Methods in Context: Education



Unit 3: Theory and Methods Topic 2Structural Theories center2322500Objectives:Know the main features of the structural perspectives in Sociology, Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism. Understand the difference between consensus and conflict theories. Be able to evaluate the strengths and limitations of structural perspectives in Sociology Structure Versus Action:-343373345589 STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVESMacro – large scale perspectivesThey see society as a real thing over and above the individualSociety shapes our behaviour and ideasIndividuals are like puppets, manipulated by societyThe theory is deterministic in that it believes individuals have no free will to shape their own destinyOur behaviour is pre-determined and shaped by external social forcesIt is a top down approachSocial structures are institutions that control individuals, for example; education, religion, the family, mediaWhich theories could be classified as structural perspectives?00 STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVESMacro – large scale perspectivesThey see society as a real thing over and above the individualSociety shapes our behaviour and ideasIndividuals are like puppets, manipulated by societyThe theory is deterministic in that it believes individuals have no free will to shape their own destinyOur behaviour is pre-determined and shaped by external social forcesIt is a top down approachSocial structures are institutions that control individuals, for example; education, religion, the family, mediaWhich theories could be classified as structural perspectives?3203846302463ACTION PERSPECTIVESThey start from the opposite positionThey are micro level perspectivesThey are bottom up approachesAction perspectives focus on the actions and interactions of individualsThey believe individuals have free will and shape their own destinyThey are more voluntaristic – the opposite to deterministicIndividuals have choiceOur actions and ideas are not determined by societyWe possess agency – the ability to act as free agents, creating and shaping society through our choices, meanings and actionsSociety is a construct and not a real thingThese include Symbolic interactionism, phenomenology and ethnomethodology 00ACTION PERSPECTIVESThey start from the opposite positionThey are micro level perspectivesThey are bottom up approachesAction perspectives focus on the actions and interactions of individualsThey believe individuals have free will and shape their own destinyThey are more voluntaristic – the opposite to deterministicIndividuals have choiceOur actions and ideas are not determined by societyWe possess agency – the ability to act as free agents, creating and shaping society through our choices, meanings and actionsSociety is a construct and not a real thingThese include Symbolic interactionism, phenomenology and ethnomethodology For Structural perspectives behaviour is shaped by society…. Which theory said what?! People commit suicide because of social factors such as rapid social change People underachieve in education because of material deprivation 42576751543050Gender is learnt through socialisationPeople commit crime because of capitalismPeople commit crime because of strainFunctionalism: Many of the key functionalist ideas can be traced back to Emile ________________________ in the 19th century. However it was _______________ who developed functionalism as a systematic theory in the mid 20th century. Parson’s theory became the basis of the dominant school of thought in Sociology during the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States. Functionalism is a _________________, _________________ theory. It focuses on the needs of the social system as a whole and how these needs shape all the main features of society. It is also a _________________ theory. It sees society as based on agreement among its members about values, goals and rules.Functionalism is a ________________ theory that shares the goals of the enlightenment project. Functionalists believe that we can obtain true knowledge of the functioning of society and this knowledge can be usre to improve society.Parsons Consensus modernist structural Durkheim macro Recap for 4 things you can remember from crime and deviance linked to Functionalism. This can be sociologists, key terms or ideas.Functionalist theory on crime and deviancecenter179002SOCIETY AS A SYSTEM – Organic AnalogySociety is like a living body (Organic analogy) with three main similarities:System – organisms such as the human body and society are both self-regulating and inter-relatedSystem needs – organisms have needs, such as nutrition. If they are not met the organism will die. For example, members must be socialised if society is to continue.Functions – the function of any part of a system is the contribution it makes to meeting the system’s needs and thus ensuring its survival. The economy helps maintain the need for food and shelter.VALUE CONSENSUS AND SOCIAL ORDERParsons argues that social order is achieved through the existence of a shared culture, a central value system. It provides a framework that allows individuals to cooperate, by laying down rules about how they should behave. Social order is only possible as long as members agree on these norms and values. Parson calls this agreement ‘Value consensus’, it is the glue that holds society together. INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUALSThe basic function of value consensus is therefore to make social order possible. It does this by integrating individuals into the social system, thereby directing them towards meeting the system needs. The system has two mechanisms for ensuring that individuals conform to shared norms and meet the system’s needs:Socialisation – the social system teaches individuals societies norms and values. Individuals internalise these and the norms and values become part of their personality. There are a number of different socialisation agencies e.g. education and the family.Social control – positive sanctions reward conformity, while negative ones punish deviance.THE SYSTEM’S NEEDSParsons identifies four basic needs (AGIL), each need is met by a separate sub-system of institutions:ADAPTATION – the social system meets its members’ material needs. These are met by the economic sub-systemGOAL ATTAINMENT – society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political sub-system, through institutions such as parliamentINTEGRATION – the different parts of the system must be integrated together in order to pursue shared goals. This is performed by the sub-system of religion, education and the mediaLATENCY – refers to processed that maintain society over time. The kinship sub-system provides pattern maintenance (socialising individuals) and tension management (a way to let off steam)Parsons describes adaptation and goal attainment as ‘instrumental needs’ meaning they function as a means to an end e.g. producing food to suatin the population. He described integration and latency as ‘expressive needs as they involved the expression or channelling of emotions. By carrying out their respective functions, the four sub-systems ensure that all society’s needs are met and social stability is maintained.00SOCIETY AS A SYSTEM – Organic AnalogySociety is like a living body (Organic analogy) with three main similarities:System – organisms such as the human body and society are both self-regulating and inter-relatedSystem needs – organisms have needs, such as nutrition. If they are not met the organism will die. For example, members must be socialised if society is to continue.Functions – the function of any part of a system is the contribution it makes to meeting the system’s needs and thus ensuring its survival. The economy helps maintain the need for food and shelter.VALUE CONSENSUS AND SOCIAL ORDERParsons argues that social order is achieved through the existence of a shared culture, a central value system. It provides a framework that allows individuals to cooperate, by laying down rules about how they should behave. Social order is only possible as long as members agree on these norms and values. Parson calls this agreement ‘Value consensus’, it is the glue that holds society together. INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUALSThe basic function of value consensus is therefore to make social order possible. It does this by integrating individuals into the social system, thereby directing them towards meeting the system needs. The system has two mechanisms for ensuring that individuals conform to shared norms and meet the system’s needs:Socialisation – the social system teaches individuals societies norms and values. Individuals internalise these and the norms and values become part of their personality. There are a number of different socialisation agencies e.g. education and the family.Social control – positive sanctions reward conformity, while negative ones punish deviance.THE SYSTEM’S NEEDSParsons identifies four basic needs (AGIL), each need is met by a separate sub-system of institutions:ADAPTATION – the social system meets its members’ material needs. These are met by the economic sub-systemGOAL ATTAINMENT – society needs to set goals and allocate resources to achieve them. This is the function of the political sub-system, through institutions such as parliamentINTEGRATION – the different parts of the system must be integrated together in order to pursue shared goals. This is performed by the sub-system of religion, education and the mediaLATENCY – refers to processed that maintain society over time. The kinship sub-system provides pattern maintenance (socialising individuals) and tension management (a way to let off steam)Parsons describes adaptation and goal attainment as ‘instrumental needs’ meaning they function as a means to an end e.g. producing food to suatin the population. He described integration and latency as ‘expressive needs as they involved the expression or channelling of emotions. By carrying out their respective functions, the four sub-systems ensure that all society’s needs are met and social stability is maintained.Functionalism: TYPES OF SOCIETYParsons identifies two types of society – traditional and modern. Each type has its own typical patterns of norms. Traditional How do societies change from one to the other? ModernCollective interestsIndividual interestParticularistic standardsUniversalistic standards-6056424986193Questions:Define the term’ structural differentiation.’Why does this process lead to a loss of functions in the kinship system?How does Parsons also see gradual change occurring through ‘equilibrium’?00Questions:Define the term’ structural differentiation.’Why does this process lead to a loss of functions in the kinship system?How does Parsons also see gradual change occurring through ‘equilibrium’?Evaluation of Fucntionalism: center23363MERTON’S INTERNAL CRITIQUE:Merton criticises Parsons’ system theory on three main grounds:Indispensibility – Parsons assumes that everything in society (family, religion) is functionally indispensible in its existing form. Merton argues this is an untested assumption and that it is possible to have functional alternatives. E.g. Non-nuclear family structures can perform socialisation equally well.Functional unity – complex modern societies have many parts, which are not necessarily related. Instead of functional unity, some parts may have functional autonomy from others. E.g. connection between the structure of banking and the rules of netball?Universal functionalism – not everything in society performs a positive functions. Some things may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others. The central point behind Merton’s criticisms is that we simply cannot assume, as Parsons does, that society is always and necessarily a smooth-running, well-integrated society. 00MERTON’S INTERNAL CRITIQUE:Merton criticises Parsons’ system theory on three main grounds:Indispensibility – Parsons assumes that everything in society (family, religion) is functionally indispensible in its existing form. Merton argues this is an untested assumption and that it is possible to have functional alternatives. E.g. Non-nuclear family structures can perform socialisation equally well.Functional unity – complex modern societies have many parts, which are not necessarily related. Instead of functional unity, some parts may have functional autonomy from others. E.g. connection between the structure of banking and the rules of netball?Universal functionalism – not everything in society performs a positive functions. Some things may be functional for some groups and dysfunctional for others. The central point behind Merton’s criticisms is that we simply cannot assume, as Parsons does, that society is always and necessarily a smooth-running, well-integrated society. -428625217104LOGICAL CRITICISMS – critiques argue that functionalism is unscientific as it is unfalsifiable. How?00LOGICAL CRITICISMS – critiques argue that functionalism is unscientific as it is unfalsifiable. How?EXTERNAL CRITIQUE:284735318742. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES – it is unable to explain conflict and change. Marxists argue society is not harmonious, rather it is based on exploitation and conflicts of interest between the social classes. Conflict theorist see functionalism as a conservative ideology which legitimates the status quo. It also legitimates privileged positions of the powerful.002. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES – it is unable to explain conflict and change. Marxists argue society is not harmonious, rather it is based on exploitation and conflicts of interest between the social classes. Conflict theorist see functionalism as a conservative ideology which legitimates the status quo. It also legitimates privileged positions of the powerful.-6768942213593. ACTION PERSPECTIVE CRITICISMS – Dennis Wrong criticises functionalism’s ‘over-socialised’ or deterministic view of the individual. Individuals have no free will or choice – they are mere puppets whose strings are pulled by the social system. From an action perspective, this is fundamentally mistaken. Functionalism reifies society – it treats it as a distinct thing over and above individuals with its own needs. It is not a thing out there with its own independent existence, it is constructed by individuals giving meanings to their worlds.003. ACTION PERSPECTIVE CRITICISMS – Dennis Wrong criticises functionalism’s ‘over-socialised’ or deterministic view of the individual. Individuals have no free will or choice – they are mere puppets whose strings are pulled by the social system. From an action perspective, this is fundamentally mistaken. Functionalism reifies society – it treats it as a distinct thing over and above individuals with its own needs. It is not a thing out there with its own independent existence, it is constructed by individuals giving meanings to their worlds.center2988374. POSTMODERNIST CRITICISMS – functionalists assumes that society is stable and orderly. As such, it cannot account for the diversity and instability that exists in today’s postmodern society. Functionalism is a meta-narrative. These ‘big stories are no longer possible in a gragmented society.004. POSTMODERNIST CRITICISMS – functionalists assumes that society is stable and orderly. As such, it cannot account for the diversity and instability that exists in today’s postmodern society. Functionalism is a meta-narrative. These ‘big stories are no longer possible in a gragmented society.Marxism: Marxism has at least one thing in common with Functionalism. It tends to share the view that society is a structure or system that shapes individuals behaviour and ideas.However, they differe sharply in two ways;Marxists reject the functionalist view that the social structure is a harmonious one based on value consensus. Instead they see it as based on a conflict of economic interests between social classes of unequal power amd wealth.Marxists also reject functionalism vierw of society as stable, and stress the possibility of sudden, profound and revolutionary change. Stability is merely the result of the dominant class being able to impose their will on society.Marxism is based on the ideas of Karl Marx. Like Durkheim, Marx believed that it was possible to understand society scientifically and that this knowledge would point towards a better society. Marx did not see progress as smooth and gradual but instead as a contradictory process in which capitalism would increase human misery before giving way to a classless communist society.Recap for 4 things you can remember from crime and deviance linked to Marxism. This can be sociologists, key terms or ideas.Marxist theory on crime and deviance-556895285750KARL MARX’S KEY IDEASHISTORIC MATERIALISM – materialism is the view that humans are beings with material needs, such as food, shelter and clothing and they must work to meet them. In doing so, they use the forces of production (means of production). Over time, as the forces of production grow and develop, so too the social relations of production also change. In particular, a division of labour develops, and this eventually gives rise to two classes – a class that owns the MOP and a class of labourersCLASS SOCIETY AND EXPLOITATION – as society develops the class that owns the MOP exploit and control the labour of others for their own benefit. In particularly, they can control societies surplus products. This is the difference between what the labourers actually produce and what is needed simply to keep them alive and workingCAPITALISM – this type of society has three distinctive features; the proletariat are legally free and separated from the MOP. They do not own the MOP, they have to sell their labour power to the bourgeoisie in return for wages. However, this is not an equal exchange. The proletariat do not receive the value of the goods that their labour produces, but only the cost of subsistence. The difference between the two is the surplus value. There is competition in society which drives small businesses into the ranks of the proletariat. Capitalism also expands the forces of production in the pursuit of profitCLASS CONSCIOUSNESS – capitalism sows the seeds of its own destruction. Capitalism creates the conditions under which the working class develop a consciousness of its own economic and political interests in opposition to those of its exploiters. As a result, the proletariat moves from being merely a class in itself to becoming a class for itself, whose members are aware of the need to overthrow capitalismIDEOLOGY – the class that owns the MOP also owns and controls the means of mental production – the production of ideas. The institutions that produce and spread ideas, such as religion, education and the media, all serve the dominant class by producing ideologies – sets of ideas and beliefs that legitimise the existing social order as desirable or inevitable. ALIENATION – alienation is the result of our loss of control over our labour and its products and therefore our separation from our true nature. Alienation exists in all class societies, because the owners control the production process for their own needs. However, workers are completely separated from and have no control over the production process in capitalism. THE STATE, REVOLUTION AND COMMUNISM – the state exists to protect the interests of the class of owners who control it. As such they form the ruling class. They use the state as a weapon in the class structure. Any class that wishes to lead a revolution and become the dominant class must overthrow the existing ruling class. 00KARL MARX’S KEY IDEASHISTORIC MATERIALISM – materialism is the view that humans are beings with material needs, such as food, shelter and clothing and they must work to meet them. In doing so, they use the forces of production (means of production). Over time, as the forces of production grow and develop, so too the social relations of production also change. In particular, a division of labour develops, and this eventually gives rise to two classes – a class that owns the MOP and a class of labourersCLASS SOCIETY AND EXPLOITATION – as society develops the class that owns the MOP exploit and control the labour of others for their own benefit. In particularly, they can control societies surplus products. This is the difference between what the labourers actually produce and what is needed simply to keep them alive and workingCAPITALISM – this type of society has three distinctive features; the proletariat are legally free and separated from the MOP. They do not own the MOP, they have to sell their labour power to the bourgeoisie in return for wages. However, this is not an equal exchange. The proletariat do not receive the value of the goods that their labour produces, but only the cost of subsistence. The difference between the two is the surplus value. There is competition in society which drives small businesses into the ranks of the proletariat. Capitalism also expands the forces of production in the pursuit of profitCLASS CONSCIOUSNESS – capitalism sows the seeds of its own destruction. Capitalism creates the conditions under which the working class develop a consciousness of its own economic and political interests in opposition to those of its exploiters. As a result, the proletariat moves from being merely a class in itself to becoming a class for itself, whose members are aware of the need to overthrow capitalismIDEOLOGY – the class that owns the MOP also owns and controls the means of mental production – the production of ideas. The institutions that produce and spread ideas, such as religion, education and the media, all serve the dominant class by producing ideologies – sets of ideas and beliefs that legitimise the existing social order as desirable or inevitable. ALIENATION – alienation is the result of our loss of control over our labour and its products and therefore our separation from our true nature. Alienation exists in all class societies, because the owners control the production process for their own needs. However, workers are completely separated from and have no control over the production process in capitalism. THE STATE, REVOLUTION AND COMMUNISM – the state exists to protect the interests of the class of owners who control it. As such they form the ruling class. They use the state as a weapon in the class structure. Any class that wishes to lead a revolution and become the dominant class must overthrow the existing ruling class. Marxism: 2971800140970-171450140970Criticisms of Marx:-48577511430CLASS – Marx has a very simplistic, one-dimensional view of inequality – he sees class as the only important division in society. Weber argues that status and power differences can also be important sources of inequality, independently of class. Feminists argue that gender is a more fundamental source of inequality than class. 00CLASS – Marx has a very simplistic, one-dimensional view of inequality – he sees class as the only important division in society. Weber argues that status and power differences can also be important sources of inequality, independently of class. Feminists argue that gender is a more fundamental source of inequality than class. -533400-12702. ECONOMIC DETERMINISM – the view that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, including social change. Critics argue that this fails to recognise that humans have free will and can bring about change through their own conscious actions. This model neglects the use of ideas to bring about social change (Weber). 002. ECONOMIC DETERMINISM – the view that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, including social change. Critics argue that this fails to recognise that humans have free will and can bring about change through their own conscious actions. This model neglects the use of ideas to bring about social change (Weber). The two ‘Marxisms’Since Marx’s death in 1883, theabsence of revolutions in the West has led many Marxists to reject the economic determinism of the base-superstructuremodel. Instead, they have tried to explain why capitalism has persisted and how it might be overthrown. Two broad approaches can be identified;Humanistic/ critical Marxism, this has some similarities with action theories and interpretive sociology.Scientific/structuralist Marxism, this has similarities with positivist sociology.Critical Marxism - GramsciStructuralist Marxism - AlthusserDraws on Marx’s early writings of alienation and peoples subjective experience.Draws on Marx’s later work, where he writes about the ‘laws’ of capitalist development working towards inevitable results.Marxism is a political critique of capitalism as alienating and inhuman, they call to overthrow itMarxism is a science. It discovers the laws that govern the workings of capitalism.Voluntarism: humans have free will. They are active agents who make their own historyDeterminism: structural factors determine the course of history. Individuals are passive puppets, victims of ideology.Socialism will come about when people become conscious of the need to overthrown capitalism. Encourages political action.Socialism will come about only when the contradictions of capitalism bring about the systems inevitable collapse. Tends ot discourage political action.-438150306219Gramsci discussed the concept of hegemony – this means:The ideological or moral leadership of society – the ruling class maintains it’s power through the domination of ideasGramsci rejects the idea of economic determinism as an explanation of change. The transition of communism will never come about simply as a result of economic forces. Even though mass unemployments and falling wages may create the preconditions for revolution, ideas play a central role in determining whether or not change will occur.It also maintains its dominance in two ways; firstly through coercion, through force using the army, police, prisons and courts, forcing people to accept its rule. Secondly through consent (hegemony), it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate. The bourgeoisie are able to spread ideas as they control the institutions e.g. media, religion and education.However, the hegemony of the ruling class is never complete for two reasons:The ruling class are the minority. To rule they need the create a power bloc by creating alliances with other groups such as the middle classes. This often involves ideological compromises.The proletariat have dual consciousness. Their ideas are influenced not only by bourgeois ideology but also by material conditions of life (the poverty and exploitation they experience). This means they can see through the dominant ideology to some extent.He argues there will only be a revolution if the proletariat develop a counter-hegemony to win the leadership of society from the bourgeoisie. Therefore the proletariat must produce their own ‘organic intellectuals’. At the moment the rest of society accepts the ruling class hegemony and therefore there is not a revolution.What does Gramsci means by the idea of ‘organic intellectuals’? Who discusses similar concepts to the ruling class hegemony?00Gramsci discussed the concept of hegemony – this means:The ideological or moral leadership of society – the ruling class maintains it’s power through the domination of ideasGramsci rejects the idea of economic determinism as an explanation of change. The transition of communism will never come about simply as a result of economic forces. Even though mass unemployments and falling wages may create the preconditions for revolution, ideas play a central role in determining whether or not change will occur.It also maintains its dominance in two ways; firstly through coercion, through force using the army, police, prisons and courts, forcing people to accept its rule. Secondly through consent (hegemony), it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate. The bourgeoisie are able to spread ideas as they control the institutions e.g. media, religion and education.However, the hegemony of the ruling class is never complete for two reasons:The ruling class are the minority. To rule they need the create a power bloc by creating alliances with other groups such as the middle classes. This often involves ideological compromises.The proletariat have dual consciousness. Their ideas are influenced not only by bourgeois ideology but also by material conditions of life (the poverty and exploitation they experience). This means they can see through the dominant ideology to some extent.He argues there will only be a revolution if the proletariat develop a counter-hegemony to win the leadership of society from the bourgeoisie. Therefore the proletariat must produce their own ‘organic intellectuals’. At the moment the rest of society accepts the ruling class hegemony and therefore there is not a revolution.What does Gramsci means by the idea of ‘organic intellectuals’? Who discusses similar concepts to the ruling class hegemony?Marxism, Gramsci and hegemony: -438150122474CRITIQUE – Outline 2 criticisms of Gramscis theory of hegemony.00CRITIQUE – Outline 2 criticisms of Gramscis theory of hegemony.Marxism, Althusser’s structural Marxism:-607573168154It is not people’s actions but social structures that really shape history and these are the proper subject of scientific enquiry. Outline Marx’s base-superstructure model - p213Althusser rejects this model. He puts forward a structural determinism theory. In this model, capitalist society has three structures or levels:Economic level –compromising all those activities that involve producing something in order to satisfy a needPolitical level – compromising all forms of organisationIdeological level – involving the ways that people see themselves and their worldIn the base-superstructure model, there is one-way causality: the economic base determines everything about the other two levels. In Althusser’s model the political and ideological levels have partial independence from the economic level. They can affect what happens to the economy.Ideological and repressive state apparatus – the state performs political and ideological functions that ensure the reproduction of capitalism. He divides the state into two ‘apparatuses’:Repressive state apparatuses (RSA) – these are the armed bodies of men – the army, the police, prisons and so on that coerce the working class into complying with the will of the bourgeoisie. This is how Marxists have traditionally seen the stateIdeological state apparatuses (ISA) – these include the media, the education system, the family, trade unions and other institutions. ISAs ideologically manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimateThis is similar to Gramsci’s distinction betweem coercion (RSAs) and consent (ISAs)00It is not people’s actions but social structures that really shape history and these are the proper subject of scientific enquiry. Outline Marx’s base-superstructure model - p213Althusser rejects this model. He puts forward a structural determinism theory. In this model, capitalist society has three structures or levels:Economic level –compromising all those activities that involve producing something in order to satisfy a needPolitical level – compromising all forms of organisationIdeological level – involving the ways that people see themselves and their worldIn the base-superstructure model, there is one-way causality: the economic base determines everything about the other two levels. In Althusser’s model the political and ideological levels have partial independence from the economic level. They can affect what happens to the economy.Ideological and repressive state apparatus – the state performs political and ideological functions that ensure the reproduction of capitalism. He divides the state into two ‘apparatuses’:Repressive state apparatuses (RSA) – these are the armed bodies of men – the army, the police, prisons and so on that coerce the working class into complying with the will of the bourgeoisie. This is how Marxists have traditionally seen the stateIdeological state apparatuses (ISA) – these include the media, the education system, the family, trade unions and other institutions. ISAs ideologically manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimateThis is similar to Gramsci’s distinction betweem coercion (RSAs) and consent (ISAs)-636757107112CRITIQUE – Outline 2 of Althusser’s criticisms of humanism.00CRITIQUE – Outline 2 of Althusser’s criticisms of humanism.-637567330606CRITIQUE – Outline 2 criticisms of Althusser00CRITIQUE – Outline 2 criticisms of Althussercenter1364QUESTIONS:Suggest two similarities between functionalism and MarxismWhat are the key arguments of Marxism?What is meant by the term ‘repressive state apparatus’?What is meant by the term ‘ideological state apparatus’?Give two criticisms of Marxism00QUESTIONS:Suggest two similarities between functionalism and MarxismWhat are the key arguments of Marxism?What is meant by the term ‘repressive state apparatus’?What is meant by the term ‘ideological state apparatus’?Give two criticisms of MarxismFeminism: 277359916348left77929There are four main types:Liberal Radical Marxist Difference 020000There are four main types:Liberal Radical Marxist Difference Feminism sees society as male dominated and it seeks to describe, explain and change the position of women in society. It is therefore both a theory of women’s subordination and a political movement. Complete the table below with your prior knowledge:Type of Feminism Women are oppressed by… The solution is…Key concepts/sociologists associated are… Radical FeminismMarxist FeminismLiberal FeminismDifference Feminism444517618398800Liberal or Reformist Feminism:They believe that all human beings should have equal rights. Liberal feminists believe that women can achieve gender equality in this way. They argue that laws and policies against sex discrimination in employment and education can secure equal opportunities for women. Liberal feminists also campaign for cultural change. In their view, traditional prejudices and stereotypes about gender differences are a barrier to equality. They reject that biological differences make women less competent or rational than men or that men are biologically less emotional or nurturing than women. Sex and gender – like Anne Oakley they argue that there is a difference between sex and gender. Sex – refers to biological differences between males and females, such as their reproductive roleGender – refers to culturally constructed differences between the ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ roles and identities assigned to males and females. These are transmitted to each generation through socialisationWhile sex differences are fixed, gender differences vary between cultures and over time. For liberal feminists, sexist attitudes and stereotypical beliefs about gender are culturally constructed and transmitted through socialisation. Therefore to achieve gender equality, we must change society’s socialisation patterns. Liberal feminists believe that:?Changes in socialisation and culture are gradually leading to more rational attitudes to gender and overcoming ignorance and prejudice?Political action to introduce anti-discriminatory laws and policies is steadily bringing about progress to a fairer society in which a person’s gender is no longer importantThey critique functionalists’ role of the instrumental and expressive roles. They challenge this division and argue that men are just as capable of performing roles in both spheres.AO3 Evaluation of Liberal/Reformist Feminism4697703220200Radical Feminism:Radical Feminism emerged in the 1970s and its key focus is on society being a patriarchy in which men take control and exploit women. Patriarchal control is universal and is the primary and most fundamental form of social inequality and conflict. They argue that all men oppress women, especially in the form of women’s unpaid domestic labour and their sexual services. ?The personal is political – they argue that patriarchal oppression is direct and personal. It occurs not only in the public sphere of work and politics, but, also in the private sphere of the family. Radical feminists therefore focus on the ways in which patriarchal power is exercised through personal relationships, often through sexual or physical violence. ?Change – they argue that women need to lead separate lives from men in order for personal and sexual relations to stop being patriarchal. They emphasise that political lesbianism is needed for society to change, arguing that sleeping with men is like sleeping with the enemy and that lesbianism is the only non-oppressive form of sexuality.AO3 Evaluation of Radical Feminism:354086818261000Marxist Feminism:Marxist Feminists dismiss the liberal feminist view that women’s subordination as the product of stereotyping and outdated attitudes. They also disagree with radical feminism in the view that it is the result of patriarchal oppression. For Marxist feminists, women’s subordination in a capitalist society results from their primary role as unpaid homemaker, which places them in a dependent economic position in the family.?Women are a source of cheap, exploitable labour for employers?Women are a reserve army of labour?Women reproduce the labour force?Women absorb anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalismBarrett – the ideology of familism – argues that we must give more emphasis to women’s consciousness and motivations and the role of ideology in maintaining their oppression. Women marry and live in conventional nuclear families because of ideologies which present the nuclear family and its sexual division of labour is natural and normal. This helps keep women subordinated.AO3: Evaluation of Marxist FeminismDual System Feminism:-78105224155Hartmann (1979) argues that capitalism and patriarchy are intertwined. Known as ‘patriarchal capitalism.’ She argues that to understand women’s position we must look at the relationship between the domestic division of labour and paid work because the two systems reinforce each other. For example, domestic work limits women’s availability for paid work but the lack of work opportunities drives many women into marriage and economic dependence. Walby (1988) also argues that the two systems are interrelated, however their interests are not always the same. They collide over the exploitation of females. Capitalism demands cheap female labour but patriarchy wants to keep women subordinated in the home. In the long run, capitalism is more powerful so women are allowed into the sphere of paid work but only in low status ‘women’s jobs.’ 00Hartmann (1979) argues that capitalism and patriarchy are intertwined. Known as ‘patriarchal capitalism.’ She argues that to understand women’s position we must look at the relationship between the domestic division of labour and paid work because the two systems reinforce each other. For example, domestic work limits women’s availability for paid work but the lack of work opportunities drives many women into marriage and economic dependence. Walby (1988) also argues that the two systems are interrelated, however their interests are not always the same. They collide over the exploitation of females. Capitalism demands cheap female labour but patriarchy wants to keep women subordinated in the home. In the long run, capitalism is more powerful so women are allowed into the sphere of paid work but only in low status ‘women’s jobs.’ Post Structural and Difference Feminism;Difference feminism do not see women as a single homogenous group. They argue that middle-class women and working-class women, white and black women, lesbian and heterosexual women have very different experiences of patriarchy, capitalism, racism, homophobia and so on. They argue that feminist theory has claimed a ‘false universality’ for itself – it claimed to be all about women, but in reality was only about the experiences of white, Western, heterosexual, middle-class women. Post-structuralist feminists such as Judith Butler offer an alternative approach. It is concerned with discourses and power/knowledge. Discourses are a way of seeing, thinking or speaking about something. The world is made up of many, often competing discourses – for example, religious, scientific, medical and artistic. For post-structuralism, there is no fixed essence of what it is to be a woman. Because our identities are constituted through discourses and because there are many different discourses in different times and cultures, there can be no fixed entity called ‘womanhood’ that is the same everywhere. Butler argues that poststructuralism, offers advantages for feminism. It enables feminists to ‘de-construct’ (analyse) different discourses to reveal how they subordinate women. Thus, we can examine the discourses of medicine, sexuality, advertising and science to uncover the power/knowledge by which they define and oppress women. In Butler’s view, therefore, by stressing the diversity of discourses, poststructuralism recognises and legitimates the diversity of women’s lives and struggles, rather than prioritising some and excluding others.AO3: Evaluation of poststructuralist feminismFeminism Quickcheck questionsWhat is meant by ‘malestream’ sociology?Which type of feminist is most likely to believe equalit can be gained through reforming legislation and changing attitudes?Explain the difference between sex and gender.Which feminist perspective argues that all men oppress all women?True and false? Marxist feminists believe gender inequalities only benefit capitalism.Suggest three ways women’s subordination benefits capitalism.How might capitalism and patriarchy reinforce each other?Why do difference feminists criticise white Western feminists?What is meant by ‘essentialism’?center-524699Structural Perspective Review00Structural Perspective ReviewTHEORYWhat the theory said about EducationWhat the theory said about family FunctionalismMarxismFeminismKey Concepts to learn:ConceptDefinitionOrganic AnalogyValue ConsensusHistoric MaterialismCapitalismClass consciousnessIdeologyAlienationHegemonyIdeological State ApparatusRepressive State ApparatusPatriarchyExam Questions:Item A Marxism is a structural theory that sees class conflict as the key feature of society. Society is divided into two opposing classes, one of which exploits the labour of the other. All social institutions are shaped by this fact and they function to reproduce and legitimise inequality. Nevertheless, Marxists believe that ultimately, the proletariat will overthrow capitalism and create a classless society. However, there are disagreements among Marxists. Other Sociologists also argue that class is no longer as important and that there are other divisions in society. Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the usefulness of Marxism to our understanding of society. (20)Item BAll feminists argue that women occupy a subordinate position in society and all feminists wish to end this state of affairs. However, they differ about both the causes of the problem and its solution. For example, Liberal Feminists argue that traditional stereotypes of about women’s abilities have kept them subordinated, but that changes in laws, policies and socialisation patterns will gradually bring about gender equality. However, both radical and Marxist feminists argue that women’s oppression has deeper roots and requires more fundamental revolutionary changes in order to end it. Applying material from item B and your own knowledge evaluate the contribution of Feminists to our understanding of society (20) Item CFunctionalism is a consensus theory. It sees society as based on a set of shared values and this value consensus is the basis for social order. It is also a systems theory. It emphasises the way the social system shapes social institutions and the behaviour patterns of individuals. Society is seen as a system with its own separate existence and needs. However some critics claim that functionalism understates the extent of conflict in society. Others argue that functionalism is too deterministic, portraying individuals as ‘puppets of society.’ Applying material from item C and your own knowledge evaluate the contribution of functionalism to our understanding of society (20) Item DSome sociologists take a consensus approach to the study of society. For example, fucntionalists see society as based on shared values and with all its parts working harmoniously together to meet the needs of the social system.Other sociologists take a conflict approach. For example, Marxists see society as divided by a fundamental conflict in which one class uses its power to exploit the other. Labelling theory and Weber’s social action theoy also highlight the importance of conflict and power. Applying material from Item D and your own knowledge evaluate the view that conflict approaches are more useful than consensus approaches to our understanding of society (20) June 2017 ................
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