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Conflict in Europe Essay TablesThe Collapse of Collective SecurityLoN established in 1920 relied on the principle of internationalism within a society where nations emphasised nationalism ● League structure was based on internationalism since all votes had to be unanimous → difficult to reach conclusions (power of veto) ● Aim of disarmament rested on contradiction since Article 8 stated powers must disarm at a level of consistent national safety → vague terms ● Attempts to strengthen the League failed since nations didn’t want to be involved in conflict As nations, such as Italy, Germany, Japan and Spain, endeavoured to focus on domestic affairs and reject internationalism, the League became highly out of touch with the desires of the growing European Powers and thus became unsuccessful. Collective security did not succeed in the unstable climate that was post WWI.Richard Overy: ?‘there was a growing contradiction between the existing international system and the reality of power made more dangerous by the restless political forces released by economic modernisation and the rise of mass politics.’ Never reflected the true reality of a world balance of power (US, initially Germany and USSR, and later Japan and Italy weren’t members of the League)● Nations relied on Britain and France● France and Britain had different interests even though the League relied on Anglo-French cooperation (France: strong league; Britain: flexible league)Germany joined in 1926, left in 1933. USSR joined 1934. Italy left in 1937 (after economic sanctions placed as a result of Abyssinia), 1933 Japan withdrew from the League.● League was seen as a conservative body backing the interests of established powers As nations were rejected from the league a strong distaste towards the ‘Big Four’ grew. Furthermore, the exclusion of various nations meant that any events involving those nations could not be addressed by the League and thus attempts to create collective security were restricted. As nations left to pursue domestic endeavours, expand their colonies and increase their military; the ineffectiveness of the League was demonstrated due to its inability to enforce sanctions on non-member states.Peter Raffo: “Through such events, from the departure of Germany and Japan from the League in 1933 to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 the League was tested and failed to rise to the challenge. By 1937, all heart for collective action had gone out of the league and all that was left was the failure of appeasement.”Sanctions placed on nations were largely unenforceable as the League had limited military resources to back it as a result of WWI, thus nations would disregard Leagues attempts to enforce sanctionsOctober 1935-May 1936Sanctions were restricted to reparations and military restrictions, which could be ignored, and trade restrictions. Evident in Treaty of VersaillesAbyssinia as primary example- - ?Victory in Abyssinia would be the start of the resurgence of a new Roman empire - ?Italian economists argued Abyssinia was rich in resources and would provide Italy with food and export markets - ?Historian Denis Mack Smith argued there was a political motive: ?divert people’s gaze from home discontents and to unite the nation around its common patriotism.’ - ?Italy was humiliated by Abyssinia at Battle of Adowa in 1895 - ?Convenient because it was in between two Italian colonies: Eritrea and Somaliland (also had nowhere else to colonise) Impacts - ?Proved that the concept of collective security was dead ● Hoare-Laval Plan (December 1935) showed that Britain and France would prefer to do deals with dictators than stand up Hoare-Laval Agreement > Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs/France’s PM- appeasement at its worst, without notifying Selassie, let Italy keep 60% of captured land to form “corridor for camels” ● Britain and France could have taken strong action against Italy (both had colonies near Italy’s colonies or deny Italy’s use of Suez Canal) - ?Destroyed the maintenance of the Stresa Front which was formed to stand up to the threat of Nazi Germany ● Transformed Italy from a nation willing to stand up to Hitler to one willing to become Hitler’s loyal partner ● Encouraged Hitler to behave that he could get away with acts of aggression as he marched into the Rhineland during the Abyssinian Crisis - League imposed limited sanctions ● Oil and coal weren’t included (key resources for war) ● Austria, Albania, Switzerland and Hungary refused to endorse sanctions ● Germany and USSR helped Italy - The?Abyssinia Crisis?was an?international crisis in 1935 originating in what was called the?Walwal incident in the then-ongoing conflict between the?Kingdom of Italy?and the?Empire of Ethiopia (then commonly known as "Abyssinia"). The?League of Nations?ruled against Italy and voted for economic sanctions, but they were never fully applied. Italy ignored the sanctions, quit the League, made special deals with Britain and France and ultimately established control of Abyssinia. The crisis discredited the League and moved?Fascist?Italy closer to an alliance with?Nazi Germany.Sally Marks: ?‘... the League lacked any substantial enforcement of powers, any answer to the fundamental impracticality of collective security, or any solution to the inevitable conflict between a supranational organisation and the claims of national sovereignty, which had only been rendered more strident by the war and the peace.’ Britain, France and the Policy of AppeasementAllowed military expansionRe-armament March 1835-Hitler publicly announced Germany’s military status and plans (army/Wehrmacht of 300, 000 and 2, 500 war planes/Luftwaffe). This broke the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler also introduced compulsory military conscription in Nazi Germany with an army target of 550, 000 men. In April 1935 Britain, France and Italy formed an alliance known as the Stresa Front in preparation to oppose any move by Germany to annex Austria. In May 1935, France concluded a treaty with Russia.Anglo-German Naval Agreement June 1935--Treaty of Versailles limited German navy to only six war ships over 10, 000 tons and banned any submarines. However, Germany wanted a navy to rival that of Britain’s. In June 1935, the Naval Agreement was signed. This allowed Germany to have one third of the tonnage of British navy’s surface fleet and an equal tonnage of submarines.Rhineland 1936--Mussolini’s Italy demonstrating the weakness of the League of Nations in the Abyssinia Crisis provided Hitler with confidence in implementing the first stage of his expansionist plan in the Rhineland to gain more territory, resources and demonstrate the power of a rearmed Germany under a Nazi leader. In 1936, Hitler re-militarised the Rhineland and met no opposition.William Shirer:?“To prepare secretly for war and to proceed with enough caution in foreign policy and clandestine rearmament to avoid any preventive military action against Germany by the Versailles powers—such were Hitler’s tactics during the first two years.”Facilitated the growth of European tensionsSudetenland Crisis - Chamberlain didn’t want Britain to go to war over an obscure issue in central Europe - He knew how vulnerable the British were to air attack and dreaded the prospect of German bombs falling on British homes - Chamberlain was hailed a hero for preventing another war as he assured Europe ?‘peace in our time’ - ?Czechoslovakia lost land, three million citizens, border defence and industry and mineral sources The End of Appeasement - German troops marched into the rest of Czechoslovakia after the Munich Conference - ?Bohemia-Moravia was incorporated into the Reich while Slovakia became a Nazi puppet state - Germany later seized Lithuanian port of Memel and its surrounding district - ?Mussolini annexed Albania - ?Chamberlain government was forced to abandon the policy of appeasement - Britain announced that they would formally guarantee independence of Poland ● If Germany attacked Poland, Britain would go to war with (along with Romania, Greece, Turkey and France) Anschluss March 1938--The political union of Austria and Germany demonstrated the foreign policy of ‘lebensraum’. This event was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler promoted civil unrest in the nation and German troops entered Austria to ‘restore order’, a citizen vote approved of the union.Munich Agreement September 1938/Sudetenland--Hitler demanded occupation of the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia with 3 million Germans. This conference between Germany, Britain, France and Italy resulted in Germany gaining the territory. British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, signed an agreement with Germany which outlined that the country would not gain any other territories.Occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia March 1939--Seven months following the Munich Agreement, German military occupied more of the country. Britain would not go to war over this but gave a guarantee to Poland that if that nation was invaded they would enter the conflict.Frank McDonough: ?‘Chamberlain’s worst error was to believe he could march Hitler on the yellow brick road to peace when in reality Hitler was marching very firmly on the road to war.’ Contributed to the collapse of collective securitySanctions were restricted to reparations and military restrictions, which could be ignored, and trade restrictions. Evident in Treaty of VersaillesAbyssinia as primary example- - ?Victory in Abyssinia would be the start of the resurgence of a new Roman empire - ?Italian economists argued Abyssinia was rich in resources and would provide Italy with food and export markets - ?Historian Denis Mack Smith argued there was a political motive: ?divert people’s gaze from home discontents and to unite the nation around its common patriotism.’ - ?Italy was humiliated by Abyssinia at Battle of Adowa in 1895 - ?Convenient because it was in between two Italian colonies: Eritrea and Somaliland (also had nowhere else to colonise) Impacts - ?Proved that the concept of collective security was dead ● Hoare-Laval Plan (December 1935) showed that Britain and France would prefer to do deals with dictators than stand up Hoare-Laval Agreement > Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs/France’s PM- appeasement at its worst, without notifying Selassie, let Italy keep 60% of captured land to form “corridor for camels” ● Britain and France could have taken strong action against Italy (both had colonies near Italy’s colonies or deny Italy’s use of Suez Canal) - ?Destroyed the maintenance of the Stresa Front which was formed to stand up to the threat of Nazi Germany ● Transformed Italy from a nation willing to stand up to Hitler to one willing to become Hitler’s loyal partner ● Encouraged Hitler to behave that he could get away with acts of aggression as he marched into thePeter Raffo: “Through such events, from the departure of Germany and Japan from the League in 1933 to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 the League was tested and failed to rise to the challenge. By 1937, all heart for collective action had gone out of the league and all that was left was the failure of appeasement.”Significance of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression PactSigned 23rd August 1939Prevented a two-front war until 1942–Secret protocols: ● Germany would receive western Poland and Lithuania ● USSR would receive Estonia, Latvia, Finland and Bessarabia (Romania)Due to the secret protocols, the Nazi invasion of Poland on the 1st of September 1939 occurred successfully without worry of an invasion from the East. Nations from Western Europe declared war against Germany consequently, however, if weren’t for the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Hitler would further have to be concerned with war declarations coming from the USSR. The sharing of Poland and the Nazi-Soviet Pact allowed Nazi Germany to direct their attention towards Western European Countries. On the 10th of May 1940, Hitler launched an invasion into the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France and Belgium. By the 25th of June 1940, Nazi Germany had captured Western mainland Europe.Up until the 22 June 1941, when Operation Barbarossa was launched, Nazi Germany was able to secure strong relations with Russia and prevent a two-front war. After Germany had secured a strong Western front, Barbarossa was launched on the Eastern front, breaking the Non-Aggression Pact. It wasn’t until October 1942 that Germany encountered a two-front battle.Thus, the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact was instrumental in the launching of WWII as if it were not for it, Germany would be threatened with the possibility of a two front war alike what occurred in WWI.Isaac Deutscher: “But Hitler did not rest either. Having eliminated the danger of a war on two fronts he subdued almost the whole of Europe and could then use the economic resources and labour force of a dozen countries for the purposes of the German war machine...”Soviet’s distrusted the west, gained land and had time to rearm their forcesWest couldn’t be trusted- Munich and Western vacillation throughout 1930s proven this. Britain’s guarantee to Poland was inevitable. Hope that Hitler would exhaust himself against France and Britain. A deal with Hitler would give Stalin a share of Poland and provide security buffer between Germany and Russia. Gave Russia time to rearm.Russia was excluded from alliances and proposals by major powerscontributed to Stalin’s paranoia /desperation for military expansion ‘diplomatic isolation’.Soviet Union had a lack of faith in Britain and France (due to appeasement policies)Mostly evident in Czechoslovakian crisis and following Munich ConferenceFrench refused Russian suggestion of both standing by 1935 Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance, supporting the Czechs.Allowed Hitler trade of resources and a promise that they would not force a war on two fronts if invading Poland.Stalin would also get a buffer zone and avert immediate risk of war.Richard Evans: ?“From Stalin’s perspective, it provided a respite and opened up the enticing prospect of Europe’s capitalist powers, Germany, France and Britain, and fighting a war of mutual destruction between themselves.”Trade, Nazi received money in order to fund military expansionThe first pact was an economic trade agreement, which Ribbentrop and Molotov signed on August 19, 1939.The agreement, which proved instrumental in helping Germany bypass the British blockade during the early years of World War II, committed the Soviet Union to provide food products and raw materials to Germany in exchange for products such as German machinery for the Soviet Union.The?German–Soviet Credit Agreement?(also referred to as the?German–Soviet Trade and Credit Agreement)?was an economic arrangement between?Nazi Germany and the?Soviet Union?whereby the latter received an acceptance credit of 200 million?Reichsmark?over 7 years with an effective interest rate of 4.5 percent. The credit line was to be used during the next two years for purchase of capital goods (factory equipment, installations, machinery and machine tools, ships, vehicles, and other means of transport) in Germany and was to be paid off by means of Soviet material shipment from 1946 onwards.?The economic agreement was the first step toward improvement in?relations between the USSR and Germany. This ensured Nazi powers that they would have access to raw materials that were crucial to the survival of the Nazi military and Nazi civilians. Without the security of these materials, Nazi officials would have entered the war with an uncertainty as to whether or not they could materially sustain themselves.William Carr- “At a stroke of a pen he had ended Germany's fear of a war on two fronts and in the event of an allied blockade had ensured supplies of essential raw materials from the east.”Aims and Strategy of German Foreign Policy Up Until 1939Military strengthening, rearmamentAfter the Treaty of Versailles, Germany’s military was substantially weakened and restricted. The focus of Germany’s foreign policy quickly became rearmament and military expansion. Successful attempts at military expansion and rearmament are evident in:Return of the Saar January 1935-Treaty of Versailles gave France control of the resource-rich region for 15 years. In 1935, an independent and observed area vote gave a 90% vote to re-join Germany. Germany once again had access to the richest coal basin in Europe and could continue weapon and chemical production in the industrial zone.Re-armament March 1835-Hitler publicly announced Germany’s military status and plans (army/Wehrmacht of 300, 000 and 2, 500 war planes/Luftwaffe). This broke the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler also introduced compulsory military conscription in Nazi Germany with an army target of 550, 000 men. In April 1935 Britain, France and Italy formed an alliance known as the Stresa Front in preparation to oppose any move by Germany to annex Austria. In May 1935, France concluded a treaty with Russia.Anglo-German Naval Agreement June 1935--Treaty of Versailles limited German navy to only six war ships over 10, 000 tons and banned any submarines. However, Germany wanted a navy to rival that of Britain’s. In June 1935, the Naval Agreement was signed. This allowed Germany to have one third of the tonnage of British navy’s surface fleet and an equal tonnage of submarines.Rhineland 1936--Mussolini’s Italy demonstrating the weakness of the League of Nations in the Abyssinia Crisis provided Hitler with confidence in implementing the first stage of his expansionist plan in the Rhineland to gain more territory, resources and demonstrate the power of a rearmed Germany under a Nazi leader. In 1936, Hitler re-militarised the Rhineland and met no opposition.William Shirer:?“To prepare secretly for war and to proceed with enough caution in foreign policy and clandestine rearmament to avoid any preventive military action against Germany by the Versailles powers—such were Hitler’s tactics during the first two years.”Lebensraum, Volksdeutsche, expansionismAdolf Hitler's government conducted a foreign policy aimed at the incorporation of ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) living outside German borders into the Reich; German domination of western Europe; and the acquisition of a vast new empire of "living space" (Lebensraum) in eastern Europe.Creating German control in Europe, Hitler calculated, would require war, especially in eastern Europe. The "racially inferior" Slavs would either be driven east of the Urals, enslaved, or exterminated. Besides acquiring?Lebensraum, Hitler anticipated that the "drive to the East" would destroy Bolshevism.Examples of Volksdeutsche and Lebensraum:Anschluss March 1938--The political union of Austria and Germany demonstrated the foreign policy of ‘lebensraum’. This event was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. Hitler promoted civil unrest in the nation and German troops entered Austria to ‘restore order’, a citizen vote approved of the union.Munich Agreement September 1938/Sudetenland--Hitler demanded occupation of the Sudetenland, a region of Czechoslovakia with 3 million Germans. This conference between Germany, Britain, France and Italy resulted in Germany gaining the territory. British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, signed an agreement with Germany which outlined that the country would not gain any other territories.Occupation of the rest of Czechoslovakia March 1939--Seven months following the Munich Agreement, German military occupied more of the country. Britain would not go to war over this but gave a guarantee to Poland that if that nation was invaded they would enter the conflict.Tony Joel: “the idea that German expansion in “the East” would solve its economic problems by creating Lebensraum; the importance of German expansion to ensure its status as a world power; and concern that starting a conflict with Poland invariably would embroil Germany in war with France and Britain.”Rejection of internationalismForeign Policy- Rejection of international agreements and treaties, only favouring with nations for strategy and protection of Germany’s interests (Rome-Berlin Axis and Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact).From 1933–1938, Konstantin von Neurath, a conservative career diplomat, served as German foreign minister. During his tenure, Germany followed a revisionist policy aimed at overcoming the restrictions imposed on Germany by the?Treaty of Versailles?and seizing the diplomatic initiative from Britain and France.Germany withdrew from the League of Nations; began rapid rearmament; signed a nonaggression pact with Poland; reacquired the Saar territory through a plebiscite; militarily assisted the supporters of Francisco Franco in the?Spanish Civil War; and remilitarized the Rhineland.Rejecting internationalism allowed Nazi Germany to promote nationalist ideologies.Germany joined in 1926, left in 1933.Sally Marks: “A rejection of internationalism was at the core of Nazi foreign policy. The Nazi party wanted to dissociate themselves from those who crippled the nation post WWI.”Social and Economic Effects of the War in Britain, Germany and the Soviet UnionEconomicBritainAs well as tax increases.- Wealthy could obtain goods from black market + those who grew supplies- 1938-1944 cost of living rose 50%, weekly earnings rose 80% (black market, gambling)Battle for AtlanticPrevented commoditiesRation booklet for all citizens: money + relevant coupon = productAffluent citizens complained most > poorer classes had access to food at fixed priceE.g. butter, sugar, petrol, clothes in 1941 (66 annual coupons)Bread, alcohol, and tobacco weren’t (Morale)Introduction of initiatives by Minister of Food (Lord Woolton) to control/boost moraleThe Kitchen Front – BBC radio program, how to make rations into recipesVictory garden concept > vegies weren’t rationedBy 1942, 1.4m flower beds converted to victory gardensPropagandised characters like Potato Pete and Dr. Carrot to rely on these Food rationing began in January 1940 for butter, bacon and sugar -?Other food were added to the ration list (e.g. tea, margarine, fats, jam) - In December 1941 a points a system was introduced which gave each person 16 points to ‘spend’ at any shop on the items they wanted - Ministry of Food exhorted people to try substitute foods such as carrot tart, American Spam and whale meat - Eggs were rare as many chickens had been killed - Average egg ration was one egg a fortnight - From July 1942 dried eggs appeared - People were exhorted to grow vegetables → ‘Dig for Victory’ - Exotic products like chocolate became highly valued - Tobacco and alcohol were not rationed by trading hours were limited - Clothes were rationed - Utility clothes were created- clothes that didn’t have frills or any extravagances - ‘Make Do and Mend’ encouraged women to reuse their garments and make other articles of clothing -?Nylon stockings were difficult to get so women resorted to drawing a line up the back of their legs to give the impression of a stocking seam - Black markets were thriving for people to barter goods GermanyRationing & Government controls Food was already scarce, so they implemented a 4-week ration card creating flexibility in the food supply. Different people were given different proportions depending on how important they were:Normal consumers= 2570 calories per day Heavy workers= 4652 calories per dayFood rationing was generous in Germany compared to Britain, but issues arose due to the unfair nature f the distribution of food. The War Economy Decree on the 4th of September met resistance in the population as it:Compulsory Sunday work Wage freezes Cut overtime rates Increased taxes During 1942 there was a lack of heating, fuel and school closures. Nazis dreaded cutting rations and on 6th April 1942 all were cut by 250grams of bread and 150grams of meat however it was soon reversed. Nothing much changed the rest of the war bread rations actually increased from 1940 to 1944. When the war began only 200,000 Jews remained in Germany and were increasingly restricted in their activity. In 41’ deportation to death camps began. New laws were implemented to ensure defeatism or dissent to the Nazis was destroyed. It was a crime to listen to foreign radio and spread the Wests news.*Rationing/shortages*- Ration cards printed in 1937, issued in August 1939. Food + clothes.- Black market emerged as it did in Britain.- In Britain, tobacco and alcohol wasn’t rationed to keep up morale. In Germany, tobacco was expensive, and breweries were producing grain alcohol as an alternate fuel source rather than for consumption.- Shortages were evident as German territory shrank and Allied disruption worsened.- Farmers refused to give crops to authorities > sold to townspeople > class divide- Situation was never as critical as WWI autarky, Rhineland etc.Soviet Union- Other industrial areas were within range of German bombers - Stalin’s solution to the problem was mass migration eastwards of factories, plant, machines and workers● Government moved over 1500 industrial enterprises eastwards beyond the Ural mountains out of range of German bombersOver 10 million workers accompanied this move● Complete factories were stripped down, taken east and rebuilt● Conditions in the east were exceptionally tough since Soviet workers had to cope with a lack of food, freezing temperatures and a 16-19 hour working days ● Discipline was strict - The Soviet produced what could only be described as an economic miracle since factories during the war produced ● 135 000 aircraft ● 500 000 guns and 100 000 tanks ●?3500 new industrial enterprises were built - ?Soviet industry worked on principles of simplicity and tight rationalisation - ?From mid-1942, Soviet industry helped with inflow of aid from US under the Lend Lease Scheme Arthur Marwick: ?‘... The struggle for civilians survival at home initiated lasting social changes. Experience of the Blitz, food shortages, and lack of clothing ensured that Great Britain emerged from this war a very different type of society, with a new emphasis on social equality.’ Richard Overy: ?‘... for the Soviet people as they struggled to come to terms with life in an economy where there was little left over for civilians once the forces were equipped and fed. Theirs was an exceptional, brutal form of total war.’ SocialBritainDramatic fall in crime ● 1939-1945: 787 000- 467 000 offences ●?Drunkenness in 1945 was 40% of the 1939 level - Concern on moral standards ● Increase in promiscuity and premarital sex ● In the last year of war, over 70 000 illegitimate children were born - Gratitude was felt towards the Americans - Deep resentment towards the Americans since they had more money, smarter uniform and were ‘taking our women - Violence between British and American soldiers was common - By the end of the war, 60 000 British women had married American servicemen *Role of women* - point of contrast between countriesARMED SERVICESUsed to free men for armed service, perform auxiliary roles.Women’s Voluntary Service (1938) – in war, ran bombsite field kitchens, evacs, support services in sheltersNational Service (No. 2) Act conscripted single/childless widows 20-30 for military service.By 1943 (conscription age lowered to 19) > 90% of single and 80% married women employed in essential workMany joined branches of army to perform non-combat roles: radar op, welders.DOMESTIC ECONOMY1/3 of workforce in metal/chemical industries, shipbuilding, vehicle manufacturePay rate still roughly half.End of 1942, 10m women 19-50 registered for war work.Women’s Land Army (1939) engaged in farm workGermanyDifferent to Britain: women took on some workforce roles but were primarily domestic according to Nazi racial philosophy/policyIncrease in workforce: 11.4m (33) 14.8m (39). Made up 37% of workforce at outbreak.Allowances given to families in armed forces > women lost 45% of this allowance if they were working > disincentive to work! (but even though 300k left, still were lots)Primary role of Aryan women to have children cultural rejection of women in workSpeer wished to recruit more female labour, but employers preferred hiring POW which could be paid less (racially inferior)Speer – “Sauckel laid great weight on the danger that factory work might have upon German womanhood”Army called for compulsory labour Nazis went “nah”Women asked to volunteer instead women went “nah”Class divide inherentWorking class women beared the burden of necessary work 3m women registered > 50% worked part-time because of family commitmentsNew roles – traditionally ‘female’ until urgency of situation required changes this had impacts on traditional ideas of family structureBurleigh – “Redefinition of the family…neither wives nor adolescent children prepared to subordinate themselves to the returning father”1939: Wehrmacht employed 160k women (secretaries, cooks, cleaners etc.)From 1943, newer roles.By end of war, 50k women involved in anti-aircraft defence op. (not shooting though)30k were searchlight operators.Overy – “A popular myth that German women were not recruited to war work… Women in Germany played a major part in keeping the war effort going.”Soviet Union- ?The Soviet Union comprised of multinational groups - The Ukraine’s in particular suffered enormously under Stalin during the collectivisation of agriculture as he attempted to have all signs of national Ukrainian identity eliminated - ?Stalin was concerned about these groups’ loyalties towards the Soviet Union when Germans invaded - ?German treatment of these groups grew savage as it was towards ordinary Russians - ?Nationalities soon saw Stalin as the lesser evil to Hitler - ?Germans living in Leningrad and other cities were quickly deported to the east - ?When Red Army liberated areas taken by Germans, Stalin ordered deportation east of entire national groups Effects of the War on the Communist Party - 1941-1945: great increase in membership due to 5 million new candidate members -?By end of the war, half of the Communist Party membership was in the armed forces -?Military element within the party had been modest before 1941 - Party members with technical skills were held back from the army - Extremities of the wartime experience established a close bond between the newer members and the party -?Partisan groups, bands of irregular guerrilla fighters, fought the Germans, often behind enemy line - Some partisan groups remained beyond state control for years after the war Isaac Deutscher: ?‘Stalin artificially boosted the nationalist emotion as a matter of policy... Hosts of propagandists followed him with a grotesquely immoderate glorification of Russia’s imperial past.’Alan Jenkins: ?‘... The shelter life was normal for thousands of people... The word ‘togetherness’ had not yet been invented, but this was it... By Christmas 1941, thousands of Londoners were leading an astonishingly cheerful troglodyte existence underground.’ Burleigh: “Redefinition of the family…neither wives nor adolescent children prepared to subordinate themselves to the returning father”PoliticalBritain- ?In 1941, Minister of Labour Bevin brought in the Essential Works Order ● Placed essential workers (e.g. railway employees), under government control → total war Propaganda, Censorship and the Media - ?Ministry of Information under John Reith controlled amount and nature of information to British people - ?Involved: ● Censoring soldiers’ letters home ● Pushing anti-German message in billboard posters ● Encouraging people to be careful what they said in case ‘spies’ might be listening - ?Churchill believed it was better to tell people the truth - ?Radio was key disseminator of government information and propaganda - ?Some posters aimed to grow their own food and save waste (difficult to import food during wartime) - ?Also used to encourage women to work and participate in the war effort - ?Posters were used to maintain high morale and spirit - ‘Wings for Victory’- Blitz (pilots in the Battle of Britain) -?‘Careless Talk Costs Lives- Be like Dad, keep Mum!’ - keep quiet, there might be spies -?‘Keep mum, she’s not so dumb!’ - there might be spies - ‘Never was so much owed by so many to so few.’- Battle of Britain pilots - ‘Is your journey really necessary.’- stop people from taking up railways (used railway for goods and troops) * Government control *WAR LEGISLATION- National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1940: men 18-40 available for conscription. Increased to 51 in 1941End of 1940, 1.5m had volunteered/were conscripted.- Treacheries Act 1940: defined forms of sedition/treason- Emergency Powers Act 1940: gave power for gov to conscript workers into essential war industries (e.g. steel/textiles)Women with children <14 were exempt.20k+ men not called up for Service were employed in mines.- Essential Works Order 1941: specific industries under government control > ‘total war’ thinking beganIndustries included railways, aircraft production, munitions.PROPAGANDAMinistry of Information (MOI) controlled communication, media, entertainment, culture.- British Broadcasting Commission (BBC) was an outlet. - 23 transmitters, 4k workers inc. to 11.5k by 1944.- News was read factually as part of total war atmosphere – “keep the people determined, not demoralised” – Churchill- Live entertainment in workforce > amateurs, unpaid > nationalism and bonding- Public cinema for propaganda > themes of patriotism, heroism, sacrifice, determination.Germany*Government control and Nazi ideology*BUSINESS AS USUAL V TOTAL WARFirst strategy maintained morale believed to be a quick warRigid government control of industrial resources maintainedWomen weren’t mobilised > used to satisfy domestic policies, withdrawn from workforce at start of war.February 1943: shift to ‘total war’ (Winter defeats of 1942-43 and Operation Uranus)Sportpalast speech Goebbels – “total war means a shorter war”More extreme policies – economy, repression, propagandaAlbert Speer made Armaments Minister policy of rationalisation increased weapons production.PROPAGANDAEver present due to Goebbels. Boosted deteriorating morale.Mehr Sein Als Schein (Be more than you appear to be) > self-relianceWehrmacht’s profile > cinemas still showed Riefenstahl films.REPRESSION/TERRORUnique to Germany.Police-terror state, SS and Gestapo paranoia. This assured no opposition became much more radicalised over the course of the war.Night and Fog Decree (Sep 1941): arrest and detain without trialBy 1945, 714k Germans were in concentration camps for political crimesSoviet UnionSoviet Propaganda and Religious Policy - ?Propaganda took on a strictly patriotic and virulently anti-German tone ● Mentioning of socialism, the Party and Lenin was kept to an absolute minimum ●?Soviet people had become brothers and sisters, children of ‘mother Russia’ ● Stalin made sure he was being associated with great Russian heroes of the past (e.g. Peter the Great, General Kutuzov) ● Strong anti-German themes were developed ● The party paper ‘Pravda’ stated: ?‘May holy hatred become our chief, our only feeling’ ● Poems and plays promoted feelings of hatred and revenge - ?Russian cinema had a smaller output than its equivalent in Britain or the US ● 70% of Soviet films had wartime themes with a focus on resistance partisan groups attacking Germans and emphasis on heroines (e.g. ?‘She defends the motherland.’?) - ?Religious policy ●?Church schools were allowed to reopen and give religious instruction ●?Trainee priests were allowed to train in seminaries ●?League of Militant Atheists was closed down ●?Anti-religious propaganda almost disappeared; churches opened ●?In 1943, Stalin allowed the election of a new patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church ● October 1943: ‘Central Direction of Muslims’ was established to prevent German efforts to gain Muslim support - ?Arts presented strong patriotic themes ● AA Fadeev’s ?‘Leningrad in the Days of the Blockade’ Pinson – “Goebbels’ propaganda machine began to turn from the motif of master race…to that of a battle for survival” [of post-Stalingrad Germany]Isaac Deutscher: ?‘Stalin artificially boosted the nationalist emotion as a matter of policy... Hosts of propagandists followed him with a grotesquely immoderate glorification of Russia’s imperial past.’ GDH Cole: ?‘... In the period that began with May 10, the history of the British common people cannot be separated from that of all the nation. The unity so frequently promised or appealed to in politicians’ speeches was some time a reality.’ BombsBritain*Impacts of the Blitz*Evacuation (psychological)Early war was met with fear of bombings.1.5m child evacuees sent to smaller towns/countryside (1/09/40)Strain of family separation led to 60% families returning children when bombs had not fallen yet2 May 1945-March 1946 – London Return Plan > individual case decisions, some didn’t want to return, some orphaned.At end, 5200 children still not returned home.BlackoutsIntroduced 1/09/39 to prevent light showing in windows to guide German bombersARP (Air-Raid Precaution) wardens enforced restrictionsLed to many deaths: Sep-Dec 1939 4133 deaths on British roads [100% increase from 1938] (vehicles could only operate with slits of light through blackout covers)CasualtiesMost of Britain’s major cities were bombed in 1940 + 41 incl. Coventry (14-15/11/40)30k incendiary bombs60k of 75k dwellings were destroyed/damaged > massive loss of lifeBlitz resulted in 43500 civilian deaths.By end of war: 62k civilians killed (49% in London); 86k seriously wounded.Not until 1943 that enemy had killed more soldiers than civilians.Shelter- Based on class- Rich: ‘funk hotels’ outside of cities- Poor: ‘trekkers’ would leave cities each night and return to work in morning (only 2k of Clydeside’s 47k population were sleeping there)- Government provided shelters for those who couldn’t leave e.g. Morrison shelter (indoors, could double as table, steel cage with solid top) and Anderson shelter- Inconvenience and rising sense of fatalism- November 1940: 27% of 3.2m Londoners were using shelters- Government set up public shelter in the Tube (underground railways). 120k people a night stayed here.- 2.25m made homeless Sep 1940-May 1941 (2/3 in London).Germany*Impact of bombing*EVACUATIONSimilar to Britain.By 1943, 300k children had been sent away. Class differences were evident even in Germany (rich had some control about where they went)HOWEVER, German kids would often go to Nazi-run youth camps.As bombing intensified, there were lots of refugees > much more extreme than in Britain, people would live in the Black Forest.SHELTER- Above-ground shelters and bunkers constructed in major cities by 1940Bombing of Cologne in 1942 death toll was only 460 bc there were 500 public shelters (75k people).By end of war, 4m homes destroyed, 12m left homeless.DEATHS/EFFECT (also look at 2.2)Total: 750k German civilians killed vs. 50k British civilians.Richard Overy: “War production was affected by direct bomb attack and by the diversion of resources…Post-war surveys of German morale showed that 91% of Germans believed that bombing was the hardest thing for civilians to endure during the war.”Alan Jenkins: ?‘... The shelter life was normal for thousands of people... The word ‘togetherness’ had not yet been invented, but this was it... By Christmas 1941, thousands of Londoners were leading an astonishingly cheerful troglodyte existence underground.’ The Nature and Effects of the Holocaust in Nazi Occupied TerritoriesThe Final SolutionWhile still victorious (INTENTIONALIST) 31/07/41: Goring sends a message to Heydrich to plan mass killing > mobile gas vansWansee Conference (20/01/42) Heydrich > plans to work the Jews to death and kill the “…remaining…in the quickest way possible”Hitler (at meeting 22/02/42): “we shall regain our health by eliminating the Jews”Posen Conference (6/10/43): Himmler – “Gas will be used. We will exterminate this Jewish bacteria before it kills us all.”Camps (33-45)Concentration and Labour CampsExtermination CampsRetrain political enemies, work to death undesirables (for war effort)Dachau (33), network by 42.Himmler’s ‘Death Hand’ units ran the camps > torture, disease, experiments, sanitation40 labour camps existed in Germany and Poland aloneSpecific purpose killingChelmno was the first in 41 > Treblinka, Auschwitz in 42Auschwitz-Birkenau had 2 sections, larget: killed 8k daily, 4m+ between 41-44.“At Auschwitz we found…umbrellas and lampshades made from human skin.”DEATH TOLLRacial killingsPolitical and social killings6m Jews (3m Polish Jews)1.2m Serbs 200-800k Romani200-300k disabled people100k communists25k homosexual men5k Jehovah’s WitnessesThe Final Solution - ?Jews were herded into cattle trucks that were sealed, crowded and stifling in the summer and freezing in the winter - ?Trainloads of cattle trucks might take days to reach a place like Auschwitz - ?Bodies of those already dead would have to be removed first - ?Lined up, they would receive a cursory examination from an SS doctor ● Those who were believed they could work would be gestured to one side ● Those who aren’t able to work would be gassed immediately - ?Forced to undress, they would be ordered to line up and take their turn in the delousing shower - ?Small children were sometimes tossed over people’s heads - ?When they were gassed, Jewish ‘volunteer prisoners would extract bodies from the chamber and taken to the crematoria - ?Any gold fillings and remaining jewellery were extracted from bodies - ?Human hair was shaved off and can be turned into a blanket - ?All possession were kept to reuse - ?Dr Josef Mengele conducted medical experiments on prisoners - ?They might be injected with diseases to trace the progress of infection, or subjected to intense cold or air pressure - ?Twin experiments would also be conducted William Shirer: ?‘The Jews and the Slavic peoples were the Untermenschen- subhumans. To Hitler they had no right to live, except as some of them, among the Slavs, might be needed to toil in the fields and the mines as slaves of their German masters.’ Discrimination and SegregationThe conquest of Poland presented the Nazis what with to do with Poland’s estimated 3 million Jews In November 1939, it was compulsory for Polish Jews to wear the yellow Star of David A month earlier, Jews from Austria and Moravia were sent to Poland - ?In 1940, ghettos were set up in Polish cities such as Warsaw - ?Thousands of people were crammed into very small areas Food supplies were poor, medical facilities non-existent and thousands died from starvation and disease - ?Warsaw Ghetto contained 450 000 people Ghettoes (40-45): held before shipped to various campsWarsaw from 40-43 (380k) and Lodz (160k)Warsaw contained 30% of city’s population, but 2.4% of the spaceOperation Reinhard Was the Mass deportation of Polish Jews in Ghettos to death camps. The liquidation of the ghettos and their occupants began in October 1941 and continued till November 1943. It is estimated that during this time 2 million Jews were sent from Ghettos to Belsec, Sobibor or Treblinka.GhettosThe earliest ghettos in Poland were established in October 1939. They were small walled off areas of a city designated for Jews. They had little supplies, disease was rife, and many died. The ghettos made it easier for the transportation of Jews to death camps. Began with 337,000 Jews (29% of the total population of Warsaw). By March 1941 there were half a million Jews in an area 3.5squarekm Warsaw ghetto historian Emanuel Ringelblum wrote in 1942, “Even in the most barbaric times, a human spark glowed in the rudest heart, and children were spared. But the Hitlerian beast is quite different. It would devour the dearest of us, those who arouse the greatest compassion—our innocent children.”Increasing violence- The western regions of Russia were inhabited by millions of Jews - The SS units called the Einsatzgruppen (formed in 1939) were killing squads tasked to seek Jews and systematically kills them - Throughout the second half of 1941, tens of thousands of Jews were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen - On one occasion in September, 33 000 people were killed in one ‘action’ at Babi Yar near Kiev - The shooting activities of the Einsatzgruppen were inefficient, time-consuming and ‘distressing’ for those taking part Einsatzgruppen (41-43)Elite SS units > widespread murder of racial undesirables and political enemies1.6m Jews were murdered in open-air shootings before development of camp system, 100k per month for first 5 monthsKristallnacht- 9th-10th November they arrested victims, around 30,000 Jewish men aged 16-60 were arrested. Concentration camps Dachau, Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen were expanded to fit the new prisoners. Firefighters were told to only intervene in fires if it threatened adjacent Aryan property. After 2 days and nights 1,000 synagogues were burned, 7,500 Jewish Businesses looted, 91 Jews killed, Vandalism of Jewish homes, cemeteries, schools and hospitals. Kristallnacht marked the end of any potential for Jews to safely co-exist in Germany while the Right-wing rhetoric was so heavily present. All Jewish claims for compensation were blocked by the government. Jews were forced to clear the rubble and damage and the Jewish community were given a collective fine of $1 billion Reichsmarks.Ian Kershaw: ?‘Hitler had raised hopes which encouraged pressure for radical action from his subordinates. That the hope could be fulfilled less easily than anticipated then simply fanned the flames, encouraging the frantic quest for an ultimate solution.’ Conflict in Europe Battle Essay PlansSeptember 1st 1939 until May 8th 1945GERMAN ADVANCES: THE FALL OF POLAND, THE LOW COUNTRIES AND FRANCE Poland- 1 Sep 1939 – 6 Oct 1939Lowlands- 10 May 1940 - 28 May 1940France- 10 May 1940 – 25 June 1940The Blitzkrieg Tactic ExemplifiedBlitzkrieg ‘Lightning War’. This strategy was developed by General Heinz Guderian and involves a rapid series of simultaneous attacks and involves infantry, tanks, aircraft and airborne troops. During stage one the Luftwaffe (air force) would obliterate predetermined targets with ongoing sweeps of saturation bombing. During stage two, tanks (panzers) would close off all road networks leading to the target, thus trapping anyone inside. Lastly, the Wehrmacht (army) and airborne troops would work in conjunction with panzer units to capture enemy soldiers or civiliansThis technique would catch opposition off guard and caused maximum damage, with this ultimately being the reason for the success of early German advancesIn conjunction with Russian forces advancing from the East, Polish forces rapidly collapsed to Nazi powers. Strike force in excess of one million troops, 2400 tanks, 1400 aircraft and more than 10000 artillery pieces. Soviet Union launched its invasion through the Baltic states on the 17th of September. Two large military forces with innovative tactics ultimately destroyed Poland, with Warsaw being bombed until the country has been capturesLuftwaffe blitz tactic largely allowed for capture of Belgium and NetherlandsPanzers IV made their way through the Ardennes, a tactic an approach not seen before in conflict as the region was considered ‘impenetrable’. Area not protected by the French Maginot line and thus Nazi forces were met with minimal initial resistance. 46 divisions of tanks, artillery and infantry along with 300 bulldozers and tractorsTechnique of Sichelschnitt (sick cut) separated Maginot line forces, diminishing their collective power Lebensraum/Foreign PolicyThe foreign policy of lebensraum was exemplified as Nazi Germany powers gained land on the European mainland and furthermore gained the colonies of occupied nations. By the time France was captures, Hitler had occupied nine European countries with several others (Italy, Spain and Russia) having agreements with him. Britain remained the only isolated free nationThe win of these nations allowed Nazi forces to gain industry, population and land (lebensraum). Gained colonial powers in AfricaNazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact signed 23rd of August 1939 between Molotov and Ribbentrop- prevented a two-front war until 1942 (October, El Alamein). Ensured the success of Polish invasion as USSR would receive Eastern Poland and aid with the invasionGerman-Soviet Credit Agreement August 19th, 1939 (predecessor to NSNAP). Provided Nazi with 200 million Reichsmark over 7 years. Used effectively until the launch of Barbarossa in June 1941 for the purchase of military equipment, ships, vehicles, machinery and tools. Prevented a blockade from occurring, alike what happened to Germany in WWI. Allowed for re-armament of Germany and for their military to be increased- thus allowing for more successful strategies and numbersThe war in the East/Access to the English ChannelThrough both the blitzkrieg method and German foreign policy, Nazi powers could optimise their impact and their success in the course of WWIIGermany allowed themselves to focus on the war in the West whilst keeping Russian forces at bay, that is until the launch of Operation Barbarossa in June of 1941Germany gained access to the English Channel with intent to establish air and naval supremacy in order to launch Operation Sealion- however, this was not a success as the 1940 July-September Battle of Britain become the first Allied victory in the course of WWII. Securing these nations allowed Germany to divert his attention to the war in the East as attempts to capture Britain failedThe main goal of preventing a two-front war was successful up until 1942 as Nazi powers could focus on the Eastern and Western front at separate timesTHE AIR WAR AND ITS EFFECTS: THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ, THE BOMBING OF GERMANY Battle of Britain- 10 Jul 1940 – 7 September 1940The Blitz- 7 Sep 1940 – 16 May 1941Bombing of Germany- 25 August 1940 – 21 April 1945Technological ImpactUse of radar technology, provided significant gains for the British and allowed them to essentially win the Battle of Britain as Luftwaffe could be detected before they struckDowding System (created in 1935), provided Britain with significant advantage when used in conjunction with radar, first technology to combine defences and was revolutionary in regard to military communicationHeinkel, Dornier, Stukas and Messerschmitt (BF109E) G, Supermarine Spitfighters and Hurricanes B became faster and capable of fighting for longer periods of time, thus influencing the extent of impact air battles had. Aircraft was faster and could fly furtherBlitzkrieg tactic successful and German access to French coastline and British Channel made it strategically easierV1 and V2 rockets, significant impact on Britain during 1944/1945 air raids, caused mass damage to citiesIts Failure allowed for a war in the East and impacted the success of Nazi powersThe success of Blitzkrieg on citizensBritain’s win of Battle of Britain prevents Operation Sealion from occurring, (G establishment of French coastline was essential for Bombing) however the Blitz occurred following thisThe Blitz allowed Germany to keep Britain at Bay and prevent an invasion into France, thus allowing Germany to pursue a war in the East and launch Barbarossa in June 1941However, El Alamein (23rd October 1942) and Italy’s Greek invasion occurred, Germany became stretched across two fronts (with the Blitz acting as a third stretch of resources), thus contributing to the loss of WWIIAlso allowed Britain to develop their artillery as air bases were no longer being targetedNo treaty or surrender of Britain left the nation to be a continuously targeted region throughout the war. Blitz and continues bombings acted as a means to prevent the development of a second front in WWII, however, the Blitz just became a drainage on Nazi resources. Germany was ultimately unable to secure the Western, Eastern and Northern front due to a resource stretchHistorian James Holland "[The Battle of Britain] is unquestionably one of the key turning points," Holland says. "It confines Germany to a long, attritional war on multiple fronts that they can’t ultimately win."The First Allied Victory enabled the final successBombing of Germany gave Allied air superiority in 1944, this was needed for D-Day (Operation Overlord, launched 6th June 1944), additionally the success of D-Day stretched Germany onto a third frontArea-bombings of military bases inhibited German artillery from sustaining itself with already stretched resources, additionally the liberation of France allowed for the Allies to have easier access to deeper German key sitesBombing in east Germany aided the Russian counter-offensive (1944-45), making it easier for them to enclose on BerlinSuccessful support during D-Day landing, re-opening the third front. Subsequent liberation of France allowed for deeper bombing and access to key German sitesLend-Lease scheme (1941), provided the British Royal Air Force with military and air support from American. Enhanced Allies ability to inflict damage on German bases. In 1944, tactics on the bombing of Germany were altered as long-range escort fighters would distract the Luftwaffe whilst American aircraft would use the tactic of area-bombing in a more precise manner. In early 1944, the Allies had established air supremacy over Germany which allowed for Operation Overlord to be launched on the 6th of June 1944. Area bombings of military, civilians and valuable sites could be used to a greater degree of accuracy as Allies went through the mainland of Europe and thus Nazi troops were unable to replenish military suppliesAaron PegramOPERATION BARBAROSSA, THE BATTLE OF STALINGRAD AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGNOperation Barbarossa- 22 June 1941 – 5 December 1941Battle of Stalingrad- 23 August 1942 – 2 February 1943Fighting a war on two fronts/weather limited the resources available to Nazi powersLaunched after Britain failure in an attempt to gain lebensraum, slave labour and supremacy in the East and Europe. Three groups- north for Leningrad, centre for Moscow and south for Kiev and Ukrainian grain belt and later Stalingrad and the Caucasus Between 1939 and May 1944, over 32000 air attacks were launching against Britain, thus limiting the Luftwaffe access and resources in the Soviet Union, particularly a restriction during Barbarossa as Germany had lost the Battle of Britain and continued bombings in an attempt to prevent Britain from launching an invasion onto Europe’s mainlandBarbarossa- Primary goal was Moscow, the capital. Operation Taifun launched by Centre group in October, however, as winter approached the German tanks and entire Wehrmacht were not ready. Resources were restricted as 750000 men died during the 1941-42 winter. Tanks were immobile and there was insufficient clothing and food, with resupplying of troops being difficult given the weather conditions and the Red Army’s air-craft crew being prepared for the Luftwaffe, which was already restricted as a consequence of Britain bombings. Centre group surrendered in June 1942Nazi resources were further restricted by Russia’s scorched earth policy, which made any material gains redundant and non-existentStalingrad- The battle of El Alamein on the 23rd on October 1942 led to a stretch of resources as the Afrika Korps attempted to maintain its colonies/gain Egypt and German General Erwin Rommel was not present in Russia, one of the strongest members of the German army. Despite Germany (Army group A) gaining the Caucasus, Russia’s scorched earth policy prevented Nazi powers form gaining any material or oil. The decision to send Army Group B to Stalingrad further restricted access to resources as B and A were separated by the Red Army at the Volga RiverUnited Russia with the Allied forcesThe breaking of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact led to Russia no longer being a Nazi allyThis ultimately led to the Tehran conference. 28 November – 1 December 1943. Which was held with Joseph Stalin, Franklin D Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. Within this conference, Operation Overlord was planned, as was the United Nations, the division of Germany and the Soviet’s involvement in the war in the PacificThese plans ultimately led to the collapse of Nazi powers in the Eastern and Western front and organised the Nuremberg TrialsBagration and Overlord were coordinated attacks which saw the demise of Nazi powers across all fronts as a result of the Stalin Ally unionPrecursor to the Russian counter offensive which ultimately led to the collapse of Nazi Powers in the EastThese events became an impetus for the Soviet Union launching Bagration in conjunction with OverlordAs the Siberian forces joined the Red Army, their half a million men advanced with an initial aim to recapture Ukraine and Crimea. Bagration was launched on 22nd June 1944, after the success of Overlord. This was a large strain on Nazi Powers as by July German forces were being driven out of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. This threatened German food supplies and links to Sweden and Finland. Poland was entered into in July, with Lvov being liberated within less than a fortnight. In August, Polish resistance groups began an uprising against forces, Warsaw Rising August-October 1944. In mid-September, advancements were made towards Warsaw. In October, Germans evacuated sending over 200000 Poles into concentration camps and destroyed everything on their way. Battle of Berlin began on the 16th of April 1945 as Russia had continued through HungaryBATTLE OF EL ALAMEIN AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONFLICT IN NORTH AFRICA TO THE EUROPEAN WAR El Alamein- 23 October 1942 – 11 November 1942Created a third front in the European conflict that ultimately weakened Germany and spread out their resourcesFirst battle in early 1942 stopped German advancement in Egypt and led to stalemateBattle of Stalingrad and continued bombings over Britain were occurring during the beginning of the Battle of El Alamein, thus adding a third front for needed resources which created strains on the Eastern and Western front. Five hundred Nazi tanks and 100000 men were used in the battle. In the span of three days 350 tanks and 15000 troops were lostIn May 1943, the Afrika Korps ultimately surrendered, not long after German forces had already lost the battle of StalingradContributed to the restraints occurring in Russia, Army group A and B of the Southern division had been split and the Red Army was making advancementsWas a large allied victoryAllied victory allowed for invasion into Southern Italy and thus the end of the German-Italy alliancePerhaps the most significant aspect of the Allied victory in El Alamein was that it led to Allied forces launching an invasion through Italy and end the alliance between Germany and ItalyOn the 9th of July 1943, American, UK and Canadian troops launched an invasion into Sicily. Subsequently, Operation Avalanche and Baytown were launched onto the mainland of Italy on the 3rd of September. Allied forces safely captured the South of Italy by the 17th of SeptemberIt took the Allies 20 months to reach the North of Italy. They persisted North until the collapse of Nazi powers, this became a persisting third frontHowever, it was still a significant gain as Germany had lost one of its most significant allies and had further lost crucial access to the Mediterranean Italy surrendered on the 8th of September 1943. The Armistice of Cassibile was signed on the day of Allied invasion and made public laterContributed to the collapse of the Eastern frontWhilst forces were in El Alamein, the battle of Stalingrad occurredNazi powers ultimately lost this battle, largely to a lack of resources, Bagration was launched in 1944 which drove Nazi powers out of the East as they did not have the supplies to sustain itself. Battle of Stalingrad on 23rd of August 1942 lasted until February of 1943, thus Nazi resources were consistently spread across multiple frontsGermany’s loss in the Battle of Stalingrad minimised their ability to advance through Russia and Russia’s scorched earth policy minimised the use of any obtained resourcesContinues to minimise Nazi resources in Italy, Germany lost a large ally and sent a large portion of their military resources to attempt to secure and occupy the North of Italy, they largely with held their position but at a large cost to the Eastern front, particularly when Bagration was launched in June 1944‘D’ DAY AND THE LIBERATION OF FRANCE D Day- 6 June 1944Liberation of Paris- 19 – 25 August 1944Led to the fall of Nazi powers in the West whilst Russia made its way through the East, allowing for the final defeatThe?allied attack?D Day 6th June and Soviet attack?Bagration 22nd June was a coordinated campaign- result from?Tehran Conference 1943 Success of D Day can be?contributed to the involvement?of the USA- led to?military dominance on the western frontA true third front became open with D DayOperation Bagration significantly contributed to the success of D Day and allied victory?as it helped with the depletion of German supplies, troops & morale on all fronts, resulting in the growth of allied superiorityUltimately, D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of Germany, where they halted as agreed upon with Russia. This closed Germany in at all sides. Their one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had established European supremacyAllied air superiority was consolidated as a result of D Day and Soviet army size/?numbers provided the manpower necessary to launch an attack over such a vast areaThe established air superiority allowed waves of Luftwaffe to be combated to a greater extent and further enhanced the ability of the RAF and US pilots to launch ‘area-bombings’, particularly evident in DresdenStretched German forces across three fronts, ultimately inhibiting their ability to winD Day was the beginning of a true third frontTheir one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had established European supremacyLuftwaffe, tanks, artillery and troops were required across the Eastern, Northern and Western front, a reality that could not be sustained by Nazi forcesJune 6th- D Day. June 23rd Bagration was launched. The coordinated attacks ensured Nazi troops were encircled whilst bombings of Rome took place up until June 5th as Allied captured Rome on the 4th. Bombings became concentrated in Bologna, Italy which was not captured until April 1945The Baltic regions in the East, with valuable oil, were lost from Nazi powers, as Poland was gradually closed in onResources were used to transport prisoners. Warsaw was closed in July 1944. Troops accompanied 4500 prisoners on a death march to Kutno and then transported to DachauProvided Allied forces with the access to the main land of Europe that was necessary to liberate the nation and camps in France, Belgium and the NetherlandsLiberation of France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands diminished Nazi lebensraum and resources gained from those regions, inhibiting any ability to gain access to aidUltimately, D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of Germany, where they halted as agreed upon with Russia. This closed Germany in at all sides. Their one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had established European supremacyThis contributed to the diminishment of German military and allowed for Allied forces to advance through the lowlands and free FranceLiberation of camps, such as Natzweiler-Sruthof (22000 deaths at this concentration camp) and Guts (internment camp). This uncovered and exposed Germany's racial policy (extent of anti-Semitism, death and concentration camps) to the rest of the world, therefore to complete the defeat of Germany, not only militarily, the Allies needed to also ideologically defeat Germany- Nuremberg War Crimes Trials- 20th November 1945Nuremberg- Of the 185?people?indicted in the subsequent?Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional 77?people?received prison terms of varying lengthsRUSSIAN COUNTER-OFFENSIVES 1944 Bagration- 23 June – 19 August 1944Weakened German forces, allowing for greater success of the D Day invasion and the advancement through France and the LowlandsAs D Day invasion was launched on the 6th of June, Bagration assisted with the ability of American and British forces to advance through the West of Europe as Bagration continued to strain Nazi resourcesThree front war continued until the end of the European Conflict, restricting Nazi ability to launch a counter offensive More than 2.3 million Soviet troops went into action against German Army Group Centre, which had a strength of fewer than 800,000 men. At the points of attack, the numerical and quality advantages of the Soviet forces were overwhelming. The Red Army achieved a ratio of ten to one in tanks and seven to one in aircraft over their enemy. The Germans crumbled. The capital of?Belarus,?Minsk, was taken on 3 July, trapping some 100,000 Germans. Ten days later the Red Army reached the prewar Polish border.?Bagration?was, by any measure, one of the largest single operations of the war.By the end of August 1944, it had cost the Germans ~400,000 dead, wounded, missing and sick, from whom 160,000 were captured, as well as 2,000 tanks and 57,000 other vehicles. In the operation, the Red Army lost ~180,000 dead and missing (765,815 in total, including wounded and sick plus 5,073 Poles),?as well as 2,957 tanks and assault guns.?Led to Russian access to Berlin and the fall of Nazi PowersBattle of Berlin- 16 April to 2 May 1945.Suicide of Adolf Hitler?and deaths of other high-ranking Nazi officialsUnconditional surrender of the Berlin city garrison on 2 MayCapitulation of German forces still fighting the battle outside Berlin on 8/9 May, following the unconditional surrender of all German forcesEnd of WWII in Europe?and the end of?Nazi Germany D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of Germany, where they halted as agreed upon with Russia. This closed Germany in at all sides. Their one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had established European supremacyBombings of Berlin aided Allied advancements. 1945 as Soviet forces closed on the city. British bombers dropped 45,517 tons of bombs;?the Americans dropped 23,000 tons. As the bombings continued more and more people moved out. By May 1945, 1.7 million people (40% of the population) had fled.Led to the liberation of Ukraine and Poland and further the liberation of those imprisoned,Liberation of camps, such as Auschwitz (1 million deaths at this concentration camp) and Krakow(liberated 1945). This uncovered and exposed Germany's racial policy (extent of anti-Semitism, death and concentration camps) to the rest of the world, therefore to complete the defeat of Germany, not only militarily, the Allies needed to also ideologically defeat Germany- Nuremberg War Crimes Trials- 20th November 1945Resources were used to transport prisoners. Warsaw was closed in July 1944. Troops accompanied 4500 prisoners on a death march to Kutno and then transported to Dachau‘Liberation’ of these nations diminished Nazi supply to resources, particularly the valuable oil location in the Baltic regionsNuremberg- Of the 185?people?indicted in the subsequent?Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional 77?people?received prison terms of varying lengthsFINAL DEFEAT 1944–1945 Operation Market Garden- 17 September – 25 1944Battle of the Bulge- 16 Dec 1944 – 25 Jan 1945Final Russian Offensive- 20 January 1945 - MayUltimately led to the collapse of the Nazi empire and the conclusion of the war in Europe and allowed Allied forces to focus on defeating powers in the PacificBattle of Berlin- 16 April to 2 May 1945.Suicide of Adolf Hitler?and deaths of other high-ranking Nazi officialsUnconditional surrender of the Berlin city garrison on 2 MayCapitulation of German forces still fighting the battle outside Berlin on 8/9 May, following the unconditional surrender of all German forcesEnd of WWII in Europe?and the end of?Nazi Germany D Day allowed the Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of Germany, where they halted as agreed upon with Russia. This closed Germany in at all sides. Their one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had established European supremacyBombings of Berlin aided Allied advancements. 1945 as Soviet forces closed on the city. British bombers dropped 45,517 tons of bombs;?the Americans dropped 23,000 tons. As the bombings continued more and more people moved out. By May 1945, 1.7 million people (40% of the population) had fled.The liberation of the remaining camps and allowed for Nuremberg war crimesLiberation of camps, such as Auschwitz (1 million deaths at this concentration camp) and Krakow(January liberated 1945). This uncovered and exposed Germany's racial policy (extent of anti-Semitism, death and concentration camps) to the rest of the world, therefore to complete the defeat of Germany, not only militarily, the Allies needed to also ideologically defeat Germany- Nuremberg War Crimes Trials- 20th November 1945Nuremberg- Of the 185?people?indicted in the subsequent?Nuremberg trials, 12 defendants received death sentences, 8 others were given life in prison and an additional 77?people?received prison terms of varying lengthsNatzweiler-Sruthof (22000 deaths at this concentration camp) and Guts (internment camp).German last attempt lacked success as three fronts collapsed onto themDespite Operation Market Garden (September 17th-25 1944 being an Allied strategic failure, the Nazi attempt to launch an offensive was largely unsuccessfulBattle of the Bulge- 16th of December 1944- 25th January 1945. Western Allied offensive plans delayed by five or six weeks. German offensive exhausts their resources on?Western Front.German collapse opens way for the?Allies?to ultimately break the?Siegfried Line. (defence built opposite to French MaginotSoviet offensive?in Poland launched on 12 January 1945, eight days earlier than originally intended. Allies to reach the Baltic sea/coastal area of Germany, where they halted as agreed upon with Russia. This closed Germany in at all sides. Their one offensive launched (Battle of the Bulge 16th December 1944) was largely a failure and the Allies had established European supremacy ................
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