The Method of Life Histories



The Method of Life HistoriesBrooke IstasSouthern Methodist UniversityThe Method of Life HistoriesLife histories are a qualitative method used for collecting autobiographical stories about a person's experience. The first life histories were stories collected in the form of autobiographies of American Indian chiefs (Atkinson, 1998). Anthropologists sought to understand the lives and experiences of Native Americans as early as 1906. Sociologists were the next to adopt these methods. In the 1920s, two sociologists pioneered the life history technique by exploring the experience of Polish peasants migrating to the United States (Goodson & Sikes, 2001). This led to other critical sociological studies completed in Chicago on gangs, the ghettos, and many more (Atkinson, 1998). Psychologists and psychiatrists have also utilized this method for many years. In the last 20 years, life histories have begun to be used in educational settings. It is primarily used in educational policy research. Life histories are an important tool because it is an excellent way for the researcher to live in another person's shoes and to seek to grasp the same experience as a participant. Life histories allow informants to tell or recount events. The events can be personal narratives of one person or a group's experience. This methodology fell out of favor because quantitative methods gained popularity into the 1970s. This approach discloses to the researcher more information than a survey or a questionnaire because it seeks to understand the experiences through the other person. Life histories give an idea of social constructions and social mobility within different populations, too. The emergence of life history study is not about simplifying a complicated experience. After all, life is intricate and complicated. The goal of this research is not to create a particular meaning or to tell someone's "truth." It is an illustration or a depiction of the human experience. It lures people into the story and calls for them to create their understanding based on their lenses within their reality (Cole & Knowles, 2001). Life history methods are both scientific and creative. They seek to engage the reader and help them to gain insight into experiences, emotions, interactions with the world and within themselves. It aims to understand something complex or complicated about life. The discovery of this methodology for my area of research is essential. My research focuses on the underlying reasons for where math goes wrong within adult populations. This elusive moment where mathematics learning goes from being a positive experience to a negative one cannot be found using surveys or questionnaires. It is something that can only be uncovered through collecting stories and experiences with mathematics in a person's earliest years to the present day. I seek to understand their stories to find a moment where everything changed.Data collectionLife history methods vary between disciplines. The way an anthropologist conducts their data collection looks very different than the way a sociologist or an education researcher. Therefore, it is possible to orient this method to fit the field is necessary. It is through the eye of the researcher that life history methods are utilized, realizing that to understand a general concept, we must first look at a smaller aspect (Cole & Knowles, 2001). The stories that are collected give context for the content and help guide us to develop theories of the content.The researcher is the measurement tool that collects these stories. It is a form of storytelling, a narrative that has a plot that builds out the characters and the situations they faced. The story can be an adventure, a tragedy, a comedy, or any of the other genres that exist. It is a lived experience with a beginning, middle, and end. The telling of the story allows the individual to create their identity, along with explaining the impact it had on them (Ochberg, 1994). Life histories are interviews conducted by a researcher and a participant using a recording device. But, before just jumping in and doing this type of research, three things should be considered. First, think about why these stories will be beneficial as you begin preparing for the interview. Second, plan how you will guide a person through their autobiography and ask questions to assist the interviewee in the telling of their story. Be sure to record these stories being told. Third, transcribing the stories making sure to remove any comments made by the researcher, and allowing the storyteller to review what was said and check for any changes they would like to make(Atkinson, 1998).As you prepare to collect life histories, consider the amount of time that will be needed. These interviews should be open-ended. However, some people will be loquacious, and others will be reticent. Remember, it is the storyteller's story and not the researchers. It is good to prepare the interviewees before beginning the interview. By giving the subject some questions to think about, you can help them remember stories. Interviewers should encourage participants to follow-through on a particular thought as they share their version of events. Remember, to be responsive and be willing to adapt your methods to meet the needs of the participant. This interview is not a conversation, which is good because it allows for a deeper understanding of the details to be sought out. The researcher's voice should remain in the background but be willing to provide support, especially if emotions emerge. Also, asking for photos, memorabilia, etc., can help assist participants in recognizing their story. Be prepared for follow-up interviews, too. Sometimes, participants will think of missing parts to accounts after the initial meeting is over. These missing pieces should be collected, and they will add to the shared story(Goodson & Sikes, 2001). There is no formal training to conduct life history research. There are several books and journals available on life history research. Someone wanting to learn more about life history research should be able to access readings and begin to synthesize the process of life history research. These books and journals can serve as a guide, but the experience is the best teacher. Although there is not a course, there are different types of interview protocols that can assist a young researcher in acquiring stories from people. The interviewer should be able to support the participants with creating and conveying their stories in an informal approach, prompting the storyteller to share more about their feelings, about events in the story, and asking for further insights. Both the interviewer and the interviewee are involved in living the story being told. It is an active and collaborative process so that the interviewer is personally engaged in the story and invites the storyteller to share rich details. This type of interview relies heavily on trust. The interviewer must communicate, implicitly and explicitly, that the participants are safe to share. Trust is an essential element in life-history research. The interviewer should strive hard not to overreact or influence the story being told through comments, non-verbal cues, emotions, etc. The objective is to get an accurate and truthful account. The intimacy that exists between the interviewer and the informant should be similar to a friendship, where the interviewer respects and cares about the person. They are a support of their experiences and ask the interviewee to reveal themselves and expose their emotions. This type of relationship between informant and interviewer challenges traditional concepts of the participants taking a passive role in the way the research is conducted. It is not hierarchal, where the researcher holds a higher authority over the contributor but a collaborative relationship (Cole & Knowles, 2001). A researcher needs to define the boundaries of the relationship and not become too familiar. A set of individual rights and responsibilities of both the researcher and the informant should be created and utilized to make sure that clear boundaries exist (Bernard, 2018). My research focuses on interviewing adult basic education learners about their mathematical journey. Through the sharing of their high and low moments with math learning, I am interested to see if there is one moment or experience that causes math to go from a positive experience to a negative one. Using semi-structured interview questions, I will begin to collect life history stories. Here are some examples of the types of questions I will be asking in my interview sessions: What is your earliest memory of mathematics?What do you remember most about learning mathematics in elementary school?Tell me about a time when math was the best of times for you.Tell me about a time when math was the worst of times for you.By allowing people to share their experiences with me, I hope to gain a deeper understanding of why so many adults avoid mathematics.AnalysisAfter the interviews have been conducted, the majority of work begins for the researcher. The first piece is to transcribe the interviews. Depending on their length, this can be time-consuming. Once the transcription process is complete. The researcher may choose to utilize tools like MAXQDA, N-Vivo, Strata, to assist with the coding of themes for further analysis. Using grounded theory to allow for emic themes to develop is one such option; another option is to use an etic approach which looks for a shared experience, belief, or value. Additionally, life history stories may also be used without themes or shared experiences. The stories may serve to illustrate events that are best left as they are, stories (Bernard et al., 2017). The analysis piece can be both qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative methods such as the Markov model, which utilizes a random process that details the routines and the shift between these routines associated with the given age of the informant. Since the data collected from life history can be incomplete, mathematical models can help predict when an informant enters a transition condition and the rate at which they will exit it. The Markov model can also prognosticate the number of transitions an individual may have and the duration of each of these transitions (Willekens, 2014). Using statistics programs like R or SPSS, this analysis can be run for correlational information. Other data that is collected, such as age, gender, socio-economic status, and other demographics, can be analyzed using quantitative methods. Additionally, theory in the researcher's field can assist with the analysis of any quantitative methods used, but ultimately, reliability and validity may not be the most appropriate standard to use. Their story may be the measure, their perspective, experience, or voice. In this case, the researcher must strive to use internal consistency (Bernard et al., 2017). In a group of interviews, corroboration might be the control measure. Did more than one person's story say the same thing? Analyzing life history research can also challenge conventional models. The stories may be enough to give an insider view of a situation or experience. The role of the researcher then changes from trying to find meaning to allow the reader to create meaning within their lens of understanding. The researcher may see that some insights and inspiration in the way a collection of stories unfold, and their interpretation may add value to finding a connection to theory (Cole & Knowles, 2001). Analysis can allow the researcher to establish the meaning and validity of the life story. A word of caution, the researcher must consider the following when interpreting life histories. First, the quality of the relationship between the interviewer and interviewee. Second, the completeness of the story being told by the storyteller. Third, any theoretical perspectives that support the story. Fourth, the individual bias that the researcher brings to the story (Atkinson, 1998). Additionally, the researcher needs to be aware of the emotional and cognitive demands of life histories. The stories that the researcher is collecting and reviewing may reveal traumatic events or even events that are not factual. The researcher must strive to remain neutral in their understanding of the story. After all, it is not the experience of the research but the experience of the informant that is being work of ScholarsHistorians, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and educational policy leaders have all utilized life history methods in their research. It is not currently a method used in mathematics education research, but that is about to change. Some conferences are explicitly on life history research. Annual Meeting of the Life History Research Society and Life History Society Conference are both canceled for this year, but this may be a place a young researcher could learn more about this method. In the United States, the American Historical Association, Ethnography in Education Research, Anthropology and Education, and American Anthropological Association have had presenters who utilized life history research and be another option for young researchers to take a deeper dive into this method.In the field of education, Stephen Ball and Ivor Goodson are cited the most because of their work in educational policy. Stephen is a British sociologist, and Ivor is a British professor of learning, together they are interested in teachers and the lives of teachers. Other fields that utilize life history research are family studies, music and music education, psychiatry, sociocultural studies, aging, and gerontology (Ochberg, 1994). Funding/Cost ConsiderationsObtaining funding for qualitative research can be quite difficult compared to quantitative research. A quick scan of the Internet found that there are grants available for ethnographic research and a few educational grants within a mixed-model design that could be used to conduct life history research. Private organizations and companies also would be another place to look for funding. I recently received a $750 grant for my study on the Perceptions of Mathematics in Adult Basic Education. I received this grant by applying to the Coalition on Adult Basic Education Innovation Grant.There are some costs associated with this type of research. Time is the highest cost because it takes time to recruit participants, interview, and transcribe the interview. Other costs could include travel, food, software for analysis, paying for transcription, and perhaps offering participants a small stipend for their time. Another cost is the personal well-being of the researcher. Some of the stories that are shared may impact the researcher. Therefore, the researcher should have a plan for self-care, and this could have some cost associated with it.ConclusionThe life history method is a new methodology in the field of mathematics education. It is the method that I have chosen to utilize for my dissertation research because it has the potential to access information that a survey or a questionnaire has not been able to uncover. The personal math journey of adults will reveal to me their experience, how they felt, and the impact of the experience. Math education researchers traditionally focus on knowledge or skill obtainment, whereas my research will focus on the human experience. I will continue to read more about this method because it resonates with me. Appendix A is a list of journal articles that have utilized this methodology, and I recommend these articles for novice researchers to read. AppendixAgar, M. (1980). stories, background knowledge and themes: problems in the analysis of life history narrative.?American Ethnologist,?7(2), 223–239. doi: 10.1525/ae.1980.7.2.02a00010Atkinson, R. (2009).?The life story interview. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publ.Bernard, H. R. (2018).?Research methods in anthropology qualitative and quantitative approaches. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.Cole, A. L., & Knowles, J. G. (2001).?Lives in context: the art of life history research. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.Csordas, T. J. (2012). Psychoanalysis and phenomenology.?Ethos,?40(1), 54–74. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-1352.2011.01231.xFrank, G. (1979). Finding the common denominator: A phenomenological critique of life history method.?Ethos,?7(1), 68–94. doi: 10.1525/eth.1979.7.1.02a00050Frank, G. (1995). Anthropology and individual lives: The story of the life history and the history of the life story.?American Anthropological Association,?97(1), 145–148.Germeten, S. (2013). Personal narratives in life history research.?Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research,?57(6), 612–624. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2013.838998Goodson, I. F., & Sikes, P. J. (2001).?Life history research in educational settings: learning from lives. Buckingham: Open University Press.Goodson, I. L., & Choi, P. L. (2008). Life history and collective memory as methodological strategies: Studying teacher professionalism.?Teacher Education Quarterly,?35(2), 5–28.Henry, A. (1995). Growing up black, female, and working class: A teacher's narrative.?Anthropology & Education Quarterly,?26(3), 279–305. doi: 10.1525/aeq.1995.26.3.05x0934xJones, G. (1983). Organizational socialization as information processing activity: A life history analysis.?Human Organization,?42(4), 314–320. doi: 10.17730/humo.42.4.q03m3x62548453v0Kouritzin, S. G. (2000). Bringing life to research: Life history research and ESL.?TESL Canada Journal,?17(2), 01. doi: 10.18806/tesl.v17i2.887Moody, V. R. (2004). Sociocultural orientations and the mathematical success of African American students.?The Journal of Educational Research,?97(3), 135–146. doi: 10.3200/joer.97.3.135-146Mukungu, K. (2017). “How can you write about a person who does not exist?”: Rethinking pseudonymity and informed consent in life history research.?Social Sciences,?6(3), 86. doi: 10.3390/socsci6030086Olive, J. (2018). Reflecting on the tensions between emic and etic perspectives in life history research: Lessons learned.?Qualitative Social Research,?15(2).Roth, W.-M. (2001). Researching living/lived mathematical work.?Qualitative Social Research,?12(1).Thembela, A. J., & Ngwenya, T. J. (2006). Folk musics as popular culture: A life-history approach.?University of Hawai'i Press, 148–152.Wolcott, H. F. (2018). Adequate schools and inadequate education.?Thinking About Schools, 255–281. doi: 10.4324/9780429495670-23ReferencesAtkinson, R. (1998). The life story interview. Sage Publications, Inc.Bernard, H. R. (2018). Research methods in anthropology. Rowman & Littlefield.Bernard, H. R., Wutich, A., & Ryan, G. W. (2017). Analyzing qualitative data (2nd ed.). Sage.Cole, A. L., & Knowles, J. G. (2001). Lives in context: The art of life history research [e-book]. Altamira Press.Goodson, I., & Sikes, P. (2001). Life history research in educational setting. Open University Press.Ochberg, R. L. (1994). Life stories and storied lives: Exploring identity and gender (A. Lieblich & R. Josselson, Eds.; 2nd ed.). Sage.Willekens, F. (2014). Multistate analysis of life histories with R. Springer. ................
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