causation, wording effect

- Famous people: Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, John Watson, BF Skinner

- Psychology v. Psychiatry

- Types of research: Basic, Applied, Clinical

- Types of descriptive research: case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, correlation

- The major psychological perspectives (to explain human behavior):

o Biological

o Behavioral

o Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic

o Cognitive

o Socio-cultural

o Neuroscience

The Scientific Method

- Understand the difference between correlation research methods (shows only predictability) such as the survey method and the scientific method (shows cause and effect).

- Thesis and Hypothesis

o Independent variable (what is tested) v. Dependent variable (what is measured)

o Experimental v. Control groups (experimental is tested – receives the ID v. the control group; basis of comparison; no treatment or a placebo)

o Controls (to reduce bias): Possibilities include random selection of all subjects, random assignment to groups, double-blind, replication, and a placebo (if a drug experiment).

This methodology helps to overcome “hindsight bias” and “overconfidence”

- Ethical considerations in psychological research: Guidelines to the APA requirements

o Must have: informed consent, no harm to the subjects, debriefing afterwards and confidentiality of the results

- The use of inferential statistics: used to measure the dependent variable and as an objective comparison of the experimental and control groups.

o Central tendencies: the mean, median and mode

o The bell curve and standard deviations and range

o Correlation coefficients: -1.0 to 1.0 to show statistical relationships between variables

o Percentile ranks: to show the percentages below a given ranking

Neurobiology: Modules 9-15

- Neurotransmissions and the nervous systems: (neurotransmission is often nicknamed the “all-or-nothing response” to explain the electrical firing of neurons and the chemical release of neurotransmitters)

o Axons, dendrites, synaptic gap and myelin sheath

o Action potential-depolarization, repolarization, refractory period, threshold, reuptake

o Specific neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine, endorphins, serotonin, dopamine), inhibitory vs. excitatory

o Types of neurons: Sensory (afferent), Motor (efferent) [remember SAME], and Interneurons

o Agonists and antagonists

o Structure of the nervous systems: central, peripheral, autonomic, somatic, sympathetic (fight or flight) and the parasympathetic (calming) [remember SYMpathy for one in crisis; PARAchute to calm down slowly]

- The endocrine system: Involves our major glands such as the adrenal and pituitary glands and hormones such as adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen and norepinephrine.

- The Brain: The three general region are the Brainstem, the Limbic System and the Cerebral Cortex.

o The brainstem includes the medulla (heartbeat and breathing), the reticular formation (arousal center), the cerebellum (balance) and the thalamus (the “sensory switchboard”)

o The limbic system includes the hippocampus (memory), the hypothalamus (directs the endocrine system/”pleasure center”), and the amygdala (emotions such as anger and aggression)

o The cerebral cortex is the brain’s neural covering and the brain’s information processing center where neurons communicate

o plasticityy

- The four lobes include the: occipital (vision), parietal (sensory cortex), temporal (hearing) and frontal (personality and judgments – ex. Phinneas Gage)

- The two hemispheres include the:

o Right: spatial and creative

o Left: language and logical math reasoning

o Broca’s area – making speech (left frontal)

o Wernicke’s areas – comprehending speech (left temporal)

- Brain imaging techniques:

o Some show brain anatomy: CAT scans (x-ray pictures), MRIs (measures magnetic activity)

o Some show brain activity: EEGs (measures electrical impulses), PET scans (measures glucose consumption)

o Some show both: fMRI (uses magnetic field and measures oxygen levels)

Memory: Modules 31-33

- Effortful vs. Automatic processing

- flashbulb memories

- Short-term vs. long-term memory vs. sensory memory.

- Repression

- context effects

- Misinformation effect and source amnesia

- Retrograde and anterograde amnesia

Encoding

- Mnemonic devices (peg word, method of loci, chunking, imagery, hierarchies)

- Spacing effect

- Serial position effect (Primacy effect, Recency effect)

Storage

- Iconic and echoic memories

- Implicit (procedural) vs. explicit (declarative and episodic) memories

- Role of the hippocampus and cerebellum

- Long-term potentiation

Retrieval

- Proactive and retroactive interference

- Ebinghaus curve

Sensation and Perception: Modules 16-21

Sensation:

- Bottom-up vs. top-down processing

- Signal detection theory, Absolute threshold, difference threshold (jnd), Weber’s law

- Sensory adaptation

- transduction

- Vision

o Parts of the eye: pupil, lens, cornea, retina (rods and cones), fovea, bi-polar cells, ganglion cells, optic nerve

o Wavelength = hue (color); Amplitude = brightness

o Young and Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory (three types of cones-red, blue, green)

o Opponent Process Theory, afterimages

o Blind spot, Feature detectors (Hubel and Weisel), Accommodation (lens)

- Hearing

o Parts of the ear: pinna, eardrum, auditory canal, bones of the middle ear, cochlea, hair cells, auditory nerve

o Wavelength = pitch; Amplitude = volume

o Place theory and Frequency theory

o Sensorineural hearing loss and conductive hearing loss

- Taste – Salty, Sour, Bitter, Sweet, Umami

- Smell – olfactory

- Touch – Gate control theory of pain, small and large nerve fibers, substance P

- Equilibrium/ Vestibular sense –semicircular canals

- Kinesthesis, proprioceptors

Perception:

- Selective attention, Gestalt, Figure-ground, Perceptual set, Visual capture

- Phi phenomenon, stroboscopic effect

- Constancy (size, shape, color, brightness)

- Binocular cues (retinal disparity, convergence)

- Monocular cues (relative size, relative height, texture gradient, interposition, linear perspective)

- Perceptual grouping (similarity, closure, connectedness, proximity, continuity

- ESP (telepathy, clairvoyance, pre-cognition) all related to parapsychology

States of Consciousness: Modules 22-25

Sleep and Dreams:

- Circadian rhythms

- Alpha waves, delta waves, circadian rhythm, manifest/latent dream content

- Sleep Cycle (length of one sleep cycle)

o Stage 1

o Stage 2

o Stage 3

o Stage 4

o REM Sleep (paradoxical)

- Sleep disorders (Night terrors, Narcolepsy, Insomnia, Sleep Apnea)

- Dream theories (wish fulfillment, information processing, activation synthesis)

- Latent vs. manifest content

- REM rebound

- Hypnosis

- Age regression, hidden observer, posthypnotic suggestions

- Drugs

o Depressants

o Stimulants

o Hallucinogens

- Near-Death experiences (Monism v. Dualism)

Learning: Modules 26-30

 Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov):

• With CC you are making an association between something that does not normally illicit a response with something that normally/naturally elicits a response

• The key is that you are taking a behavior that normally does nothing and creating an association for it

• Neutral stimulus + unconditioned stimulus = conditioned stimulus → conditioned response

• The neutral stimulus ALWAYS become the conditioned stimulus

• Extinction – when the association is no longer reinforced the connection dies out and the conditioned stimulus no longer produces a response

• Spontaneous recovery – the conditioned stimulus may reappear at any time

 

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner):

• While OC, the rewards or consequences after a behavior which is already being performed either strengthens or weakens the response

• Reinforcement ALWAYS strengthens the behavior and punishment weakens the behavior

• Positive reinforcement +

o Something the organism desires is added

o Better grades, more pay, candy to a little kid

• Negative reinforcement –

o Something unpleasant is taken away

o Electric shocks stop, grounding stops, using an umbrella in the rain

• Punishment decreases behavior

o Take away allowance, spanking, take away senior privileges

• Schedules of reinforcement:

o Variable ratio is the strongest form of reinforcement

• Variable is unknown

• Fixed is known

• Ratio is a number of behaviors

• Interval is an amount of time

 

Social Learning (Albert Bandura and others):

• Social learning states that we learn from imitation, social cues, and modeling

• Much of what we learn is through social instruction and not just associations or reinforcement

 

Thinking, Language, and Intelligence: Modules 34-36 and Modules 60-64

Thinking:

- Concepts, Prototypes

- Algorithms vs. Heuristics (Representativeness and Availability)

- Confirmation bias, memory bias

- Mental set, Functional fixedness

- Framing

Language:

- Phonemes and Morphemes

- Grammar, Semantics, and Syntax

- Stages of language development (babbling, one-word, two word (telegraphic)

- Linguistic relativity (Whorf)

- Skinner vs. Chomsky

Intelligence:

- Binet, Terman, Spearman, Sternberg, Gardiner

- IQ =

- Achievement tests (AP exams, chapter tests…) vs. Aptitude tests (SATs, IQ tests…)

- Good test design

o Standardization, Reliability, Validity (content validity vs. predictive validity)

- WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)

- Special needs children

o Autism, Down’s Syndrome, Savant syndrome, Huntington’s Disease, PKU

- Factor Analysis

- “G” Factor (Spearman)

- Sternberg’s three intelligences

- Gardiner’s Multiple intelligences

- Emotional Intelligence

- Normal Curve and standard deviation (what % falls within 1, 2, and 3 SD’s of mean?)

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