LEARNING FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE



PSYCHOLOGY OF MOTIVATION FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Alizi Alias

Department of Psychology

International Islamic University Malaysia

Jalan Gombak

53100 Kuala Lumpur

03-20565096

alizi@iiu.edu.my

Mohamad Zaki Samsudin

Department of Psychology

International Islamic University Malaysia

Jalan Gombak

53100 Kuala Lumpur

03-20564000, ext: 3047

szaki@iiu.edu.my

ABSTRACT: The objective of this paper is to provide an Islamic perspective on the psychology of motivation. This is a theoretical paper based on reviews of past secondary sources of Islamic and psychology literature. First, the paper will provide an Islamic overview on the concept of motivation starting with the basic motives that all human being has and ending with the influence of soul in human motivation. The basic motives discussed are hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, power, achievement, affiliation, exploration, and spiritual/religious motivation. Second, the paper will evaluate contemporary motivation theories from an Islamic perspective. The theories that will be discussed are instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, arousal theory, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation theory, and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The Islamic perspectives will include Qur’anic verses, Prophetic Hadiths, stories of the Prophets and Companions, and the work of early Muslim scholars using terms familiar to contemporary psychology. Direct comparisons will be made between Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the Islamic concept of Maqasid Shar`iyyah (the objectives of the Islamic law). Third, the paper will outline a suggested integrated model of motivation from an Islamic perspective. Finally, the paper will illustrate the motivation of the Sahabahs to participate in Jihad, as an example of an Islamically oriented application of motivation principles in human behaviour. In the end, the paper intends to show that understanding the principles of motivation can lead us to appreciate more the oneness and greatness of Allah and help us fulfil our role as His servants (`ibadah role). In addition, the paper also intends to show that applying the principles of motivation can help us fulfil our role as vicegerents of Allah (khilafah role) by improving the effectiveness of our da`wah (propagating Islam) and tarbiyyah (educational training).

Paper presented at the 3rd International Seminar on Learning and Motivation(10-12 September 2005) organised by Faculty of Cognitive Sciences & Education

Universiti Utara Malaysia at City Bayview Hotel, Langkawi, Kedah, Malaysia.

INTRODUCTION

The objectives of this paper are: (1) to provide an Islamic overview on the concept of motivation, (2) to provide Islamic perspectives on various primary and secondary needs, (3) to evaluate contemporary motivation theories from an Islamic perspective, (4) to integrate various motivation theories to form an Islamic model of motivation, and (5) to illustrate the application of the Islamic motivation model from the Biography of the Prophet. The paper presupposes that the readers have a working knowledge of the psychology of motivation (including familiarity with Instinct Theory, Drive-Reduction Theory, Arousal Theory, Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory, and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs), or will be using this paper in conjunction with a psychology of motivation textbook. Therefore, this paper will focus more on evaluation of current theories as compared to describing theories of motivation.

ISLAMIC OVERVIEW OF THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION

Contemporary psychology defines motive as a specific need or desire, e.g. hunger, thirst, or achievement that provides behaviour with both energy and direction (Reeve, 2005). There is no mention at all about the existence of the soul and its influence on human motivation as believed by Muslims (Abdul Shakoor, 1978; Al-Awneh, 1999). Since human beings have a dual nature (body and soul/psyche), naturally there should be two types of motives: (1) biological motives, and (2) psychological motives. Biological or primary motives may include hunger, thirst, and sex. Psychological motives such as achievement, affiliation, manipulation and control, and exploration and curiosity can be grouped as psychological or secondary motives. And, from the Islamic perspective, religious motive should also be included as one of the psychological motives.

Obviously, the degree to which religious motive influences behaviour requires the souls of human to be at a certain level of iman (iman as a continuous variable) or certain level of potentiality to accept iman (iman as a discrete variable). Since contemporary Western psychology does not include soul as a subject matter of study, the religious motive receives minimal attention in psychology of motivation textbooks. And since Islam believes that human being consists of both body and soul, the Islamic perspective on how a person is motivated by biological motives also differs compared to contemporary Western psychology. Many of the motives shown by Muslims that cannot be explained by contemporary theories of motivation (such as neglecting biological needs for transcendental or spiritual reasons) can actually be explained if we believe on the existence of the soul. In short, Islam believes in the existence of the human soul and its influence in human motivation.

When providing “descriptions” about various primary and secondary motives, there is not much in Western psychology that we need to Islamise (except a few aspects) because the motives are real and supported by the Qur’ān and Hadith. But when providing “explanation” about human motivation (i.e. providing theories), some of the Western theories may need to be adapted by adding the element of soul in order to give a more comprehensive picture of human motivation and to ensure no un-Islamic elements that concerns `aqīdah (Islamic creed) or halāl/harām (the lawful and prohibited) are taught to the students. The focus on the human soul is the single most important difference between the Islamic concept of motivation and contemporary Western concept of motivation. The following sub-topics concern the “description” of various primary and secondary motives from Western psychological perspectives together with Islamic perspectives.

PRIMARY MOTIVES

Hunger and Thirst

Modern psychology listed hunger, oxygen, sleep or rest, and sex as basic, primary, biological, or physiological motives of human being (Edward, 1998; Reeve, 2005). Islam emphasises on fulfilling basic biological needs for the survival of human life based on a hadith that mentioned the rights of every human to have shelter, clothes, course bread (food), and water (narrated by al-Tirmidhi, Ahmad, and al-Hakim); and another hadith that mentioned the concept of sharing basic biological needs such as water, grass, and fire (narrated by Abu Dawud, Ahmad, and Ibn Majah). All these elements mentioned by the Prophet actually help people fulfil their biological needs such as hunger, thirst, oxygen, and sex. Recognising these basic biological needs should make us Muslims recognise the concept of tawhīd (oneness of God) and hidāyah (divine guidance). Two Qur’anic verses show the importance of relating fulfilling basic biological needs with the concept of tawhīd and hidāyah. “Allah gave an example of a city enjoying security, abundantly supplied with sustenance from every place, and yet was ungrateful for the favours from Allah. So, Allah makes it taste hunger and fear like garment because of the (evil) which (its people) made.” (QS 16: 112). And “Serve/pray to the Lord of the House. Who provides them with food against hunger, and with security against fear (danger).” (QS: 106: 3-4).

Obviously, neglecting the concept of the soul (as in Western psychology) will make us forget to be thankful to Allah, and forget to follow the straight path to hidayah since it is He who has helped us fulfil our basic biological needs. Another implication of adding the element of soul in the study of motivation is Muslims will be able to give a better explanation of certain types of behaviour and mental processes. For example, how can we explain the motivation of Muslims in performing sawm (fasting) neglecting their hunger and thirst? Why only few men among Talut’s armies were able to refrain from drinking the stream water while most of them were not (QS 2: 249)? The level of iman in the human soul clearly plays an important role here. It is because the iman in our souls that motivates us to eat only halal food and refrain from eating what is haram except during emergency (QS 6: 145).

Other Biological Needs

Apart from hunger and thirst, Islam also recognises human needs for oxygen (QS 6: 125), sleep or rest (QS: 17: 12; QS: 25: 47; QS 40: 61), and sex (QS 30: 21). In some of the Qur’anic verses, Allah emphasises that those are part of human’s needs or motives. Interestingly, in all these verses, Allah relates human needs with the concept of tawhid and hidayah which is lacking in Western psychology. In terms of sexual motives, Western psychology explains sexual motives as being influenced by the brain (limbic system), external stimuli (sight, smell, and sound), social and sexual experience, nutrition, emotions, age, thought, fantasies, culture, morality, etc. (Bancroft, 1995; Edward, 1998; Reeve, 2005). From the Islamic perspective, we do not deny these factors’ influence on sexual motive. What is lacking in Western psychology is the understanding of al-halal wa al-haram (the lawful and the prohibited) in sexual behaviour. For example, heterosexual behaviour outside legal marriage, homosexual behaviour, and bisexual behaviour are considered haram in Islam. Even within legal marriage, certain sexual behaviours are considered haram such as intercourse during menstruation and anal sex. On the positive side, Islam considers fulfilling sexual needs as part of `ibadah as the Prophet Muhammad SAW described it as sadaqah (charity) in one of his hadiths (narrated by Muslim, Abu Dawud, & Ahmad) if it is fulfilled within a legal marriage relationship.

SECONDARY MOTIVES

Exploration & Curiosity Motives

Exploration and curiosity are motives sparked by the new and unknown, and directed towards a goal not more specific than simply “finding out” (Edward, 1998). This exploration and curiosity motives are illustrated in the Qur’an when Prophet Ibrahim AS felt uncomfortable with the fact that his father was praying to idols instead of God. Starting from that, he started to feel curious about the concept of God and tried to explore other possible ‘gods’ starting from the stars, the moon, and the sun. He finally reached a firm conclusion that the real God is unobservable because observable things can come and go. The True God, according to Prophet Ibrahim AS is the one who creates all these objects, the stars, the moon and the sun (see QS 6: 74-79). This shows that exploration and curiosity motives can lead to positive things such as determining whether we accept iman (Islamic faith) or kufr (un-belief in the Islamic faith) i.e. iman as a discrete variable.

Sometimes, exploration and curiosity motives may lead us to increase our iman (if we are already a Muslim) i.e. iman as a continuous variable. The same prophet (Ibrahim AS), with his exploration and curiosity motives, had asked Allah SWT to show him “how” Allah resurrects the dead (note: he did not ask whether Allah “can” resurrect the dead) (see QS 2: 260). When asked by Allah whether he has faith, Prophet Ibrahim AS answered “yes”, but just to make his heart tranquil. In other words, he just wanted to fulfil his curiosity. This is the motive that motivates all of us scientists to search for the answers about the world. Of course, the same motives can lead to disaster. Prophet Adam AS, being a human, made a mistake in following his exploration and curiosity motives. Because of these motives, he ate the forbidden fruit and as a result, felt ashamed of himself (QS: 20: 120-121). Since Prophet Adam AS has a pious soul and because he asked for forgiveness, Allah gave him guidance (hidayah) and accepted his repentance (tawbah) (QS: 20: 122). Human beings need guidance from Allah on which areas are allowed to be explored and to be curious with. In this case, our souls, with our various levels of iman, play an important role.

Manipulation & Control Motives

Manipulation and control is the motive that focuses on specific object that must be touched, handled, played with, & felt before we are satisfied (Edward, 1998). Allah SWT has described these motives when describing people who wanted to touch, handle, and feel the Qur’an before accepting the hidayah. However, because their souls are never sincere in accepting hidayah, they will never satisfy their manipulation and control needs. In the Qur’an, it is mentioned that even if Allah descends upon them the Qur’an in written form so that they can touch it, handle it, or feel it, they will not accept hidayah; and even if Allah sent an angel to them, they will still not accept hidayah (QS 6: 7-9). Apparently, their souls were not ready to accept hidayah.

Aggression Motives

Aggression is the behaviour that aimed at doing harm to others (Edward, 1998). The question whether aggressive motive is inborn in human has been asked as early as pre-creation of man by, surprisingly, the obedient and dutiful angels! The angels asked Allah “Why do you want to appoint your khalifah (vicegerents) on earth who will make damage and shed blood?” (QS 2: 30). Although our nature may carry the potential to become aggressive, not all human beings will commit such acts. “Descend both of you from the heaven. Some of you will become the enemies of the other…” (QS 20: 123). The same verse continues saying that Allah will give guidance to human beings, and those who follow His guidance will not lose his way or fall into misery. As it happened, the first aggressive (or rather “transgressive”) behaviour was committed by the son of Adam, Qabil on his brother, Habil of which the full story can be read in the Qur’an (QS 5: 27-31). Even though both of them lived in the blessed house of a prophet, obviously their souls differ in accepting Allah’s commandment.

Achievement Motives

The need for achievement is the desire to excel relative to a particular standard of excellence (Reeve, 2005). There are basically three categories of standard of excellence: (1) competitions with a task, (2) competitions with the self, and (3) competitions against others (Reeve, 2005). Certainly, Allah SWT demands that we excel in all three categories. And what is perhaps the most basic achievement is the triumph of human’s tranquil soul (al-nafs al-mutmainnah) over the blameworthy soul and evil-urging soul (al-nafs al-lawwamah and al-nafs al-ammarah bi su’). The triumph of the tranquil soul will ensure that a person desires what is good and refrains from all wrongdoings. This achievement in a competition ‘within’ oneself would naturally entail in achievements in other categories of standard of excellence. Although the need for achievement is a secondary motive in Islam, the goal should be good, as mentioned in the Qur’an “… then compete (to achieve) all that is good. Wherever you are, Allah will bring you together…” (QS 2: 148). And only souls with high level of iman will compete to achieve good rather than evil.

Affiliation Motive

The need for affiliation is the need to engage in warm, close and positive relationships with others (Reeve, 2005). Allah created Hawa (Eve, in English) not only for Adam AS to fulfil his sexual needs but also affiliation need. It is mentioned in the Qur’an that it is natural to be affiliated to certain groups. “The believers, men and women, are protectors one of another: they enjoin the good and forbid the evil: they observe regular prayers, pay zakat, and obey Allah and His messenger…” (QS 9: 71). In this case, `aqidah or iman is the basis of affiliation. The power of iman to build strong affiliations among the believers in terms of love and kindness is mentioned by Prophet Muhammad SAW as comparable to the whole human body which feels the pain even when only one part of the body is inflicted with pain (narrated by Bukhari and Muslim). Affiliation based on `aqidah is more powerful than affiliation based on kinship, race, and nationality as seen in the War of Badr where the Muslims were motivated to challenge their own relatives and tribes from Makkah in order to protect their `aqidah.

Spiritual Motive

One aspect of psychological motives that is rarely talked about in Western psychology is spiritual motive. Allah said in the Qur’an that “facing our face” to the true religion is a natural inclination (fitrah) even though many human beings do not do so (QS 30: 30). Al-Qurtubi in his tafsir (exegesis) (as cited in Najati, 1989) commented that Allah has created the potential in every human being to understand the existence of Allah, to believe in Him, and to believe in His Oneness. In another Qur’anic verse, it is mentioned that before we were born, when all of us were in the spiritual world (`alam arwah), all individuals took the oath testifying that Allah is our Lord (QS 7: 172). It is this oath taken in the spiritual world – which we forget once we entered our biological/animal bodies – that provides us with spiritual motive to find God, which is needed to facilitate our roles as vicegerents (khalifah). It is this kind of natural inclination of spiritual motive that has been mentioned in the hadith that all children are born with fitrah. And it is their parents that make the child either a Jew, Christian, or a Zoroaster (narrated by Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud, and Tirmidhi).

Religious Motive

Finally, every Muslim, theoretically, has the desire to make sure his/her behaviour is not against Islamic `aqidah, shari`ah, and akhlaq. Al-Qur’an has detailed out in many verses about the behaviour and mental processes of the mu’minin (true believers), the kuffar (unbelievers), and the munafiqin (hypocrites) starting from the early verses of surah al-Baqarah (QS 2: 1-20). The motivation to receive hidayah (guidance) from Allah drives a mu’min differently from those who reject truth such as the kuffar and the munafiqin. A mu’min will always make sure that his/her motivated behaviour is not against Islamic `aqidah, Islamic shari`ah, and Islamic akhlaq. Perhaps the usage of the term “mu’min” shows that, not all Muslim posses the same level of iman and thus not all of them will possess the same level of religious motivation.

EVALUATION OF CONTEMPORARY MOTIVATION THEORIES

FROM AN ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Instinct Theory

Instinct theory believes that all motives (in both human and animal) are genetically programmed, impulsive and inflexible (Petri, 1996; Reeve, 2005). This theory was the most prominent theory of motivation in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Much of this was due to the enormous impact generated by Darwin’s theory of evolution and its emphasis on biological determinism (Reeve, 2005). The theory however, experienced a sharp decline because of its failure to explain learned behaviour, which eventually became the focal point of the fast emerging and more sophisticated psychological school of behaviourism.

Although Muslims also believe that most behaviour are learned (or else they will be no such thing as halal/haram or paradise/hellfire), we also believe that some motives come from our instinct provided to us by Allah SWT. One example of this instinct is the spiritual motive already described in previous section. Another example of instinct mentioned in the Qu’ran is the motherly instinct. Contrary to the Western perspective that believes instinct is inflexible, Islam believes that the soul and iman moderate the relationship between instinct and behaviour. Al-Qur’an describes the natural motherly instinct of Prophet Musa AS’s mother, but because of her faith in Allah, she behaved in an (observably) “un-motherly” way by drifting her son in the river. “And the heart of Musa’s mother sank. She nearly told the secret about Musa AS, if We did not strengthen her heart. So that she will be among those who believe (in Allah’s promise).” (QS 28: 10). The Qur’an also describes that although she let Musa AS go, her heart was full of sorrow as what would naturally be a feeling of a mother. Allah has His own plan, and consequently, He returned Musa AS back to his mother. “And We returned back Musa AS to his mother, so that she will be happy and no longer sad.” (QS 28: 13). Clearly, iman plays an important role in producing behaviour that is different from the real motive. And it is because of lack of iman too that we find nowadays mothers abandoning newborn babies, which is against their motherly instinct!

Drive-Reduction Theory

Drive-reduction theory states that motivated behaviour is aimed at reducing a state of bodily tension or arousal and returning the organism back to homeostasis (Petri, 1996; Reeve, 2005). The term homeostasis refers to the state of balance and stability for various bodily needs, which an organism needs in order to function effectively (Petri, 1996). Clark Hull’s theory, which was by far the most widely acclaimed drive theory, was widely considered the first theory of motivation to contain predictive reliability and validity (Petri, 1996; Reeve, 2005). In trying to incorporate the vital importance of both genetic-biological and environmental factors, Hull developed a formula which proposes that for any behaviour to occur, both habit or learning (environmental factor) and drive (biological factor) must be present (Petri, 1996; Reeve, 2005).

It is this theory that divides various human motives into primary and secondary motives where primary motives are unlearned, whereas secondary motives are learned. These types of categorisation are not new in Islamic history because Ibn Taimiyyah had already divided motives into two (Najati, 1992): (1) primary (al-awwaliyyah): which is essential for human survival and (2) secondary (al-thanawiyyah): which is not related to human survival. Ibn Taimiyyah and also al-Ghazali gave examples of primary motives as the needs for food, water, healthy temperature, rest, and sex; whereas secondary motives are other motives, which are similar with what has been mentioned in Western Psychology (Najati, 1992).

Drive-reduction theory states that behaviour that reduces drive is reinforcing whereas behaviour that does not reduce drive is not (Petri, 1996). This concept of drive for maintaining balance is mentioned in the Qur’an. “It is He (Allah) who created you, and then perfected your form, and made you in the state of balance” (QS 82: 7). However, drive-reduction theory cannot fully explain behaviours that do not seem to reduce drive such as the extraordinary bravery of the Sahabah (companions of the Prophet SAW) who were involved in holy wars, and their extraordinary endurance in performing prayers and rituals in extraordinary long periods. Again, the soul plays an important role here in human motivation.

Arousal Theory

Arousal theory states that in order to perform effectively, human beings need an optimal level of arousal (Petri, 1996; Edward, 1998). The theory was initially developed as a result of dissatisfaction with the drive theory. Lindsay’s 1957 neurophysiological discovery laid down a strong claim of an arousal system in the brain stem, a discovery that gave the arousal theory a far stronger physiological basis than its predecessor (Reeve, 2005).

The arousal theory believes that when arousal increases, performance increases, but up to a certain point only, in which case if arousal continues to increase (and creates over-stimulation), performance will decrease. Perhaps that is why Prophet Muhammad SAW forbade three Sahabahs from performing extreme levels of `ibadah (salat throughout the night, sawm throughout the year, and complete abstinence from sex) by stressing that he himself performs `ibadah at an optimal level rather than extreme level (narrated by Malik).

However, arousal theory cannot explain why people participate in activities that are extremely challenging, hence, overly stimulating such as extreme sports (Reeve, 2005). Just like we cannot understand why some Sahabahs such as Abdullah ibn Amru wanted to perform sawm throughout the year. And although Prophet Muhammad SAW suggested sawm for three days per month, Abdullah persistence in performing “extreme” level of sawm led the Prophet to suggest the sawm of Prophet Dawud AS (fasting on alternate days throughout the year). However, the Prophet still forbade him to perform sawm throughout the year (narrated by Bukhari and Muslim). Perhaps the extreme love for Allah in their souls made them extremely motivated. Because of this, Prophet Muhammad SAW allowed a few Sahabahs to perform `ibadah at the above optimal arousal level (but not to the most extreme). However, as mentioned in the previous hadith about the three Sahabahs, the Prophet did not encourage this behaviour to all Muslims, because a layperson may be motivated to achieve optimal arousal only, not at the extreme level.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory

An intrinsic motive is a desire to perform a behaviour that stems from the behaviour performed (“for the fun of it”), whereas extrinsic motive is a desire to perform behaviour to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment (Reeve, 2005; Petri, 1996). According to this theory, extrinsic rewards may reduce intrinsic motivation although unexpected rewards do not necessarily reduce intrinsic motivation (Reeve, 2005). Psychologists however, rather than declaring which motive is inherently better than the other, have instead concluded that both have their own unique strengths and weaknesses (Reeve, 2005)

As Muslims, do we perform `ibadah because of the joy of submitting to Allah (intrinsic motive) or because of the consequences (reward in paradise or punishment in the hellfire) that comes with it? The answer is, the higher the level of iman, the more likely a person performs an `ibadah entirely for the sake of Allah. However, this does not mean that performing `ibadah to gain entry to paradise and to avoid hellfire is not a characteristic of a good mu’min. Al-Qaradhawi (1998) had argued that `ibadah performed to gain paradise and to avoid hellfire is actually one of the characteristics of a good believer and he mentioned several Qur’anic verses to support his arguments. Besides, even from the Western perspective, motivation to gain paradise and to avoid hellfire can still be considered more intrinsic than extrinsic because these are unobservable situations and are delayed after death. Such behaviours are more acceptable than performing `ibadah for worldly extrinsic rewards, which can lead to psycho-spiritual diseases such as riya’ (pride) and takabbur (arrogance).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

This famous theory postulates that needs are satisfied based on a hierarchy from the lowest to the highest. The needs, in order from the lowest to the highest, are: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualisation needs. This theory, however, has been criticised because of its lack of explanatory power and insistence on fulfilment of needs according to its proposed sequence (Reeve, 2005; Petri, 1996). For example, this theory cannot explain the neglect of physiological needs (life) in order to gain shahadah (martyrdom) in war (which may actually be considered as achieving self-actualisation).

It is interesting to note that fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) has always considered human needs based on a hierarchy put forth by `ulama’ (religious scholars) such as al-Shatibi and al-Ghazali who constructed the study of Maqasid al-Shari`iyyah (the objectives of Islamic law). It starts from the lowest need of al-daruriyyat (the essential needs), al-hajjiyyat (the complimentary needs), and al-tahsiniyyat (the embellishment needs) (Kamali, 1991). Kamali (1991) had provided the definition for all these three terms. The daruriyyat needs are those on which the lives of people depend, and whose neglect leads to total disruption and chaos. The hajjiyyat needs are interests whose neglect leads to hardship in the life of the community although not to its total collapse. Finally, the tahsiniyyat needs are interests whose realisation leads to improvement and to attainment of that which is desirable.

The daruriyyat needs are further divided into five needs that are to be protected in order of importance: (1) the religion or al-din, (2) the life or al-nafs, (3) the intellect or `aql, (4) the lineage or al-nasl, and (5) the property or al-mal. The obvious difference between maqasid al-shar`iyyah and Maslow’s theory, in terms of content, is the inclusion of religion as a basic human need. This inclusion enables us to explain why some Sahabahs are motivated to go for jihad fi sabilillah (war in the path of Allah) because religion is prioritised over life. The beauty of the theory of maqasid as-shar`iyyah is its flexibility in interpretation compared to Maslow’s theory. For example, in one occasion, a sahabah by the name of Ammar ibn Yasir became so depressed after reciting a kufr statement (a statement declaring un-belief in Islam) out of fear that he would be killed, hence, prioritising life over religion. But Prophet Muhammad SAW, upon knowing that iman is still in Ammar’s heart, said that his iman is intact and it is permissible to say a kufr statement in order to save his life (protection of life is fulfilled, and so does the protection of religion in his soul as well). Thus, this again shows the importance of the soul in explaining human motivation.

SUGGESTED ISLAMIC MODEL OF MOTIVATION

In the past 30 years, there have been several attempts by Muslim psychologists to propose an Islamic model of motivation. Abdul Shakoor (1978) proposed an Islamic concept of psycho-spiritual motivation, built from the foundations of tawhid. Zainuddin (1998), on the other hand, attempted to explain human motivation exclusively from the Sufi (Islamic mysticism) tradition. While the most recent and most comprehensive attempt so far was presented by Alawneh (1999), who proposed an Islamic paradigm of motivation based on the understanding of man’s purpose of creation; which he later associated with basic Islamic concepts such as taqwa, iman, khalifah and tawbah, and the interrelatedness of different types of motivation, as well as a proposed model of taqwa motivation.

These attempts have indeed contributed to the search for a more comprehensive Islamic perspective of motivation. However, it is quite unfortunate that all of them made little attempt to integrate Western theories of motivation in the Islamic models. Although there are points of disagreement – namely on the influence of the human soul – between the Western and Islamic perspectives, there are definitely many areas where both perspectives are in consonance. These consonant areas however, do not belie the fact that there is a fundamental difference between both perspectives, which ultimately points to the call for Muslim psychologists to propose an alternative Islamic model of motivation.

Reviews on various theories mentioned in the previous section shows that every Western theory has some truth and is supported by Islam but has limitation in giving a full picture of human motivation. Psychology should take into consideration all these theories and incorporate Islamic perspectives of motivation in order to give an alternative, more comprehensive look of human motivation. The model of human motivation illustrated in Figure 1, is not developed based on past cumulative research. It is rather a proposed loose model to guide future research and to make sense of unexplained factors found in various Western theories. The model states that different theories may explain motivated behaviour at different stages. In all these stages, soul plays a moderating role in increasing or lowering motivation, or to be involved in different types of motivated behaviours.

ISLAMICALLY-ORIENTED APPLICATION OF MOTIVATION PRINCIPLES

This section will try to illustrate the behaviour of the Sahabahs during the era of Prophet Muhammad SAW particularly the motivation to participate in Jihad which the readers can refer to any credible book on the Biography of the Prophet. This is to inspire modern Muslim psychologists to use the same principles in motivating contemporary Muslims. Although the true meaning of Jihad is struggle towards anything which is good, for this particular application, Jihad is operationally defined as involvement in war to defend and/or spread the message of Islam. However, in certain occasions, we may use the word “Jihad” in its general meaning, in which case we will use quotation marks to differentiate between the two.

Figure 1. The Islamic Model of Motivation

Theories Questions Moderator

Instinct

yes

Drive-reduction

yes

Arousal

yes

Intrinsic/Extrinsic

yes

Need hierarchy

yes

Religious

yes

Current State of Motivation

1. Instinct Theory: Since there is already an instinct for aggressive behaviour inborn in every man, the Sahabahs were potentially prepared to perform Jihad when required. Khabab ibn al-Arat, for example, was so motivated to declare war against the Mushrikin (unbelievers) of Makkah during the Makkan period but Prophet Muhammad SAW forbade him from doing so emphasising more on building iman as the priority of “Jihad” in Makkah. Only during the Medinan period and only when provoked by the Mushrikin in Makkah, in which Islam was at stake that Prophet Muhammad SAW declared the War of Badr. Although the Muslims during the Makkan period were prepared for war based on the instinct theory, the education of iman provided by the Prophet SAW prevented them from behaving aggressively against the Mushrikin in Makkah. During the Medinan period, when the timing was suitable, their aggressive potentials were manifested during the Wars of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, etc.

2. Drive-reduction Theory: The Sahabahs were a group of peace-loving people. They were trained to focus on “Jihad” to strengthen their `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq. They were also trained on “Jihad” to be patient under the oppressive regime of the Mushrikin in Makkah. Although the drive-reduction theory would predict that the Sahabahs would be motivated to reduce the tensed living situation in Makkah by declaring war against their enemy, they were not actually motivated to do so because of their iman to Allah and the Prophet’s instruction. However, when they attained the peace of having their own sovereign state in Medina, any act by the Mushrikin in Makkah that could add to the tensed situation made them motivated to reduce it. With the permission from Allah and His Prophet SAW, they were involved in wars such as in Badr and Uhud.

3. Arousal Theory: The Arab people in the Jahiliyyah (ignorance) period had been involved in wars between tribes even for trivial reasons. War was a culture to them. And involving in war would naturally fulfil the needs of the Sahabahs to obtain optimum arousal. But they were not involved in any war during the Makkan period because the Prophet SAW had trained their souls to focus on the “Jihad” of building iman and knowledge, and perfecting their `ibadah and akhlaq. During the Medinan period, however, after being well-equipped with iman, `ibadah, and akhlaq, the Sahabahs were now able to fulfil their desire to obtain optimum arousal. Their souls were mature enough to guide them so as not to kill excessively without taking into consideration the rules and regulations of Jihad in Islam. The necessity to fight the enemy in Jihad is now motivated by sincere intention to safeguard Islam; their own religion that they believe is the truth.

4. Intrinsic Motivation Theory: The Arabs during the Jahiliyyah period could have been extrinsically motivated to fight in wars because of the ghanimah (war booty) or intrinsically because of the glory. In that sense, it is understandable that the Sahabahs who had just converted to Islam were motivated to fight in a war with the Mushrikin in Makkah. They were not short of brave and skilled warriors like Hamzah ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and `Umar al-Khattab. However, it was perhaps more intrinsically motivating for them to focus on increasing their `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq. But once their souls were strong and well-prepared in terms of iman and ukhuwwah (spirit of brotherhood) in Medina, they became motivated to fight not primarily because of war booty, jealousy, revenge or glory, but because of the intrinsic motive to defend and spread Islam, or attain shahadah (martyrdom).

5. Need Hierarchy Theory: The motivated behaviour of the Sahabahs in neglecting their physiological needs (life) in order to fulfil their self-actualising needs (jihad) cannot be explained by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. However, the hierarchy of needs is still relevant, but should be explained instead using the principles of Maqasid al-Shar`iyyah. Consistent with the training of `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq in Makkah and Medina, the Sahabahs had naturally prioritised religion over life, which is the correct hierarchy of needs for Muslims.

6. Religious needs: At present, there is no established theory on religious motive. However, once all the variables mentioned in various theories are fulfilled (taking into consideration the moderating factor of the soul and level of iman), a Muslim would automatically ask him/herself whether his/her motivated behaviour is fulfilling the roles and responsibilities of servants and vicegerents of Allah by ensuring the behaviour is in line with the correct understanding of Islamic `aqidah, shari`ah, and akhlaq. Only when a Muslim overcomes all these hurdles, a truly Islamic motivation is exemplified. Naturally, as Muslims, the rulings in Islamic `aqidah, shari`ah, and akhlaq should be powerful enough as a variable to motivate their behaviours. In reality, as we can see from contemporary Muslims’ behaviour, this variable is moderated by the souls and their level of iman.

The above application shows the importance of educating all Muslims – youth, new converts, and ‘reborn’ Muslims, etc – the correct understanding of `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq, so that all their drives and motives can be regulated to motivate Islamically accepted behaviour.

CONCLUSION

The proposed Islamic model of motivation and the illustrated application are based on an ideal motivated behaviour. If we allow ourselves to be influenced by behaviours in reality, we may be drifted, because reality changes. Hence, it is far better to strive for the ideal and change the reality, just like how Prophet Muhammad SAW had changed the motivated behaviour of the Sahabahs and created the most ideal Islamic generation humanity has ever known.

Studying basic psychological principles such as motivation can help us increase our knowledge and iman, and fulfil our role as servants (`abid) of Allah by understanding human behaviour and mental processes. Applying basic psychological principles, on the other hand, can help us fulfil our role as vicegerents (khalifah) by performing da`wah or tarbiyyah to solve human problems by controlling human behaviour and mental processes. Indeed, studying and applying psychology of motivation as a Muslim is a religious experience and will be receiving, God-willing, immense rewards from Allah.

REFERENCES

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