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Scientific study of psychological changes in human beings throughout their lives for the Journal, see Development Psychology (Journal). The redirection "Children's Psychology" here. For the song of the recorder Black Box, see Psychology of Children (Song). Part of an honestychology series contour history of abnormal abnormal behavioral behavioral behavioural abnormal cognitive cognitive behavioral abnormal behavioral cognitive behavioral differential evolutionary cognitive cognitive neuropsychology evolutionary cognostic evolutionary psychology Special methods are used in the psychological study of newborns. Piaget test for conservation. One of the many experiments used for children. The psychology of development is the scientific study of how and why human beings change throughout their lives. Originally interested in newborns and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, ageing and the entire lifespan. Development psychologists aim to explain how thought, feeling and behavior change throughout life. This field examines the three main dimensions change: physical development, cognitive development and social emotional development. [1] [2] Within these three dimensions are a wide range of topics including motor skills, executive functions, moral understanding, linguistic acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self concept and identity training. The psychology of development examines the influences of nature and cultivation on the process of human development and processes of change of context over time. Many researchers are interested in the interactions between personal characteristics, individual behavior and environmental factors, including social context and built environment. The ongoing debates regarding development psychology include biological wormwood against neuroplasticity and development phases compared to dynamic development systems. Development psychology involves a series of fields, such as educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic development psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology and cultural psychology. The influential 20th-century development psychologists include Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen and Lev Vygotsky. Historic antecedents Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John B. Watson are typically cited as providing foundations for modern development psychology. [3] In the mid-18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau described three phases of development: infants (infancy), Puers (infancy) and teens in Emile: or, on education. Rousseau's ideas were strongly taken by educators at that time. Development psychology generally focuses on how and why some changes (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) occur over time. There are many theorists who have made a deep contribution to this area of psychology. One of these, Erik Erikson developed an eight-phase model of psychological development. He believed that human beings developed in stages throughout their lives and that this would affect their behavior. [4] Charles Darwin At the end of the 19th century, psychologists who are familiar with Darwin's evolutionary theory beganLook for an evolutionary description of psychological development; [3] Prominent Here is the Pioniere Psychologist G. Stanley Hall, [3] who tried to correlate the ages of childhood with previous humanities of humanity. James Mark Baldwin, who essays on topics that included Imitation: A chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness and Human Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and processes, he was strongly involved in development psychology theory. [3] Sigmund Freud, whose concepts were of development, significantly influenced public perceptions. [3] Theories Psychosexual Development Main article: Psychosexual development Sigmund Freud believed that everyone has a conscious, preconscious and unconscious level of awareness. In consciousness, you are aware of their mental process. The preconscious involves information that, even if not in our thoughts, can be brought into consciousness. Finally, the unconscious includes mental processes of which a person does not know. He believed that there is tension between the conscious and the unconscious because the conscious seeks to hold back what the unconscious seeks to express. To explain this, he developed three personality structures: id, ego and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, works according to the principle of pleasure: seek pleasure and avoid pain. [5] The superego plays the critical and moral role; and the ego is the organized and realistic part that mediates between the desires of id and superego. [6] According to this, he proposed five universal phases of development, which each is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the psychosexual energy of the child. The first is the oral phase, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral phase, "the libido is concentrated in the mouth of a child." The child is able to suck. The second is the anal phase, from one to three years of age. During the anal phase, the child defecate from the anus and is often fascinated by their defecation. The third is the phallic phase, which occurs from three to five years of age (most forms of personality of a person at this age). During the failing phase, the child is aware of their sexual organs. The fourth is the latency phase, which occurs from the age of five to puberty. During the latency phase, the child's sexual interests are repressed. Phase five is the genital phase, which takes place from puberty to adulthood. During the genital phase, puberty begins to happen. [7] Cognitive Development Theory Main Article: Piaget's cognitive development theory, Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, said that children learn actively by building knowledge through practical experience. [8] He suggested that the role of the adult in helping the child to learn was to provide appropriate materials with which the child can interact and use to build. He used the socratic questionnaire to make children think about what they were doing, and tried to show them contradictions in their explanations. Piaget believed that intellectual development takes place through a series of phases, which he described in his theory on cognitive development. Each stage consists of steps that the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these phases are not separated from each other, but rather that each phase is built on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four phases: sensorsmotor, pre-operative, operational and formal operational. Although he did not believe that these phases occurred in a given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place. [9] Stage of moral development Main article: the stages of moral development of Lawrence Kohlberg Piaget said that logic and morality develop through constructive phases. [10] The expansion of Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was primarily concerned with justice, and that continued throughout the individual's life. [11] He suggested threeof moral reasoning; Pre-conventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning and post-conventional moral reasoning. Preconventional moral reasoning is typical of children and isFrom the reasoning that is based on premiums and punishments associated with the different action courses. Conventional moral reason occurs during the late childhood and the first adolescence and is characterized by a reasoning based on the rules and conventions of society. Finally, post-conventional moral reasoning is a phase during which the individual sees rules and conventions of the company as its relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative. [12] Kohlberg used the heinz dilemma to be applied to the moral development phases of him. Dilemma Heinz involves Heinz's wife die of cancer and Heinz have the dilemma to save his wife by stealing a drug. Precontent morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality, applies to the situation of Heinz. [13] Phases of psychosocial development Main article: Phases of psychosocial development Erik Erikson German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and his wife, Joan Erikson, of Erikson conceptualized eight stages of psychosocial development that theorized healthy individuals pass through, as yes They develop from childhood to adulthood. [14] At each stage the person must resolve a challenge, or an existential dilemma. Successful resolution of dilemma results in the person Ingraining a virtue positive, but the failure to solve the fundamental challenge of that phase strengthens the negative perception of the person or the world that surrounds them and the personal development of the person is unable to progress. The first phase, "trust vs distrucia" takes place in early childhood. The positive virtue for the first phase is hope, in childhood learning of those who trust and have the hope of a support group of people to be there for him / her. The second phase is "vs. shame autonomy and doubt" with the virtue positive being will volunte. This happens in early childhood, when learning baby to become more independent, discovering what they are able, while if the child is too controlled, feelings of inadequacy are reinforced, which can lead to a low self-esteem and doubt. The third phase is "initiative against guilt". The virtue to gain a sense of purpose. This occurs mainly through the game. This is the phase in which the child will be curious and have many interactions with other children. They can do many questions as their curiosity grow. If too many feelings of guilt is present, the child can have a more slow and more difficult time to interact with their world and other children in it. The fourth phase is "Industry (competence) vs inferiority". The virtue for this phase is competence and is the result of the first experiences of the child at school. This phase is when the child will try to get the approval of others and understand the value of their achievements. The fifth stage is "Identit? confusion vs role". The virtue earned is the loyalty and takes place in adolescence. This is when the child begins ideally to identify their place in society, particularly in terms of their kind role. The sixth stage is "intimacy vs Isolation", which takes place in young adults and the virtue earned is love. This is when the person starts sharing her / her life with someone else intimately and emotionally. Don't do it can strengthen feelings of isolation. The seventh stage is "the generativity against stagnation". This happens in adulthood and the virtue acquired is cure. A person becomes stable and begins to return by raising a family and become involved in the community. The eighth stage is "ego integrity against despair". When you get older, they look back on their lives and contemplate their successes and failures. If you resolve this positively the virtuation of wisdom is earned. This is also the phase in which you can get a sense of closure and accept death without regret or fear. [15] stages based on the Of a hierarchical complexity Main article: Model of hierarchical complexity Michael Commons improved and simplified B?¡èRBEL INHELDER and the evolutionary theory of Piaget and offers a standard method of examining the universal development model. development. The model of hierarchical complexity (MHC) is not based on the evaluation of specific domain information, divides the order of a hierarchical complexity of the tasks to be addressed by phase performance on these tasks. A phase is the hierarchical complexity of the order of tasks that the participant successfully addresses. It has expanded the original eight stages of Piaget (counting the half stages) to fifteen stages. The phases are: 0 calculator; 1 Sensory & Motor; 2 circular-motor; 3 sensory-motor; 4 nominal; 5 sententials; 6 Preoperative; 7 primary; 8 concrete; 9 abstract; 10 formal; 11 Systematic; 12 Metasystematic; 13 Paradigmatic; 14 Cross-paradigmatic; 15 meta-cross-paradigmatic. The hierarchical complexity order of the tasks provides how difficult it is to run with a R ranging from 0.9 to 0.98. In the MHC, there are three main axiomas for an order to satisfy so that the upper order task coordinate the next lower order task. The axioms are rules that are followed to determine how the MHC orders actions to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks at the next lower order of activity of hierarchical complexity; b) defined as the upper order action that organizes two or more less complex actions; that is, the most complex action specifies the way in which the least complex actions combine; c) defined as lower order actions must be carried out not arbitrarily. Theory of ecological systems Main article: The theory of ecological systems of Bronfenbrenner Theory of ecological systems, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bidirectional influences inside and among systems. The four systems are a microsystem, mesosystem, exsystem and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, standards and rules that can strongly shape development. The microsystem is the direct environment in our lives like our home and our school. Mesosystem is the way the relationships connect to the microsystem. The exsystem is a larger social system in which the child does not play any role. MacroSystem refers to cultural, customs and laws of society. [16] The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influences the individual (example: school or domestic environment). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: brothers' relations at home vs. relationships of schools). The exsystem is the interaction between two or more settings that are indirectly connected (example: the work of a father who requires more extraordinary ends up influencing daughter's performance at school because she can't help with homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account the social status, culture, convictions, costumes and costumes (example: a child of a richer family sees a par with a less rich family as a lower for this reason). Finally, the chronology refers to the chronological nature of life events and the way in which they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through the transition (example: a mother who loses his mother in disease and no longer has that support In her life). [9] From its publication in 1979, the main declaration of bronfenbrenner of this theory, the ecology of human development [17] has had a widespread influence on the way the psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and of their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environments, from the family to economic and political structures, have come to be seen as part of the life course from childhood to adulthood. [18] Proximal Development Zone Main article: The proximal development area Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theoretical of the Soviet era, Positive that children learned through practical experiences and social interactions with members of their culture. [19] Unlike Piaget, stated that the timely and sensitive intervention of adults when a child is turned on the edge of learning a new task (called "proximal development zone") could help children learn new tasks. This adult role is often referred to as an experienced "master" while the child is considered learning apprentice through an educational process often called "dignitous apprenticeship" Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child." This technique is called "scaffolding", because it is based on knowledge that children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. [20] Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the model of child development, claiming that development moves from social to individual level. [20] In other words, Vygotsky argued that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment. [21] He felt that if scholars continue not to consider this connection, then this contempt would inhibit the full understanding of human consciousness. [21] Constructivism The main article: Constructivism (psych school) Constructivism is a paradigm of psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively building knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interactions. Constructivism can take place in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when a person builds knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than memorizing the facts provided by others. Social constructivism is when individuals build knowledge through an interaction between knowledge that leads to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content. [9] Jean Piaget, Swiss development psychologist, proposed that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget proposed that learning should be all helping students understand that meaning is built. [22] Evolutionary psychology of development Main article: Evolutionary psychology The evolutionary psychology of development is a paradigm of research that applies the fundamental principles of Darwinian evolution, in particular natural selection, to understand the development of human behavior and cognition. This is the study of both genetic and environmental mechanisms affecting the development of social and cognitive skills, and epigenetic processes (genetic-environmental interaction) that adapt these skills to local conditions. [23] EDP considers both the reliable, species-typical development characteristics of ongeny (development adaptations), and individual differences in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective. While evolutionary opinions tend to consider most individual differences such as the result of random genetic noise (evolutionary byproducts)[24] and/or idiosyncrasies (e.g., even groups, education, neighborhoods and opportunities encounters)[25] rather than natural selection products, EDP states that natural selection can favour the emergence of individual differences through "adaptive evolutionary diversity". [23] EDP is closely linked to the theoretical framework of evolutionary psychology (EP), but it is also distinct from the EP in different areas, including the emphasis of research (EDP focuses on the adaptations of ongeny, contrary to adult age adaptations) and the consideration of proximatic and environmental factors (i.e., as development happens) as well as more recent factors (i.e. because development takes place),are the center of mainstream evolutionary psychology. [27] Attack Attack AttackMAIN ARTICLE: Theory of attachments of attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of open, intimate and emotionally meaningful relationships. [28] The attachment is described as a biological system or a powerful impulse of survival that has evolved to ensure the survival of the child. A child who is threatened or stressed will move towards caregivers that create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological security for the individual. Attached foods on body contact and familiarity. Mary Ainsworth later developed the strange protocol of the situation and the concept of a safe base. This tool was found to help in understanding and monitoring attachment as the strange situation test and interviewing adult attachments. Both, help determine factors to certain attachment styles. The strange Test situation helps to find "admitted disturbances" and if some attributes are found to contribute to a certain attachment problem. [29] The adult interview Attachment is a tool similar to the strange situation test, but instead concentrates the attachment problems found in adults. [29] Both tests have helped many researchers get more information on risks and how to identify them. [29 ] Theoreticians proposed four types of attachment styles: [30] safe, anxious-evitating, anxious resistant, [12] and disorganized. [30] Safe attachment is a healthy attachment between the child and caregiver. It is characterized by trust. The anxious-evitating is an insecure attachment between a child and a caregiver. This is characterized by the indifference of the child towards the caregiver. The resistant anxious is an insecure attachment between the child and the caregiver characterized by anguish from the child if separated and anger when he met. [12] Disorganized is an attack style without a consistent model of responses to the parent's return. [30] A child can be hampered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some children are collected without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver or closed under conditions of abuse or extreme negligence. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behaviour, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and increased risk of depression as an adult. [31] [Required page] [Required page] Attachment is established in early childhood and attachment continues in adulthood. If involved in intimate relationships, the way adults are able to handle relationship issues depend on their attachment styles formed during their childhood. [33] A safe attachment example that continues in adulthood would be when the person feels safe and is able to meet their needs. Having a secure attachment allows the adult to have a healthy confident relationship. [33] An example of anxious attachment during the abulph is when the adult chooses a partner with anxious-evitating attachment. Having an anxious / ambivalent attachment style can affect the trust issues of an adult in a committed relationship. [33] Understanding which style attached an individual formed with their caregiver when they were children, we can better understand their interpersonal relationships as adults. Nature vs Coltive A significant problem in development psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in relation to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as "nature and nourishment" or Nativeism against empirism. A native development report would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, specifiedgenes of the organism [34] An empirical perspective would argue that such processes are acquired in the interaction with the environment. Today development psychologists rarely take polarized positions regarding most aspects of development; rather investigate, betweenOther things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways in which this relationship was explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary psychology of development. An area in which this innate debate has been reproduced prominently is searching for the acquisition of languages. An important question in this sector is if some property ownership are genetically specified or can be acquired through learning. The empirical position on the problem of a language acquisition suggests that linguistic insertion provides the information necessary to learn the language structure and that children acquire language through a statistical learning process. From this perspective, language can be acquired through general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptive learning. The crib claims that entry from the language is too impoverished for children and children to acquire the language structure. The Linguista Noam Chomsky states that, highlighted by the lack of sufficient information in linguistic input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This led to the idea that there is a special cognitive module suitable for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomsky criticism of the language acquisition modelist model is considered by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism in general. [35] But the conception of Skinner of "Verbal Behavior" is not dead, perhaps in part because he generated successful practical applications. [35] Continue against discontinuity one of the main discussions in development psychology includes whether development is discontinuous or continuous. Continuous development is quantifiable and quantitative, while discontinuous development is qualitative. Quantitative development estimates can measure a child's stature, and measure their memory or consideration. "Particularly dramatic specimens of qualitative changes are metamorphosis, as the emergence of a caterpillar in a butterfly." [36] Those psychologists who support the continuous vision of improvement propose that the improvement includes slow and progressive changes throughout the life of life, With behavior in the previous steps of progress, giving the premise of ability and capacity necessary for the other phases. "Many, the concept of continuous and quantifiable measurement seems to be the essence of science". [36] Not all psychologists, whether, as they can compete that advancement could be a continuous process. Some see progress as a discontinuous process. They accept advancement includes unmistakable and partitioned phases with different types of behavior they take place in each organization. This proposes that the development of certain capacity in every system, such as particular feelings or ways of considering, has a defined starting point and finish. Be that, as it can, there is no correct time when a capacity suddenly comes or disappears. Although some types of considering, feeling or carrying forward may seem abruptly, it is more than likely that this is developing gradually for some time. [37] The phase development theories rest on the suspicion that development can be a discontinuous process, including particular phases that are characterized by subjective contrasts in behavior. They also assume that the phase structure is not variable that is contributed to each person, in any case the time of each system can pass separately. Stadium theories can be differentiated with incessant hypotheses, which establish that It's an incremental process. [38] Stability vs change This problem involves the degree in which one becomes more ancient interpretations of their early experience or if they develop in something different from those who were at a previous point of development. development. considers the extent to which the first experiences (especially childhood) or subsequent experiences are the key determining factors of the development of a person. Most lifespan developers recognize that extreme positions are insensitive. Therefore, the key to a complete understanding of development at any stage requires interaction of different factors and not only one. Mathematical models Development psychology not only describes the characteristics of psychological change over time, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal works underlying these changes. Psychologists have tried to better understand these factors using models. A model must simply take into account the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes referred to changes in the brain that can correspond to changes in behavior during development. Mathematical modeling is useful in development psychology to implement theory in a precise and easy way to study, allowing generation, explanation, integration and prediction of different phenomena. Different development modeling techniques are applied: symbolic, connecting (neural network), or dynamic system models. Dynamic system models illustrate how many different features of a complex system can interact to produce emerging behavior and skills. Non-linear dynamics has been applied to human systems specifically to address problems that require attention to temporality such as transitions of life, human development, and behavioral or emotional change over time. Currently, dynamic nonlinear systems are explored as a way to explain discrete human development phenomena such as impact,[39] second-language acquisition,[40] and locomotion. [41] Research areas Cognitive development Main articles: Cognitive development, Cognitive Development Theory, and Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development Cognitive development Cognitive development is mainly concerned about the ways in which children and children acquire, develop and use internal mental abilities such as: problem-solving, memory and language. Main topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptive and motor skills. Piaget was one of the first influential psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a series of stages from childhood to adulthood and that there is a point or a final goal. Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the development process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and purpose. Rather, from this point of view, development processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development must be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to be obtained. K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development in adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as it progresses in applying their cognitive abilities. [42] Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and psychology of individual differences in interpretation and modelling of development. [43] Specifically, neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development have shown that later levels or cognitive development phases are associated with increasing processing efficiency and working memory capacity. These increases explain the differences between the stages, progression to the higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same age and the same level of degree. However, other theories have gone away fromof the piageziana phase, and are influenced by domain-specific information processing accounts, which posit that development is driven by mechanisms of processing specific and specific information of innate content. social and emotional development main articles: articles:Development in childhood and social psychology The development psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional skills. For example, they study how children form friendships, as they understand and face emotions and how to develop identity. Research in this area can lead to the study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior. The emotional regulation or ER refer to the ability of a person to modulate emotional responses on a variety of contexts. In small children, this modulation is partly controlled externally, by parents and other figures of the authority. While children develop, they take more responsibility for their internal state. The studies have shown that the development of ER is influenced by the emotional regulation for children to observe in parents and custodians, the emotional climate of the house and the reaction of parents and guardians to the emotions of the child [44]. Music also has an influence on stimulating and improving the senses of a child through self-expression. [45] The social and emotional development of a child can be interrupted by the problems of coordination of engines highlighted by the hypothesis of environmental stress. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and development development disorders are exposed to various psychosocial consequences that act as secondary stressful, leading to an increase in internalizing symptoms such as depression and anxiety. [46] Engine coordination problems affect fine and gross engine movement, as well as perceptive motor skills. The commonly identified secondary factors include the trend for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in playing games organized with other children and more probability of feeling socially isolated. [46] Social and emotional development focuses on 5 sectors of keys: self-consciousness, autonomous management, social awareness, responsible decision-making capacity and process. [47] Physical development Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual to reach the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the times of their growth splashing. [48] You are making studies to analyze how the differences in these times influence and are linked to other development psychology variables such as information processing speed. The traditional measures of physical maturity with X-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to the simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, circumference of the head and span of the arm. [48] Some other studies and practices with physical development psychology are the phonological abilities of the 5-18 years mature, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handed people who are delayed against rectloscripts. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between the rectices and the left-handed. [48] Researchers of memory development interested in memory development consider the way in which our memory develops from childhood and forward. According to Fuzzy-Trace theory, people have two separate memory processes: Verbatim and GIST. These two tracks begin to develop different times and at a different rhythm. Young children like 4 years have verbatim memory, memory for superficial information, which increases up to the first adult, at that point begins to decrease. On the other hand, our memory capacity of GIST, memory for semantic information, increases up to the first adult, at that point is consistent through old age. Furthermore, dependence on gist memory traces as an age. [49] Research methods and projects Main research methods Development psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so differentThey are often used to study their development. Development psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in people over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, natural observation or structured observation; self-reports, which could be clinical interviews or structured interviews; the clinical or case study method; The ethnography or observation of the participants. These methods differ in the measurement of control researchers require study conditions, and how they build ideas on which variables study. [51] Each development survey can be characterized in terms of whether its fund strategy involves the experimental, correlatory or case study approach. [52] [53] The experimental method provides for the "effective manipulation of various treatments, circumstances or events to which the participant or subject is exposed; [53] experimental design indicates the cause-and-effect relationships. [54] This method makes it possible to carry out strong inherences of causal reports between the manipulation of one or more independent variables and the next behavior, as measured by the dependent variable. [53] The advantage of using this search method is that it allows the determination of the cause relationships - Effect between variables. [54] On the other hand, the limitation is that the data obtained in an artificial environment may fail to generalize. [54] The correlation method explores the relationship between two or more events by collecting information on these variables without Research intervention. [53] [54] The advantage of using a correlated design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relations between the variables in the natural environment; [54 ] However, the limitation is that it does not allow the determination of the cause-and-effect relationships between the variables. [54] The case study approach allows surveys to obtain a thorough understanding of a single participant by collecting data based on interviews, structured questionnaires, observations and test scores. [54] Each of these methods has its strengths and weaknesses, but the experimental method, where appropriate, is the preferred method of development scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn on cause-effect relationships . [53] Research projects Most development studies, regardless of whether they use the experimental, correlatory or case study method, can also be built using research projects. [51] Research projects are logical structures used to make key comparisons within research studies such as: transverse design longitudinal design sequential design microgenetic design design in a longitudinal studio, a researcher observes many individuals born or around at the same time ( A cohort) and carries out new observations as members of the Et? cohort. This method can be used to draw conclusions on what types of development are universal (or regulatory) and occur in most members of a cohort. As an example, a longitudinal study of early alphabetization development examined in detail the early alphabetization experiences of a child in each of 30 families. [55] Researchers can also observe the ways in which development varies between individuals, and hypothesize the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require great amounts of time and financing, making them unreliable in some situations. Furthermore, because members of a cohort all the experiences of unique historical events to their generation, seemingly regulatory development trends can, in fact, be universal only to their cohort. [50]: 40 in a cross-country studio, a researcher observes The differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This Generally less resources than the longitudinal method, and because individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a confused factor. With the same token, however, cross cross-section It cannot be the most effective way to study the differences between participants, as these differences may not be from their different ages, but from their exposure to different historical events.[50]: 41 a third study project, sequential design, combines both methods. here, a researcher observes members of different Christmas cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, tracing changes in groups. While much more intensive of resources, the format helps in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to an individual or historical environment by those who are truly universal.[50]: 42 For each method has some weaknesses, development psychologists rarely rely on a study or even a method to reach conclusions, finding consistent evidence from how many convergent sources possible. [53] the life stages of psychological development also see: stages of development of the child development prenatal main article: Prenatal development also see: the prenatal development of fetal psychology is of interest to psychologists who investigate the context of early psychological development. the whole prenatal development involves three main phases: germ stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage. the germinal phase begins at conception until 2 weeks; the embryonic phase means development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; the fetal phase represents 9 weeks until the birth of the child. [56] the senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can see and hear from the second quarter (13 to 24 weeks of age.) the sense of touch develops in the embryonic phase (from 5 to 8 weeks).[50]: 97 most billion neurons of the brain are also developed since the second quarter.[50]: 100 berries are born from here with some smells, gorges and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment.[50]: 101 some primitive reflections occur even before birth and are still present in infants. a hypothesis is that these reflections are vestigial and have a limited oo in early human life. the cognitive development theory of piaget suggested that some initial reflections are building blocks for the development of childhood sensors. For example, the tonic neck reflex can help develop bringing objects into the child's field of view. [57] other reflections, such as walking reflection, seem to be replaced by a more sophisticated voluntary control after childhood. this can be because the child gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to hate the reflex, or because the next reflex and development are functionally different. [58] It was also suggested that some reflections (e.g. dark and walking reflections) are mainly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early childhood development. [57] primitive reflections reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions such as dementia or traumatic injuries. ultrasounds have shown that newborns are able to a series of movements in the womb, many of which seem to be more than simple reflections. [58] when they were born, children can recognize and have a preference for the voice of the mother suggesting a prenatal development of hearing perception. [58] Prenatal development and birth complications may also be related to neurodevelopment disorders, for example in schizophrenia. with the advent of cognitive neuroscience, embryology and prenatal development neuroscience is of increasing interest in the research of development psychology. various environmental agents, teratogenics, can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and non-prescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, agentsInfective like the rubella virus and the parasite of the toxoplasmosis, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress and the incompatibility of the blood factor rh between mother and child.[50]: 102?115 there are many statistics showing the effects of the substances mentioned above. to aThe example of this would be that, in America alone, about 100,000-375,000 'cocaine children' were born on an annual basis. This is the result of a mother waiting abusing the drug during pregnancy. The "cuisine children" have shown to have rather serious and lasting difficulties that persist during childhood and during childhood. The drug also encourages behavioral problems in affected children, as well as the defects of various vital organs. [59] Infancy Main articles: Infant psychology and childhood cognitive development from birth to the first year, the child is indicated as a child. [50] Development psychologists vary widely in their assessment of child psychology, and the influence that the outside world has on it, but some aspects are relatively clear. Most of the time of a newborn is spent sleeping. At first, this sleep is uniformly widespread during the day and night, but after a couple of months, children generally become diurnal. Babies can be seen to have six, grouped in pairs: peaceful sleep and active sleep (sighing, when the Remon sleep) quietly waking up, and wake up active fondant and weeping infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear , smell, taste and touch. These five features are best known as "five senses". [60] Newborns respond to stimuli differently in these different states. [58] The vision is significantly worse in newborns than in older children. The childish view tends to be blurred in the early stages, but improves over time. The perception of color similar to the one that seen in adults has been demonstrated in newborns for four months, using habit methods. [57] Children arrive at adult vision in about six months. [50]: 191 Hearing is well developed before birth, unlike vision. Babies prefer complex pure tone sounds, human discourse to other sounds, the mother's voice to other voices, and the mother tongue to other languages. Scientists believe that these features are probably learned in the lap. [50]: 151 Newborns are good enough to detect the direction from which a sound comes, and for 18 months their hearing capacity is approximately equal to that of an adult. There are odors and flavors, with newborns showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant smells (minimum, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (roasted eggs) and tastes (for example aspro flavor). The newborns are born with the smell and the preferences of taste acquired in the womb from the smell and the taste of the amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats. Both the children in the breast and those at the bottle of about 3 days of age prefer the smell of human milk to that of the formula, indicating an innate preference. [50]: 150 There is a good test for older newborns than They prefer the smell of their mother to that of others. [57] Touch and feel is one of the best developed senses to birth, considering that it is one of the first ways to develop inside the womb. [61] This is highlighted by the primitive reflexes described above, and by the relatively advanced development of the somatosensory cortex. [62] Pain: newborns feel the pain in the same way, if no more strongly bigger than older children, but pain-relief in newborns did not receive so much attention as a research area. [63] Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns. [64] The main article: linguistic development Children were born with the ability to discriminate practically all the sounds of all human languages. [50]: 189 Children about six months can differentiate between phonemes in their language, but not Among similar phonemes in another language. At this stage the newborns also start beating, producing phonemes. child cognition: The Piagetian era Piaget suggested that the perception and understanding of the world of a child depended on their motor development, which was necessary for the child to connect visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. [65] According to this vision, it is through touching and manipulating objects that children develop the permanence of objects, objects,That objects are solid and permanent and continue to exist when out of sight. [58] Piaget's sensorimotor stadium included six understations (see sensorimotor phases for more details). In the early stages, development is born from movements caused by primitive reflexes. [66] The discovery of new behaviors derives from the classic and operatic conditioning and the formation of habits. [66] For eight months the child is able to discover a hidden object, but we will persevere when the object is moved. Piaget came to his conclusion that children lacked a complete understanding of the permanence of objects before 18 months after observing the failure of children before this age to look for an object where it was last seen. Instead, newborns continue to look for an object where it was seen for the first time, committing the "A-NOT-B" error. Some researchers have suggested that before the age of eight to nine months, the incapacity of children to understand the permanence of objects extends to people, which explains why children at this age do not cry when their mothers have disappeared ( "From sight, out of mind"). Recent results in childcare in the 1980s and 1990s, researchers have developed many new methods to evaluate the understanding of the world of children with much more precision and subtlety of how much Piaget was able to do in time of him. Since then, many studies based on these methods suggest that young infants understand much more than the world than the first thought. Based on recent discoveries, some researchers (such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon) proposed that an understanding of the permanence of objects is not learned at all, but rather include part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species. Other researches have suggested that young infants in the first six months of life can have an understanding of numerous aspects of the world that surround them, including: an early numerical cognition, that is a capacity to represent the number and also calculate the results of the operations Addition and subtraction; [67] A capacity to deduce the objectives of people in their environment; [68] A capacity to engage in a simple reasoned reasoning. [69] Critical development periods There are critical periods in childhood and childhood during which the development of certain perceptive, sensorimotor, social and linguistic systems depends decisively on environmental stimulation. [70] Fertile children like Genie, without adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and cannot learn in subsequent childhood. The concept of critical periods is also well consolidated in neurophysiology, from the work of Hubel and Wiesel among others. Studies have been made to observe differences in children who have development delays compared to typical development. Normally when comparing the one with the other, the mental age is not taken into consideration. There can still be differences in delayed development (DD) children vs. Typical development (TD) Behavioral, emotional disorders and other mental disorders. When you look with the children but there is a larger difference between normal development behavior overall. DD can cause but lower, so if you compare DD with TD, it may not be as precise. When analyzing DD specifically with other children to but similar can be more accurate. There are levels of behavioral differences that are considered normal to certain ages. When we look at DD children and but, we want to see if those with DD have a quantity of Larder behavior that is not normal for their group but. Development delays tend to contribute to other disorders or difficulties with respect to their TD counterparts. [71] Toddlerhood Main Article: Children move between the ages of And two at a stage of development known as the first age. At this stage, the transition of a child to the child is highlighted through selfawareness, the development of maturity in the use of the language, and the presence of memory and imagination. During the period of children, children begin to learn to walk, talk and make decisions for themselves. An An Feature of this period of age is the development of language, where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, stutter and finally words. [72] Self-control also starts to develop. At this age, children take the initiative to explore, experiment and learn from making mistakes. Custodians who encourage children to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-sufficient and confident. [73] If the Help is overprotective or disapproval of independent actions, the child can begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The autonomous development of the child is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to manage the world in the future. The younger begin to identify themselves in gender roles, acting according to their perception of what should be a man or a woman. [74] Socially, the Toddler-Hood period is commonly called "Two Twos". [75]. Small children often use their linguistic skills just backward to express their desires, but they are often misunderstood by their parents because of their linguistic skills just beginning to develop. A person in this phase testing their independence is another reason behind the infamous label of the stage. Even the frustration attack capricci are common. Infancy See also: first childhood Erik Erikson divides childhood in four phases, each with its distinct social crisis: [76] Stadio 1: childhood (from 0 to 1 ?) in which the psychosocial crisis is trust against the phase Distrust 2: first childhood (2 ? to 3) in which the psychosocial crisis is autonomy against shame and doubt 3: the game ages (from 3 to 5) in which the psychosocial crisis is initiative against the guilt. (This stage is also called "pre-school age" and "exploratory age" and "toy et?".) [77] Phase 4: Drug ages (from 5 to 12) in which the psychosocial crisis is the industry Vs. Game of inferiority (or preschool) and 3 to 5. 5. In the early years, children are "completely dependent on the care of others". Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their care donors and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3-5), "expand their social horizons" to include people outside the family. [78] Preopicative thinking and therefore develops, which means that actions are reversible, and self-centered thought decreases. [79] Motor skills of children in preschool ages increases so that they can do more things for themselves. They become more independent. It didn't depend completely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age band expands. More people play a role in shaping their individual personalities. Children in preschool age explore and question their world. [80] For Jean Piaget, the child is "a little scientist exploring and reflecting on these explorations to increase competence" and this is done in "a very independent way". [81]: ? ? ?,? ? 7, ? ? ?,? ? 9 ? 9 ? Play is an important activity for Et? 3 - 5. For Piaget, through the game "A child reaches higher levels of development Cognitive ". [81]: ? ? ?,? ? ? in their expanded world, children in 3-5 years try to find their own way. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative. Otherwise, the child develops fault. [82] Children who develop "fault" rather than "initiative" have failed the psychosocial crisis of Erikson for group of 3-5 years. Medium childhood 6 ?,? 12. 12. For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during the average child is the industry against the inferiority which, if successfully encountered, infuses a sense of competence in the child. [76] In all cultures, the child of childhood is a moment for the development of "skills that will be needed in their [83] The school offers an arena where children can get a view of themselves as "industrious (and worthy)." They are "classified for their school work and often for their industry". They can also develop industry outside the school in sports, games and volunteering. [84] Children who get "school success or games could develop a feeling of competence." Theduring this period it is that the feelings of inadequacy and inferiority will develop. [83] Parents and teachers can "undermining" the development of a child failing to recognize the results or being overly critical of the efforts of a child. [84] The "encouraged and praised" children develop faith in their competence. The lack of encouragement or ability to excel leads to "feelings of inadequacy and inferiority." [85] The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) Childhood divide the media into two phases, 6-8 years and 9-11 years, and gives "stone development for every phase." [86] [87] Childhood average ( 7-10). Upon entering elementary school, children in this age group are beginning to think about the future and their "place in the world." Working with other students and wish for their friendship and acceptance becomes more important. This leads to "more independence from parents and family." As students develop mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings." They become less self-centered and show "more concern for others." [86] Childhood average (9-11). For children aged between 9 and 11 "Amicie and peer relationships" increased strength, complexity and importance. What results in a greater "pressure of the plague." They still grow less dependent on their families and are challenged academically. To address this challenge, increase their attention and learn to see other points of view. [87] Adolescence Main article: Psychology teenager Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent and / or the citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see Erikson) and the discovery of moral purpose (see William Damon). The intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning. A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the ability to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, and W. Hummel, J. January 1998) [88] It is divided into three parts, namely: Early Adolescence: Adolescence average 9-13 years: 13 to 15 years and late Adolescence: 15 to 18 The adolescent years unconsciously explores questions like "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" As children, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity or sense of self ?. The roles, behaviors and ideologies must be tried to select an identity. The confusion and the inability to choose vocation can result from the failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends. The main article: Young adults (psychology) The initial adulthood generally refers to the period between 18 and 29 years, [89] and according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a phase in which the development is mostly concentrated on maintaining relationships. [90] Examples include the creation of a bond of intimacy, the support of friends, and starting a family. Some theorists argue that the development of intimacy skills is based on the resolution of the earlier stages of development. A sense of identity obtained in the previous phases is also necessary for the development of intimacy. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others. A related framework for studying this part of life care to adult emerging. Scholars of emerging adulthood as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in the development of relations. Instead, this concept suggests that people who go after their teenage years in a period characterized as relationship building, and an overall sense of consistency with life, but with to live with parents, phases of self-discovery and experimentation. [91] Adultary media Main article: The average age for adults generally refers to the period between 29 and 49 years. During this time, middle-aged adults experience a one between generation and stagnation. They can have a sense of contributing to society, to the next generation, or to their immediate community; or develop a sense of drive. Physically, middle-age experience is a decrease in muscle strength, reaction time, sensory time and cardiac output. In addition, women experience menopause at an average age of 48.8 and a strong decrease in estrogen hormones. [92] Men experience an endocrine system event equivalent to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormonal fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in menopausal females. While men age lowered testosterone levels may contribute to mood swings and decreased sperm count. Sexual reactivity can also be affected, including delays in erection and longer periods of penis stimulation required to achieve ejaculation. The important influence of the biological and social changes experienced by women and men on adult media is reflected in this fact that depression is higher at the age of 48.5.5 years worldwide. [93] Excellent age Main article: Old age The World Health Organization does not find "No general agreement on the age in which a person becomes old". Most "developed countries" set age 60 or 65. However, in developing countries inability to make "active contribution" to society, not in chronological age, marks the beginning of old age. [94] According to the stages of Erikson's psychosocial development, old age is the stage where individuals value the quality of their lives. In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a feeling of integrity if they decide that their lives had success or a feeling of despair if the evaluation of their lives indicates a failure to achieve goals. [95] Physically, older people experience a decrease in muscle strength, reaction time, resistance, hearing, perception of distance and sense of smell. [96] They are also more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. [97] Programs intended for balance, muscle strength and mobility have shown to reduce disability among disabled elderly moderately (but not severely) [98] Sexual expression largely depends on the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity. [99] Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. The average age of onset for dementia in males is 78.8 and 81.9 for women. [100] It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age. [101] If normal intelligence increases or decreases with age, it depends on size and study. longitudinal studies show that perceptual speed, inductive reasoning and the decline of spatial orientation. [102] An article on cognitive development for adults reports that cross section studies show that "some skills have remained stable in the old age." [102] Parental variables alone are typically represented for 20-50 percent of the variance of child results [103]. All parents have their parental styles. Parental styles, according to Kimberly Kopko, are "based on two aspects of parental behavior, control and heat. Parent control refers to the degree to which parents manage the behavior of their children. The warmth of parents refers to the degree to which parents accept and reactivate the behavior of their children. "[104] Parentality styles IParental styles have been described in the literature for the development of the child: authoritative parenting is characterized by parents who have a high parental warmth, responsiveness and commitment, but low rate in negativity and conflict. [105] These parents are assertive but not intrusive or excessively restrictive. [106] This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic results. the benefits of authoritative parents arenecessarily universal. Among African American teenagers, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement without peer support for success. [105] Children raised by authoritative parents are "more likely to become independent, self-sufficient, socially accepted, academically successful and well-educated. They are less likely to report depression and anxiety, and less likely to engage in antisocial behaviors such as delinquency and drug use. "[107] Authoritarian parenthood is characterized by low levels of heat and responsiveness with high levels of impediment and corporate control. [105] These parents focus on obedience and regularly monitor their children. [106] In general, this style of parenting is associated with unsuitable results. The results are more harmful for middle-class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys. [106] Permissive parenthood is characterized by high levels of reactivity combined with low levels of engagement. [106] These parents are fuzzy and do not necessarily require mature behavior. [106] They allow a high degree of self-regulation and generally avoids comparison. [106] Compared to the children raised using the authoritative style, preschool girls collected in permissive families are less assertive. [106] Moreover, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised in authoritative parental styles. [106] Refuse or parenting negligent is the final category. This is characterized by low levels of engagement and reactivity. These parents are typically dismantled in the life of their child, devoid of structure in their parental styles and are not supported. [106] Children in this category are usually the least competent of all categories. [106] Mother and father factors parental roles in the development of children typically focused on the role of the mother. Recent literature, however, looked towards the Father as an important role in the development of the child. Taking a role for fathers, studies have shown that 15-month children benefit significantly from a substantial commitment to their father. [108] [109] In particular, a study in the United States and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing early sexual activity rates and teenage pregnancy rates in girls. [110] Also, another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and that single parents and homosexual couples can support positive results for children. [111] According to this research set, children need at least one constantly responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive emotional connection. Having more than one of these figures contributes to a greater probability of positive outcomes of the child. [111] Divorce Another parental factor often debated in terms of effects on child development is divorce. Divorce itself is not a determining factor in the child's negative outcomes. In fact, most children from divorced families are part of the normal range on psychological and cognitive functioning measures. [112] A number of mediation factors play a role in determining effects divorce has on a child, for example, families divorce with small children often face more difficult consequences in terms of demographic, social and economic changes than making families with older children. [112] The positive cover after divorce is part of a model associated with the child's copingWhile hostile parent behaviors lead to a destructive model that leaves children at risk [112]. Furthermore, the direct partial relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors that facilitate the development of the positive child after a divorce are the maternal heat, the relationship of positive father-child and cooperation between parents [112]. [112]. 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You and your world." 1: Short edition. CreatingIndependent Space Publishing Platform: 28. Cite journal requires |journal= (help) b Barbara Engler, Personality Theories, 9th edition (Cengage Learning, 2013), 142. On October 13, 2015. ^ a b "Development of children: Average infancy (6-8 years)". Disease control centres. ^ a b "Development of children: Average infancy (9-11 years)". Disease control centres. Retrieved 15 October 2015. "Developmental Theory". Arnett JJ, Zukauskien R, Sugimura K (December 2014). "The new phase of life of adulthood emerging at 18-29 years: implications for mental health". Lancet. Psychiatry. 1 (7): 569?76. doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(14)00080-7. AMPD 26361316. Adult development encyclopedia. Oryx Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-89774-669-4. "Recension of the emerging adult age: The windy road from teens late through the 1920s." Schoenaker DA, Jackson CA, Rowlands JV, Mishra GD (October 2014). 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"Una revisione della theory degli allegati nel contesto della genitorialit? teenager". 25 (2): 114?21. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2010.02.005. PMC 3051370. PMID 21320683. ^ Kopoko K (2007). "Stile and Adolescenti" (PDF). Cornell University Cooperative Estensione: URL Consultation il 20 novembre 2014. ^ a b c Taylor LC, Clayton JF, Jennifer D, Rowley SJ (1 Gennaio 2004). "Socializzazione accademica: comprensione delle influenze genitoriali sullo sviluppo scolastico-relato dei bambini nei primi anni" (PDF). Revisione della Psychology Generale. 8 (3): 163?178. Case C-327/99 Commission of the European Communities "L'influenza dello stile di kining sulla competenza teenager and sull'uso della sostanza". 11 (1): 56?95. ^ Dewar G. "Lo stile di genitorialit? autorevole: Calore, razionalit? and elevati standard." Una guida per il genitore con la mind scientifica". Scienza del Parenting. URL consultato il 20 novembre 2014. ^ "Fathers' Role in Children's Academic Achievement and Early Literacy. 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Risorse della library sulla psychology dello sviluppo Risorse nella your library Media relativi alla psychology dello sviluppo a Wikimedia Commons La societ? per la ricerca nello sviluppo dei bambini La psychology britannicaPSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY SECTION PSYCHOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT: lessons for teaching and learning psychology of development GMU psychology GMU online resources GMU for development psychology: a web directory of development psychology organizations Home Economics Archive: Research, tradition , History (hearth) A collection of e-books of over 1,000 books passed from 1850 to 1950, created by the Mann Library of Cornell University. Includes several hundred works for human development, children's collection and detailed family studies in a specific bibliography. Developmental Psychology Area Subject Area to Plos Recovered by " " title = development_psychology & oldid = 1037588137 "

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