Motivation - Dena Montini



Motivation

1. List 1 goal that you want to accomplish by the end of the day.

2. List 3 goals that you would like to accomplish by June 2015.

3. List 3 goals that you would like to accomplish by 2025.

• Are you satisfied with your body? Why or why not?

• Are you satisfied with your performance in THIS class so far? Why or why not?

Motivation

• A need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal.

• It is a hypothetical concept, we infer motivation from the behaviors we observe.

Psychology after Darwin

• Just after Darwin’s works, psychologists figured most behaviors were instinctual.

• As many as 6,000 human instincts were identified. (If you boasted= self-assertion instinct)

• Today psychologist do not believe in many human instincts.

• Name a few human instincts… if you can

Instinct

• To qualify as an instinct, a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a species and be unlearned.

• Think imprinting in birds, the return of salmon to their birthplace, robin’s need to nest, a bear hibernating.

• In humans– rooting and sucking

Drive-Reduction replaces Instinct

• A physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need by maybe eating or drinking

• When the physiological need increases, so does the psychological drive– an aroused, motivated state.

Homeostasis

• The maintenance of a steady internal state

• Homeostasis means “staying the same”

• An example is the body’s temperature-regulation system. If our body temperature cools, blood vessels constrict to conserve warmth and we feel driven to put on a blanket or warm clothes.

• If the water level in our cells drop, sensors detect our need for water and we feel thirsty.

If you are ever stranded in a lifeboat on the open water…How would you maintain homeostasis?

• Body Temperature

• Fluid level

• Circulation

Needs versus Drives

• Need

• A physiological state that usually triggers a state of motivational arousal

• Examples: need for sufficient oxygen, lack of enough body fluid

• Drive

• An psychological aroused or activated state that is often triggered by a physiological need

• Example: thirst, hunger

Need is to Drive as…

• Lack of food is to hunger as lack of body fluid is to _____.

Needs are ______ correlated with ____.

• Positively; drives

• Negatively; drives

• Negatively; instincts

• Positively; instincts

Incentives

• Environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

• Positive or negative stimuli that lures or repels us

• The smell of pizza, the aroma of hot chocolate, someone we find attractive, the threat of disapproval, a crossword puzzle, a pornographic movie

• Have you ever: stayed up late surfing the web when you needed a good night of sleep, watched a scary movie when you knew it would scare you, eat junk food at a party when you were full?

Incentives

A lack of bodily fluids is to cold water as _______ is to _____.

• Need; incentive

• Drive; incentive

• Need; drive

• Incentive; need

•

Clark Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory

• A physiological need creates an aroused state that drives the organism to reduce the need by doing something maybe eating, drinking, or rocking.

• When a physiological need increases, so does a psychological drive- an aroused, motivated state.

• When an animal has been deprived of food for many hours, a state of hunger is aroused that motivates food-seeking and eating behavior

Optimum Arousal

• Some motivated behaviors increase arousal.

• Well-fed animals leave their shelter to explore.

• Babies investigate every inch of the house.

• People climb mountains

Just Homeostasis???

• We work on more than just homeostasis.

• How many want to have a high paying career that will afford them the ability to reduce hunger and thirst?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• The need for physical safety must be met before city dwellers will be motivated to form close relationships with fellow citizens.

• The need for food must be met before we can satisfy our need for love.

• Go back to your original goals…

• Where do your goals fall on Maslow’s Hierarchy?

Recap the what we’ve learned…

• Instinct Theory– now the evolutionary perspective

• Drive-Reduction Theory– emphasizing the interaction between inner pushes and external pulls

• Arousal Theory– emphasizing the urge for an optimum level of stimulation

• Hierarchy of Needs– pyramid of human needs, must satisfy lower tiered needs first.

Hunger

• Ancel Key’s Starvation Studies after WWII

• 36 men (volunteers) were fed just enough food to keep them at their initial weight, then for six months their food level was cut in half. (150lb men went down to 112 lbs)

• The men began conserving energy, appeared listless, and became obsessed with food. They talked and day dreamed food and lost interest in sex and social activities.

• They were preoccupied with their unfulfilled basic need.

How do we know we are hungry? The bell rings? Dinner is on the table? Your date takes you to an All-You-Can-Eat Buffet?

The Physiology of Hunger

• A stomach contracts when it feels hunger

• Diet pills fill your stomach with fiber and water, but no calories

• Ghrelin- a hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Have you heard of stomach stapling?

• If appetites lessen after a portion of the stomach is sealed off, would hunger disappear if the entire stomach were removed?

• NO! Why?

Body Chemistry and the Brain 101

• Glucose- a form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues.

• When glucose is low– we feel hungry.

• Insulin- diminishes glucose, by converting it to stored fat.

• Increases in insulin– we feel hungry

• If glucose is low, it triggers hunger– but we don’t consciously feel the change in the blood chemistry.

• The brain automatically monitors the info

• Signals from the stomach, intestines, and the liver (depending on whether glucose is being deposited or withdrawn) all signal the brain to motivate eating or not.

Hypothalamus and the Fat Rat

• Hunger controls are located in the hypothalamus.

• Lateral Hypothalamus- stimulates hunger

• Ventromedial Hypothalamus- depresses hunger

The Appetite Hormones

• Insulin- hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood sugar

• Leptin- Protein secreted by fat cells, when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

• Orexin- Hunger-triggering hormones secreted by hypothalamus

• Ghrelin- Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain

• PYY: Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain

Little quiz A…

Increases in insulin increase hunger indirectly by

• Increasing leptin levels

• Decreasing blood glucose levels

• Increasing PYY levels

• Decreasing orexin levels

Little quiz B…

Increases in__ increase hunger, whereas increases in __ decrease hunger

• Insulin; blood glucose

• Blood glucose; leptin

• Leptin; orexin

• Orexin; insulin

Little quiz C…

After 2 days without eating, Myra is very hungry. At this time it is likely that her blood glucose level is _____ and her blood insulin level is _____.

• Low; low

• Low; high

• High; high

• High; low

Little quiz D…

Mice are most likely to eat less when they experience __ levels of ___.

• elevated; leptin

• reduced; glucose

• elevated; orexin

• reduced; estrogen

A few more words…

• Set point- the specific body weight maintained automatically by most adults (not high school students) over long periods of time

• Basal metabolic rate- the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure- or how many daily calories it takes your body to maintain basic body functions

• Speaking of… how could you gain or lose a few pounds in a healthy manner?

Eating Disorders

• 222 studies of 141,000 people over 50 years revealed dramatic increases in the number of women who have poor body image.

• In another survey, nearly ½ of U.S. women reported feeling negative about their appearance and preoccupied with being or becoming overweight.

Which female body type is ideal?

• Females– which body type most resembles your body?

Fallon and Rozin (1985, U Penn)

• Findings: women’s ideal body weight was less than their current weight

• The weight they thought men preferred was also lower than what men actually preferred.

• There were no discrepancies in the men’s self-ratings. Men judged their current, their ideal weight, and the weight they thought women preferred as similar.

• Courtney Cox, Marylyn, & Barbie

• Courtney is size 0, weighting in at 100 lbs. Marylyn was a size 14, Barbie, when adjusted to a height of 5’ 7”, her measurements would be 32-16-29.

Anorexia Nervosa- easier to detect

• Disorder in which a person drops significantly below normal weight (more than 15%) yet feels fat and is obsessed with losing weight.

• Usually develops in adolescence

• 9 out of 10 cases are female

• Often come from families that are competitive, high achieving, and protective

• They set high standards, fall short of expectations and are concerned with how others perceive them

Bulimia Nervosa- more common

• Repeated episodes of overeating followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise.

• Most are women in their late teens or early twenties, are fearful of becoming overweight, and are depressed or anxious.

• Weight is usually within or above the normal range (easy to hide)

• Families of bulimic patients report higher than usual incidences of alcoholism, obesity, and depression.

Sexual Motivation

• Consider this… Sexual motivation is nature’s way of making people procreate, (yes, have babies) thus enabling our species’ survival.

Sexual Behavior

• Alfred Kinsey (1948, 1953) confidentially interviewed 18,000 people asking rapid fire questions about their sexual behaviors.

• Findings…most of men and half of women have had premarital sex, most women and virtually all men reported masturbating.

• (these findings may be misleading… nonrandom sample contained an overrepresentation of well-educated white urbanites)

• Can you imagine how people reacted to the study in 1953?

The Sexual Response Cycle

• William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1966) conducted a famous study in which they monitored and filmed (in a laboratory) more than 10,000 “sexual response cycles.”

• Sex Hormones have 2 effects:

1. direct the development of male and female sex characteristics

2. activate sexual behavior

Hormones and Sexual Behavior

• In most mammals, females become sexually receptive (in heat) when production of the female hormone estrogen peaks at ovulation.

• In humans, women’s desire is only slightly higher during ovulation than at other times.

• Male hormone levels are constant

• Hormones influence sexual arousal via the hypothalamus, which both monitors variations in blood hormone levels and activates the appropriate neural circuits.

• The sexual hormones are essential, but so are the psychological stimuli

The Psychology of Sex

• Hunger and sex are different motivations: we do not eat, we die. Not so with sex. Remember that if you are ever pressured!

• External Stimuli- read it for yourself

• Imagined Stimuli- read it for yourself… (The Brain is our most significant sex organ)

Adolescent Sexuality

• Sexual expression varies by culture

• In the US, about 50% of 9-12 graders reported having sex

• 42% of Canadian 16 year olds

• Much higher in Western Europe

• Much lower in Arab and Asian countries

• Only 2.5% of 4688 unmarried Chinese students reported having sex

• Time period or Era is also a factor

Teen Pregnancy… why?

1. Ignorance… Most teens overestimate their peers’ sexual activity. Do you know the risky times of the menstrual cycle? Ask a doctor, not your friend.

2. Guilt related to sexual activity…Do you want to be known as the person who carries a condom everywhere?

3. Minimal communication about birth control…many are afraid to talk to their parents

4. ALCOHOL USE… Sexually active teens are typically alcohol-using teens. Alcohol suppresses judgment

5. Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity…

Motivation at Work

• Work is life’s biggest single waking activity.

• On average… we will spend 90,000 hours working before we retire. (It is not about the money but at minimum wage =$472,500 over a lifetime versus my salary= $2,700,000)

• Better do something love and something you are good at doing!

Motivation and Work must-knows

• Flow- a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills

• Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology- the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

• Personnel psychology- a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development.

• Organizational psychology- a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change.

• Human factors psychology- how machines and environments can be optimally designed to fit human abilities and expectations

Managing Well

• Leaders must know the strengths and weaknesses of their employees.

• They should not spend time trying to instill talents that aren’t there and spend more time developing and drawing out what is there.

• Focus and reward the talents.

Leadership Style

• Task leadership- goal oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

• Social leadership- group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

• Effective leaders will exhibit a high degree of both task and social leadership

McGregor (1960)

• Theory X- managers assume that workers are basically lazy, error-prone and extrinsically motivated by money.

• Theory Y- managers assume that people are intrinsically motivated to work for reasons beyond money- to promote self-esteem, enjoy relations with others, and to fulfill their potential.

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