Example: Beginning Reading



Lessons and Procedures for Teaching the Six Forms of Knowledge

Instructional design and procedures are derived from a model of learning. Look.

The Learning Process

From Specific Students Learn General Ideas: Six

Events Forms of Cognitive Knowledge

How?

Teacher Presents ----> The Learning Mechanism ---> Makes generalizations

Examples and Treats Performs a set of Logical a. Fact

Them the Same Way Operations. It: b. List

(e.g., names, solves, a. Examines examples; c. Concept

analyzes them). observes their features d. Rule + b. Compares and contrasts e. Routine

Teacher presents examples; identifies

Nonexamples and features that are the same

Treats Them a c. Contrasts examples (that

Different Way share some of the same

(e.g., names, solves, features and are treated

analyzes them). the same way) with

+ nonexamples (that don’t

Teacher provides have those features and are

Assistance such as treated differently).

Gaining attention, d. Identifies the differences

Review, Framing the (in the features) between

Task, Highlighting, examples and nonexamples,

Modeling Information, and how they are treated.

Leading Students Through e. Makes a generalization:

the Information, Testing/ ** “This thing goes with that thing/those things.”

Checking to Ensure [fact/list]

Learning, Correcting ** “All things that have features

Errors, Outcome A, B, and C are called

Assessment. republic.”

[concept]

** “When things that are X

happen, then things that

are Y happen.”

[rule]

** “To accomplish Z, do steps

1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.”

[routine]

Sample Lesson

Beginning Reading

Systematic, Explicit, Focused, Direct Instruction

Reading is a tightly-coupled set of skills.

A lesson is a logical sequence (pre-skills are taught before new skills that NEED the pre-skills) of small tasks that strategically integrate what was learned in earlier lessons (and in a current lesson) into a larger whole.

For example, lessons on long division teach the routine for long division. This routine integrates earlier knowledge of estimation (25 into 78), multiplication (3 times 25), subtraction, and writing numerals.

Lessons in history might be based on a text book alone; based on a text book plus supplementary material (such as historical documents, biographies, maps, letters); or based solely on collected materials, e.g., internet. Each lesson teaches new knowledge; e.g., how to analyze the Declaration of Independence. The new knowledge continues a STORY that is being told--creation of a new nation. And each lesson USES (integrates) earlier taught knowledge (e.g., facts, concepts, rules about politics) with new knowledge, to form a larger whole (such as an essay that tells the story.

The beginning reading lesson, below, has a number of tasks---each a few minutes long. These tasks focus on objectives relevant to each strand of a reading curriculum---phonemic awareness, alphabetic principle (letter-sound correspondence, sounding out words), fluency (reading letters, words in isolation, word lists, connected test fast and accurately), vocabulary (word meanings), and comprehension (main idea, concepts, sequences, who did what, etc.).

WHEN POSSIBLE, WRITE THE TASKS, IN SEQUENCE, ALONG THE TOP OF THE BLACKBOARD, WITH EXAMPLES OF WHAT WILL BE TAUGHT.

Notice below how earlier material (reviewed) and new materials (taught in the lesson) are strategically integrated into larger wholes in later tasks.

Task 1. Review of letter-sound correspondence. [Alphabetic principle]

The letter-sounds to be reviewed will later be used (strategically integrated) in words that the class will read.

Teacher. “Boys and girls, everyone in your readiness position. Eyes on me. Sitting tall…. Oh, you are so ready to learn now!”

“Boys and girls lets review our sounds.”

“When I touch under a (sound, or letter) you say the sound.”

[Teacher starts at the ball and loops her finger under the letter and holds it. The class says the sound. If any students make an error, the teacher corrects it. The correction is directed to the group, not to the student who erred.

For instance, “That sound is fff. [Model] “Say it with me.” fff. [Lead] “Your turn.” fff “Yes, fff.” [Verification.] Later, the teacher comes back to that letter to retest.]

m f r s

o-----> o-----> o-----> o----->

Task 2. Review of blending sounds into whole words. [Phonemic awareness]

The teacher is reviewing examples the class has done over the past several lessons.

Teacher. “Listen. sssuuunn. What word?”

Class. “sun!”

Teacher. “Yes, sun.”

“Listen. fffuuunnn. What word?”

Class. “fun.”

Teacher. “Yes, fun. You are so smart!”

Listen. rrraaannn. What word?”

Class. “ran.”

Teacher. “Yes, ran.”

Task 3. New examples of blending sounds into whole words. [Phonemic awareness]

Teacher. “Here are some new words.”

“Listen. mmmaaannn. What word?”

Class. “man.”

Teacher. “Yes, man.”

“Listen. sssaaammm. What word?”

Class. “sam.”

Teacher. “Yes, sam.”

“Listen. fffaaassst. What word?”

Class. “fast.”

Teacher. “Yes, fast!!”

[Note that some of these words will be in later tasks where the children are reading the words fast.]

Task 4. New letter-sound correspondence f. [Alphabetic principle]

Teacher. “Boys and girls, new sound” (Teacher points and touches under f on board). “ffff ffff” [Model]

“Say the sound when I touch under it. Keep saying it as long as I touch under it. Get ready. (touch) [Immediate acquisition test/check]

Class. “fffff”

Teacher. “Again.” (touch)

Class. “fffff”

[Correct all errors.]

“This sound is fff. What sound?” fff

Task 5. Saying words slowly and then fast. [Fluency]

This teaches an element of reading (not just saying) words fast.

Teacher. “Listen. aaammm. I can say it fast. am!” [Model]

“Listen. aaammm. Say it fast!” [Immediate acquisition test/check]

Class. “am!”

Teacher. “You said aaammm fast!” [Verification]

“Listen. fffuuunnn.”

“Listen. fffuuunnn. Say it fast!” [Immediate acquisition test/check]

Class. “fun!”

Teacher. “You said fffuuunnn fast!” [Verification]

Task 6. Review sounding out words learned earlier and then saying them fast. [Fluency] This builds on what was just taught in Task 5.

Teacher puts words on the board

am me ram sad

Teacher. “You’re going to read this word. (points to am). First you’ll sound it out. Then you’ll say it fast. Sound it out.” [Teacher touches under the letters.]

Class. “aaammm.”

Teacher. “Say it fast!” [Immediate acquisition test/check]

Class. “am!”

Teacher. “What word?”

Class. “am!”

[Teacher repeats the above procedure with me, ram, sad.]

Task 7. Sounding out new words and then saying them fast. [Fluency]

This builds on what was just taught in Tasks 5 and 6. The new words are fit, fin, tan, tap, fat, fast.

Teacher. “You’re going to sound out these NEW words. THEN you’re going to say them fast.”

(Teacher points to fit, touches under each sound)

“Sound it out.” [Immediate acquisition test/check]

Class. “fffffiiiiit”

Teacher. “Say it fast!” (Teacher moves her finger quickly under the word.)

Class. “fit!”

Teacher. “What word?”

Class. “fit.”

Teacher. “Yes, fit.” [Verificiation]

[Teacher repeats the above procedure with fin, tan, tap, fat, and fast.]

Task 8. Reading word lists fast. [Fluency.] This is an element of reading connected text fluently.

Teacher puts on the board a short sample list of words students have already learned to sound out.

fit

sit

it

fan

ran

sat

sit

fin

fat

fast

Teacher. “First word. (points to fit) What word?” (touches next to fit)

Class. “fit.”

Teacher. “Next word. What word?”

Class. “sit.”

Teacher. “Next word. What word?”

Class. “it.”

[Teacher uses the above procedure and completes the list. Then the teacher repeats the whole procedure but moves faster from word to word.

“Let’s read our words again, faster.” The teacher no longer says “Next word. What word.” She shortens it to “Word?”]

Task 9. Reading connected text made with words students can already

read (100% decodable) The “story” at first is just a few words. It is read several times—the first time to ensure accuracy and then again to build fluency. Notice how this task strategically integrates almost everything worked on in the lesson, and past lessons. [Adapted from Teach your child to read in 100 easy lessons. Siegfried Engelmann, Phyllis Haddox, and Elaine Bruner (1983). New York: Simon & Schuster.]

sam r a n f a s t.

o------->o------>o-------->

First reading

Teacher. “Boys and girls. Now you’re going to read a STORY!”

[Teacher touches the ball for sam.]

“Sound it out.”

[Teacher touches under each letter]

Class. “sssaaammm.”

Teacher. “Say it fast!”

Class. “sam!”

Teacher. Yes. What word?”

Class. “sam.”

[Teacher touches the ball for ran.]

“Sound it out.”

[Teacher touches under each letter]

Class. “rrraaannn.”

Teacher. “Say it fast!”

Class. “ran!”

Teacher. Yes. What word?”

Class. “ran.”

[Teacher touches the ball for fast.]

“Sound it out.”

[Teacher touches under each letter]

Class. “fffaaasst.”

Teacher. “Say it fast!”

Class. “fast!”

Teacher. “Yes. What word?”

Class. “fast.”

Second reading

Teacher. “Get ready to read the story again. Sit big.”

[Teacher touches the ball for sam.]

“Sound it out.” [Children are sounding it out without the teacher moving her finger under the letters.]

Class. “sssaaammm.”

Teacher. “Say it fast!”

Class. “sam!”

Teacher. “What word?”

Class. “Sam.”

[Teacher repeats the above procedure for ran and fast.]

In the next lesson, the teacher arranges the tasks much as in the above lesson. The teacher:

1. Reviews material from the last lesson and from earlier lessons--correcting errors and giving extra practice to firm up skills as needed.

2. Adds new material; for example, new sounds to blend into words; new letter-sound correspondences; new words to sound out and read fast; new word lists to read faster; new stories made from earlier and new words.

Procedure for Teaching Facts

Systematic, Explicit, Focused, Direct Instruction

Gain attention:

Boys and girls

Eyes on me.

Frame:

New fact. Get ready to write it (on a new note card; on your note cards on the American Revolution, or on guided notes) [Check]

Model: State the fact.

The Persian Wars were fought from 490 to 479 BC.

[Repeat?]

Lead. Students say the fact with you. [?]

Say that fact with me. [Give a signal for choral response]

Test/check (immediate acquisition test)

What’s our new fact? Or,

When were the Persian Wars fought? Or,

On what date did the Persian Wars (begin, end)?

Verification

“Yes (repeat fact)

Correct errors.

Model/test/start over (if a list or sequence)/retest

Next work on generalization (new examples); fluency (state lists of facts quickly); retention (cumulative review of lists of facts); strategic integration (students USE the lists of facts in, for instance, essays).

Procedure for Teaching Concepts: Sensory

[Only needs examples and nonexamples]

Systematic, Explicit, Focused, Direct Instruction

Gain attention:

Boys and girls

Eyes on me.

Frame:

New (color, shape, position…) Or

Now you’ll learn about ON.

Model:

Show sameness: Present a set of examples that are DIFFERENT in nonessential ways but are the SAME in the essential ways that define the concept.

E.g., red ball, circle, square, large and small.

Label each. This is…. And this is…

O “On.” “On.” “On.”

Show difference: Juxtapose some of the examples with NONexamples that are the SAME in NONessential ways, but are DIFFERENT in the essential ways that define the concept.

Label each. This IS…. This is NOT…..

O “On.” O “Not on

______ “On.” “Not on.”

“On.” “Not on.

Test/check (immediate acquisition test)

Present examples and nonexamples and have students identify them.

Is this….? (or Point to)

Test/check (immediate acquisition test)

Verification

Yes, this (is, is not)….

Correct errors.

Model/test/start over (if a list or sequence)/retest

Give new items to test generalization.

Is this…?

Procedure for Teaching Higher-order (abstract) Concepts:

[Needs verbal definition and then examples and nonexamples]

Systematic, Explicit, Focused, Direct Instruction

First, you need to know about verbal definitions.

Genus and difference. Here’s the VERBAL definition of the higher-order concept—constitutional republic.

A constitutional republic is a state where the head of state and other officials are representatives of the people and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over citizens.

The definition has two parts: genus and difference.

Genus. A constitutional republic is a STATE (a political relationship between government and citizens).

The genus is the larger category or concept in which constitutional republic in located. The genus tells you what KIND of thing something is and what KINDS of things it isn’t. A constitutional republic is not a society. Not a geographic thing, like mountains. And not anything that other species do. However, constitutional republics are not the only kind of (not the only member of the class of) states. Other kinds of states are monarchies, democracies, and aristocracies. So a full definition has to tell the difference between constitutional republic states and other kinds of states. This is the difference part of a verbal definition.

Difference. …. where the head of state and other officials are representatives of the people and must govern according to existing constitutional law that limits the government's power over citizens.

The difference part of the definition tells the difference between constitutional republics (as ONE example of state) and OTHER kids of states, such as monarchies, democracies, and aristocracies.

A diagram of the verbal definition looks like this.

Political states

Constitutional republics

Monarchies

Aristocracies

Democracies

Note: There is no such thing as a true definition. Rather, some definitions are better than other definitions; they are better at directing attention to the right events. So, definitions are better when:

1. They state the genus and the difference.

2. The difference part of the definition contains enough descriptors (features of the thing defined) that it can easily be distinguished from other kinds of things in the class (genus).

Here’s a poor definition.

Dogs are canines (genus) with four legs (difference).

The genus part is okay. Dogs ARE in the class of canines---along with wolves, foxes, and coyotes. But the difference part is so skimpy that you can’t USE this definition to distinguish dogs (as canines) and foxes, wolves, and coyotes (as canines) because all of them have four legs.

Here’s another poor definition.

Monarchy is a form of government (genus) in which one person rules (difference).

Yes, monarchy IS a form of government (or state) in which one person rules, but the difference (one person rules) does not tell enough to distinguish monarchies and other forms of government in which one person rules. Dictatorships are also rule by one person. So, if a student reads about a dictatorship, the student might WRONGLY judge it to be a monarchy. So, the difference portion should include more features of monarchies (in contrast to dictatorships). Here’s a more descriptive definition.

A monarchy is a form of government (genus) in which supreme power is absolutely or nominally lodged with an individual, who is the head of state [by virtue of hereditary ascension], often for life or until abdication…The person who heads a monarchy is called a monarch (difference).

Now look at a good definition of dictatorship. It is good because it is useful---it enables you to distinguish monarchy (rule by one person) from dictatorship (also rule by one person).

A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic [one ruler. MK] form of government in which the government [means the same as “supreme power is absolutely or nominally lodged with an individual”] is ruled by an individual, the dictator, without hereditary ascension.

3. All of the terms have clear meaning; that is, the words in the definition clearly point to the events named.

Poor definitions.

A donut is a kind of pastry that is shaped like a donut. [Yes, but what is a donut shaped like?]

Fear is an emotion that involves being afraid. [Fear and afraid mean the same thing. So, the definition is just saying Fear is an emotion at involves fear.]

Procedure for Teaching Concepts: Higher-order

[Needs verbal definition and THEN examples/nonexamples]

Systematic, Explicit, Focused, Direct Instruction

Simile

Set up

1. Objective

The teacher presents examples and nonexamples of simile and asks, “Is this a simile?” When students answer, the teacher asks, “How do you know?” Student correctly identify similes and nonsimiles, and use the definition to explain their answer.

2. Frame.

Teacher. “New figure of speech. Simile. [writes on board or refers to guided notes.]

Spell simile.”

Class. “s i m i l e .”

Teacher. “What word?”

Class. “Simile.”

Teacher. “Write it in your notebooks, or guided notes.” [Check to make sure they do this.]

Focused Instruction

3. Model—lead—test/check.

Teacher. “Listen. A simile is a figure of speech in which two unlike things are compared, using the words like or as.” [Model]

Teacher. “Listen again. A simile is a figure of speech in which two unlike are compared, using the words like or as.” [Model]

Teacher/ “Say it with me. A simile is a figure of speech in which two Students unlike things are compared, using the words like or as. [Lead]

Teacher. “Your turn. Define simile.” [Test/check]

Students. A simile is a figure of speech in which two unlike things are compared, using the words like or as.

Teacher. “Yes, you said that perfectly!” [Verification]

Teacher. [Students know the verbal definition. Now the teacher uses examples and nonexamples to display the defining features of the concept that are IN the examples and NOT in the nonexamples.]

“Listen. The air was hot as a stove. The air was hot as a stove. Are two things compared?” [The teacher focuses on the details of the definition.]

Students. “Yes.”

Teacher. “What two things?”

Students. “Air and stove.”

Teacher. “Is like or as used to compare them?” [Another detail of the definition.]

Students. “Yes.”

Teacher. “So, is The air was hot as a stove a simile?” [Students use the definition to judge an possible example.]

Students. “Yes.”

Teacher. “Yes, The air was hot as a stove a simile?” [Verification]

[Next, the teacher does exactly the same thing with a second example to firm up the features of the definition and students’ use of the definition to judge a possible example.]

[Now the teacher presents a NONexample so that students (comparing the two previous examples with the nonexample) can see the difference---the comparison of unlike things, using like or as— between the examples and the nonexample.]

Teacher. “Listen. The evening sun was red ruby. The evening sun was red ruby.”

Teacher. “Are two things compared?”

Students. “Yes.”

Teacher. “What two things.”

Students. “Evening sun and red ruby.”

Teacher. “Is like or as used to compare them?”

Students. “No.” “It said the evening sun WAS red ruby.”

Teacher. “So, it compares unlike things, but it does NOT use like or as. So, is it a simile?”

Students. “No.”

Teacher. “Correct. It is NOT a simile. A simile compares unlike objects AND uses like or as.” [Restates the definition to firm it.]

[The teacher then juxtaposes a few more examples and nonexamples using the SAME WORDING as above.]

5. Error correction.

The teacher corrects errors immediately. For example.

Teacher. “Her eyes shined like diamonds. Simile?”

Students. A few students say No.

Teacher. “Her eyes shined like diamonds. Dos it compare two things?” [Uses the definition to help students make the judgment.]

Students. “Yes.”

Teacher. “What two things?”

Students. “Her hair and diamonds.”

Teacher. “Does it use LIKE or as?” [Uses the definition to help students make the judgment.]

Students. “Yes.”

Teacher. “So, is it a simile?” [Has students make the judgment.]

Students. “Yup!”

Teacher. “Yup, it IS a simile.” [Verification]

[The teacher will return to this example later, to retest.]

6. Delayed acquisition test.

The teacher tests all the examples and nonexamples used.

Teacher. “The air was hot as a stove. Simile or not simile?”

Students. “Simile.”

Teacher. “How do you know?” [This requires students to use the definition to judge examples and nonexamples.]

Students. “Compares unlike things.” “Two unlike things.” Air and hot stove.” “Uses as.”

Teacher. “Correct!! A class full of geniuses!!”

Procedure for Teaching Concepts: Higher-order

[Needs verbal definition and THEN examples/nonexamples]

Systematic, Explicit, Focused, Direct Instruction

Granite

Here’s another example of teaching higher-order concepts. Notice that the instruction is highly scaffolded---the teacher does a LOT to make sure that students are firm on the pre-skills (things they have to know to learn the new stuff), that many examples are used, and that students are getting (figuring out, inducing) the concept. Do you have to teach everything this way—so thoroughly? Well, how do you think they do it in medical school? Do you think the professor makes sure that med students know exactly what different kinds of cancer cells look like? Why?

Rule: If it’s important that students learn it, then teach it this way.

Objective for acquisition. (1) The teacher presents examples and nonexamples of granite. Students correctly identify 9 out of 10, each within 10 seconds. (2) Students correctly answer the follow-up question (“How do you know?”) 9 out of 10 times, each within 10 seconds.

1. Firm pre-skills

Teacher. “We’ve been studying igneous rocks. Here’s our definition.

Igneous rocks form from the crystallization of minerals in magma.”

“Everyone, say that definition of igneous rocks.” [Check]

Class. “Igneous rocks form from the crystallization of minerals in magma.”.]

Teacher. “Yes, igneous rocks form from the crystallization of minerals in

magma.” [Verification]

2. Frame Instruction

Teacher. “Today we’ll examine an igneous rock called granite. Everybody, if granite is an igneous rock, what else do you know about it? Think….”

Class. “It forms from the crystallization of minerals in magma.” [Teacher asked students to make a deduction about granite from the definition of igneous rocks. This helps firm their knowledge of the definition, and prepares students to USE of the definition to examine rock samples. “Hmmmm. Is this

igneous? No. Then it can’t be granite.”]

Teacher. “Excellent deduction!!”

3. Focused Instruction: Model—lead—test/check---verification

First the teacher teaches the verbal definition of granite.

Teacher. “Here’s the definition of granite. Get ready to write the definition on your note cards.” [Check to see if they are ready.]

“Granite is an igneous rock consisting primarily of the minerals quartz,

feldspar, and mica. Again, granite is an igneous rock consisting

primarily of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica.” [Model]

“Say it with me.” [Lead]

Teacher/ “Granite is an igneous rock consisting of the

Class. minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica. [The teacher probably could have left out the lead.]

Teacher. “All by yourselves.” [Immediate acquisition test/check]

Class. “Granite is an igneous rock consisting of the minerals quartz,

feldspar, and mica.”

Teacher. “Excellent saying that definition with so much enthusiasm.”

Now the teacher firms up background knowledge of minerals that are the DEFINING features of granite, before she presents examples that contain the minerals and nonexamples that do not.

Teacher. “We have already studied the minerals quartz, mica, and feldspar. Let’s review them before we go on….” [Now the teacher shows examples of each mineral and asks students to identify them. Structure (flakes, crystalline, flat planes) is what defines each mineral. When students are firm on this—that is, when they correctly define and identify examples and nonexamples of each mineral---the teacher moves to the next step.]

Teaching the new concept, building on background knowledge

First the teacher shows examples of granite that differ in NONessential ways (e.g., color and shape) but are the same in the defining features. Logic: Comparison to identify sameness.

Teacher. “Now, I’ll show you how to use the definition of granite, and your knowledge of what mica, quartz, and feldspar look like, to identify rock samples.”

[The teacher holds up or shows slides of granite, and names each one as granite. The examples differ in size, shape, and color of minerals; e.g., pink and grey quartz. But they share the essential and defining features—the structure of quartz, mica, and feldspar.]

Teacher: “This is granite…Notice the mica (black flakes), feldspar (white with flat planes), and quartz (pink and crystalline).”

[pic]

Quartz [Crystalline]

Mica [Black] Feldspar [Flat planes]

Teacher. “And this is granite… Quartz is orange and crystalline, feldspar is

whitish with flat planes, and mica is black flakes. There are different

colors than in the first example, but they all have the structure of

mica, feldspar, and quartz.”

[pic]

Mica Feldspar Quartz

Teacher. “And this is granite… Quartz is green and crystalline, feldspar is

yellow with flat planes, and mica is black flakes. There are different

colors than in the last example, but they all have the structure of

mica, feldspar, and quartz.”

[pic]

Mica Feldspar Quartz

Teacher. “And this is granite… Quartz is pink and crystalline, feldspar is grey

with flat planes, and mica is black flakes. There are different colors

than in the last example, but they all have the structure of mica,

feldspar, and quartz.”

[pic]

Quartz

Mica Feldspar

Notice that the WORDING is the same each time!

Next the teacher juxtaposes (puts next to each other) examples of granite and not granite, and labels them. Examples and nonexamples are similar in NONessential features (e.g., color and shape) but are different in that examples have the defining features and nonexamples do not. Logic: Contrast to identify the differences that make the difference.

Teacher. “This is granite. Notice the mica, feldspar, and quartz….”

[pic] Granite

Teacher. “This is not granite. Notice that it has no quartz. So it can’t be granite.”

[pic] Not granite

Teacher. “This is granite… Again, see the mica, quartz, and feldspar.”

[pic]

Teacher. “But this is NOT granite. It is chunky, like the last example of granite, but there

is no quartz or feldspar. So it can’t be granite.”

[pic]

4. Closing

Reread the objective above. The teacher has completed the focused instruction portion. Now the teacher gives an acquisition test/check to see if instruction was effective; that is, to see if students achieved the objective. So---just as the objectives states---the teacher presents examples of granite and nongranite; asks students to identify them; and asks students to justify their answer, using the definition of granite.

Teacher. “Everyone. Is this granite?”

[pic]

Class. “ Yes.”

Teacher. “How do you know?”

Class. “There is mica, feldspar, and quartz.”

Teacher. “Yes, it is granite. Good use of the definition to explain your answer.”

Teacher. “And is this granite?”

[pic]

Class. “No.”

Teacher. “How do you know?”

Class. “There is no quartz.”

Teacher. “Correct! No quartz. So, it cannot be granite. .”

The teacher repeats the test with several more examples and nonexamples.

The teacher corrects any errors. For example, if a student says “Granite,” but the sample is NOT granite, the teacher uses the model, lead, test (or just model and test) correction procedure.

Teacher. “This is NOT granite. Granite consists of three minerals: mica, quartz, and feldspar. [Model] Does this sample have mica, quartz, and feldspar?”

Student. “It has mica and feldspar, but no quartz.”

Teacher. “So can it be granite?”

Student. “No.”

Teacher. “How do you know?”

Student. “It has to have quartz, too.”

Teacher. “Correct. It does not have quartz. So it can’t be granite.”

Procedure for Teaching Rule Relationships

Two ways to do this.

1. Teach the rule first; e.g., “The more X, the more Y.” [model/lead/test]

“When the infra-structure of the enemy nation is destroyed, the enemy is

unlikely to recover and is unlikely to begin fighting again.”

Then give examples (and state why they are examples---they fit the rule)

and nonexamples (and state why they are not examples---they do NOT fit

the rule)

Example.

General William T. Sherman destroyed the infra-structure of Georgia. The Confederate armies stopped fighting for good.

Example.

The Roman general Scipio destroyed Carthage down to the ground. Carthage stopped fighting for good.

Nonexample.

At the end of the Cold War, the infra-structure of Russia was damaged but was not destroyed. Fifteen years later, Russia has begun to do the same things it did during the Cold War---placing it’s military in newly created “allies,” arming the enemies of America.

Nonexample.

In the first battle of Falluja (Iraq), the U.S. Marines drove the forces of al Sadr out of town. However, they did NOT destroy the roads, communications, hideouts, and supply centers used by al Sadr. In a few weeks, al Sadr and his gang of scum were back.

Example.

Atomic bombs leveled Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The Japanese surrendered unconditionally, and have not made war since.

Then test. Give the examples and nonexamples, and ask, “Does this

show (is this an example of)….? How do you know?” [Students use rule

to examine and identify examples and nonexamples.]

Then give new examples and nonexamples and test generalization.

2. Present examples first. Have students compare and contrast, and then

state a connection or a change.

General William T. Sherman destroyed the infra-structure of Georgia. The Confederate armies stopped fighting for good.

Scipio destroyed Carthage down to the ground. Carthage stopped fighting for good.

Help students to state rule for the examples. When X happens, then Y happens.

Present nonexamples.

At the end of the Cold War, the infra-structure of Russia was damaged but not destroyed. Fifteen years later, Russia has begun to do the same things it did during the Cold War---placing it’s military in newly created “allies,” arming the enemies of America.

Have students identify how the nonexample does not fit the rule.

How is this different from Sherman and Georgia and Scipio and Carthage?

Test with new examples and nonexamples---generalization.

Work on strategic integration---students USE the rule relationships when writing essays.

Procedure for Teaching Cognitive Routines

[Teach the steps as well as the facts, concepts, and rules that are used]

Gain attention:

Boys and girls

Eyes on me.

Frame:

New (kind of problem, strategy)

I’ll show you how to (multiply numbers like these; search the internet and find materials for teaching a course; sound out words; figure out what a text means)

Get ready to (write the steps on your routine cards) [check] [If relevant]

Model/lead/test/check the first step/chunk

Model

First I….. [describe. State rules you are using----explicit instruction] [Repeat if needed.] [Check to see of they all wrote it.]

Lead. Do that step/chunk with me. Remember to…. [?]

Test/check. Your turn. Do the first (step/chunk]

Correct errors. m/l/t/start over/retest

Model/lead/test/check the next step/chunk

Model

Next I….. [describe. State rules you are using----explicit instruction] [Repeat if needed.] [Check to see of they all wrote it.]

Lead. Do that step/chunk with me. [?]

Test/check. Your turn. Do the next (step/chunk]

Correct errors. m/l/t/start over/retest

Model/lead/test/check the whole routine

Model

Now I’ll do the whole routine….. [describe. State rules you are using----explicit instruction] [Repeat if needed.] [Check to see of they all wrote it.]

Lead. Do it with me. [?]

Test/check. Your turn. Do it (solve the problem; conduct the search; analyze the text]

Correct errors. m/l/t/start over/retest

Give new items to test generalization.

Work on fluency.

Procedure for Teaching Routines:

Describing the Hoplite Panoply

Gain attention:

Boys and girls

Eyes on me.

Frame:

Here are (the weapons and armor in the panoply of the Greek hoplite; the names of the six New England states; the four phases of mitosis; the minerals in granite; the bones in the hand). Get ready to write the (on a new note card; on your note cards, or on guided notes) [Check]

[pic]

[pic] [pic]

[pic]

Model: State all (if few) or a chunk (if many) of the list.

The panoply of the Greek hoplite consisted of: hoplon, shield, spear… [write on board or refer to guided notes or PPT]

[Repeat?]

Lead. Students say the fact with you. [?]

Say it with me. [Give a signal for choral response]

Test/check (immediate acquisition test)

Your turn… [erase from board?]

Verification

“Yes (say first chunk))

Correct errors.

Model/test/start over (if a list or sequence)/retest

Repeat with second chunk. Greaves, helmet, sword, cuirass.

Model

Lead

Test/check

Verification

Now combine both chunks

Model.

Here’s the whole list of weapons and armor in the panoply of the Greek hoplite

Lead.

Test/check

Verification

Correct errors. [model/lead/test/start over in list/retest]

Now teach these items as concepts, using examples that reveal the essential features. For example, shields for different city states. Then compare and contrast examples and nonexamples to reveal the essential features.

Next work on generalization (new examples); fluency (state lists of facts quickly); retention (cumulative review of lists of facts); strategic integration (students USE the lists of facts in, for instance, essays).

Procedure for Teaching Routines:

Analyzing Historical Documents

You are teaching a high school class in history or American government. You are studying the War of Independence. It’s time to examine closely the Declaration of Independence. Why? First, so that students know what it says; after all, it’s one of the documents on which our freedoms rest. Second, you want students to learn a general cognitive routine for analyzing historical documents. The Declaration is the first example you will use. Please read the text at the websites cited below. Your time will be well spent.



What are the steps in the cognitive routine for analyzing documents? Well, there are several ways you could do it. Following is one routine. Note that each step below might be a task in the lesson.

1. Firm background knowledge. For example, persons, groups, events.

2. Pre-teach important new words in the document. Words with complex meanings ought to be taught ahead of time so as not to disrupt the flow of reading. Some new words, that are easy to understand, can be taught while students are reading passages with the teacher.

3. Students place the document in context.

• Where did the big ideas come from?

• What purposes was the document supposed to serve? Is it a call to arms? A justification for actions—past or future? An explanation for something?

4. Students identify “big ideas” in the document. What is its message?

5. Students identify “devices” by which the author made his or her case. Examples are the logical structure of an argument, symbols, cadence (for instance, the argument is like a beating drum, carrying readers along), metaphors and similes, appeals to emotion.

Set up

2. Objective

After students read and discuss the Declaration of Independence, they

1. State the origins of the theory of government---John Locke.

2. Explain the importance of the Declaration in the history of independence from Britain.

3. Describe the deductive argument in the Declaration, including the theory of democratic government, the facts of British rule, and the conclusion.

4. Identify and explain the importance of rhetorical devices, such as invoking the Creator as the source of unalienable rights, presenting the colonies as one people, the cadence in the litany of abuses.

3. Review events leading up to the American War of Independence.



Show how the Declaration was a response to earlier events AND helped to spark later events.

Explain the importance of the Declaration.

“Class. The Declaration of Independence is one of the most important documents in American history—indeed, in all of world history. How so?

“The Declaration presented in simple terms a theory of democratic rule (rule by and for the People) in which the role of government is to secure the natural rights of the people. When government no longer secures these natural rights, it is the right of the people to abolish the government. This theory is certainly quite different from the theory of authoritarian rule (under which people have lived for thousands of years), in which rulers have absolute power of life, death, and freedom; citizens are mere subjects of the ruler; and the ruler or ruling class defines and grants (and may take away) the rights of the citizens.

“The Declaration united in common cause those colonists who wanted to separate from Britain—the government over the colonies. This group was called Whigs or Patriots. The Declaration also helped to solidify the very large group of colonists who remained “Englishmen” and who wanted to remain loyal subjects of the British crown. This group was called Loyalists or Tories.



“The theory of democratic rule remains one of the core sets of beliefs of Americans today.

“The Declaration (signed on July 4, 1776) was like a spark that called Patriots to arms. In April, 1775, the British marched on the town of Lexington and then Concord, Massachusetts, looking for weapons that the colonial militias had stashed. The battles in these towns were the first of what would become a War of Independence. But until the Declaration was written, the colonial militias were not fighting against British rule itself. They were fighting British soldiers who were trying to kill them. The Declaration transformed these battles into a war for freedom.”



Pre-teach deductive argument. The Declaration is organized as a deductive argument. This makes the conclusion (It’s time for revolution) compelling. Deduction is too complex to teach at the same time students are reading the Declaration.

“Class, the Declaration is a very persuasive document. This is so for several reasons. First, it is organized as a valid deductive argument. A deductive argument has three parts.

[Put on board]

1. Major premise, or rule-relationship.

2. Minor premise, or facts or evidence.

3. Conclusion deduced from the first two premises.

For instance,

1. Major premise, or Rule-relationship. All beings are mortal.

2. Minor premise, facts or evidence. Eric Clapton is a being.

3. Conclusion deduced from the first Therefore, Eric Clapton is two premises. mortal. Sad, but that’s how it is.

“The conclusion follows NECESSARILY from the two premises. If your mind works properly, you simply know the conclusion is true.

“Here’s another deductive argument.

1. Major premise, or Rule-relationship. If a cat is frightened, it will hiss and bare its fangs.

2. Minor premise, facts or evidence. Missy (the cat) is frightened.

3. Conclusion deduced from the first Therefore, Missy will hiss two premises. and bare her fangs.

“Now, here is the deductive argument in the Declaration.

1. Major premise, or Rule-relationship. If a government no longer secures the natural, God- given “unalienable rights” of the People, the People have the right and the duty to dissolve that government.

2. Minor premise, facts or evidence. The British government of King George no longer secures the natural rights of the People. In fact, his government tramples on those rights.

3. Conclusion deduced from the first Therefore, the colonies two premises. have the Right and duty to dissolve their relationship (of government) with Britain.

“Imagine Patriots reading the Declaration. It starts with the democratic theory of government (the major premise). Then it presents facts (the minor premise)–-instances of how the government of Britain is trampling the rights of the People. And it ends with the conclusion: Therefore, we have the right and duty to abolish our relationship of government with Britain. So, as we read the Declaration, I want you to look for the deductive argument. Where does Jefferson present the major premise about the right of revolution? Where does he present the facts? Where is the conclusion?

“A second reason that the Declaration is persuasive is that it uses strong language. There are no maybes about it. The rights of the People do not depend on anything. The rights are part of human nature. The People are “endowed” with rights by their Creator. The rights of the People come from The Creator, not from something as changeable as society. And revolution is not merely something that colonists have a right to do. It is something they MUST do.

The colonies are not merely a number of separate states. They are “one people.” You can almost see Patriots who have just heard the Declaration read in a town hall meeting or in a public square saying, “That’s IT! Where’s my musket?”

Pre-teach important new words. [Make sure students repeat the definitions and write them in their note books.]

• Laws of Nature and of Nature's God. Patterns in Nature that are absolute and universal, and derive from God.

• Truths. Statements that describe conditions that are universally the case. In contrast to opinion, mere belief, and speculation.

• Created equal. Brought into being by God and sharing many of the same human qualities.

• Unalienable Rights. Rights that cannot be taken away. Rights that are part of the nature of humanity.

• Pursuit of Happiness. Activity aimed at well-being, fulfillment. Not merely pleasure seeking.

• Consent of the governed. The government derives its power not by force but by agreement from the citizens.

• Absolute despotism. Authoritarian rule in which rulers can do, and will do, what they please.

• Absolute Tyranny. Same as absolute despotism.

Show the origins of the big ideas (theory of democratic government) that will be found in the Declaration. The theory of democratic government comes from John Locke and other political philosophers. Foundation_docs/Foundation_lesson_declaration.htm

Focused Instruction

The class should read small amounts of text—sometimes only one sentence if it contains an important concept (unalienable right) or rule. The teacher reminds students of definitions that were pre-taught. The teacher also defines easier concepts as portions of text are read. For example, “The course of human events means history.” [The teacher’s comments are in brackets and italics.]

The Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies In CONGRESS, July 4, 1776

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,

[Read the first paragraph, Susan.] When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

[Let’s take that line by line…. Start again.]

When in the Course of human events, [That means history.] it becomes necessary [Not a choice. Necessary. So right from the start you know that this document is going to end with something that has to happen.] for one people to dissolve the political bands [Government. The relation between government and the people.] which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth [Other nations], the separate and equal station [That is, to be a member of the nations of the earth] to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them [So, being a separate and equal nation—not dependent on or controlled by another nation—is a law of nature. Pretty strong when you base your claim on God.], a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. [In other words, if you are going to severe a political relationship so that you can become a separate and equal nation, you need to explain yourself. And that is what the document does next.]

[Next sentence, Tony.] We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

[Let’s do that line again. Self-evident means obvious. No explanation needed. Unalienable means can’t be taken away. It’s part of being human. Created equal means that all men---humans—are the same in their basic need for freedom. Summarize. What self-evident truths?…. Where do these unalienable rights come from?.... If they come from God, does that mean that fighting to keep your rights would be doing God’s work? How does this add power to the argument for revolution?...]

--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,

[So, what is the role of government?... Where do governments get their power?... Notice that it says “just powers.” Not coercive force, but power that is fair, legitimate, and valid…]

--That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.

[Destructive of what ends?... Abolish or alter what?... Notice when he says that the new or altered government will lay on principles and that its powers will be organized? What does this mean? Principles might mean, for example, consent of the governed, or acceptance of the idea that all human beings have unalienable rights. The organization of powers means how the government will be run (for example, three branches that share power) and the relationships between citizens and government, in which, for example, citizens elect representative and president. So the Declaration anticipates the sort of government that the writers had in mind.]

Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.

[Read that again…. He’s saying that people resist change even when conditions are pretty awful.]

But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.

[But now Jefferson says that it is right and duty of the People to throw of their government. Why?... State this as a rule. When…., then… Let’s summarize the big ideas so far about democratic government. Do people have unalienable rights?... What are they?.... What is the purpose of government?... What if government no longer secures the unalienable rights of the People who consent to that government?.... So, this is the major premise of the deductive argument. When the government no longer secures the unalienable rights of the People, the People have the right and duty to abolish it or alter it. Now Jefferson’s job is to present evidence that the British government in fact is not securing the unalienable rights of the People.]

—Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain [George III] is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

[He it goes. Now we are into the minor premise of the argument: the evidence. Listen to the cadence.]

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. [In other words, the King will not agree to laws that support life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.]

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. [In other words, the King would pass certain laws only if the colonists gave up more power.]

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. [In other words, he is preventing the colonists from objecting to the tyranny of the King.]

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. [In other words, the King will not allow the colonies to develop their own courts so as to protect their rights.]

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the consent of our legislatures. [This violates the big idea about rule with the consent of the governed.]

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:

For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. [It’s bad enough that the King has violated the only just basis for government—securing the rights of the People. But the King won’t even respond to requests that he improve his conduct.]

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. [This is a powerful paragraph. Many colonists considered themselves Englishmen. Jefferson is saying that the colonies have appealed to their English brothers, but have been ignored. Therefore, their English brothers are in part just as guilty of tyranny as the King. And, if they want to be enemies, that will happen. In other words, Jefferson is creating distance between Britain and the United States.]

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by the Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

[Well, that is the conclusion of the argument. Let’s restate the argument….

Notice what the signers pledge….They list three things. What do you think was the most important thing they pledged?...]

The signers of the Declaration represented the new states as follows:

New Hampshire

Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton

Massachusetts

John Hancock, Samual Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry

Rhode Island

Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery

Connecticut

Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott

New York

William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris

New Jersey

Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark

Pennsylvania

Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross

Delaware

Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean

Maryland

Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton

Virginia

George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton

North Carolina

William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn

South Carolina

Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton

Georgia

Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton

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