Anatomy and Physiology



I. General Physiology, cell to cell communication, homeostasis and endocrinology

➢ Basic physiology and anatomy (Ch 1-5, chemistry, cell biology)

• Define molecule, cell, tissue, organ, and organ system. Explain their relationships according to level of complexity. Identify examples of each.

• Distinguish the terms element, ion, molecule, amino acid, carbohydrate, lipid, protein.

• Identify the components of a cell and the role of each component.

• Diagram and describe the composition of a cell membrane.

• List ten major organ systems and explain their functions.

• List and describe the four tissue types (epithelium, connective, muscle, nerve).

• List the components of different connective tissue types and describe how these components contribute to the function of the tissue type.

• Use anatomical terms accurately and specifically in descriptions.

• Represent information through maps (see text p.8), graphs, diagrams, and verbal or written descriptions.

• Explain processes using mechanistic vs. teleological descriptions.

➢ Cells, Cell Membranes and Water and solute movement across membranes (Ch.5)

• Diagram a membrane in cross-section and explain how the composition influences the membrane permeability of different molecules.

• List and describe the function of membrane protein types and structures.

• Write Fick’s law of diffusion and predict how changes in concentration gradient, membrane surface area, resistance, thickness and temperature will change the rate of diffusion of a compound.

• Differentiate the following types of membrane transport and their energy source: diffusion, facilitated diffusion, primary active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis. Identify specific examples for each.

• State the method of movements of oxygen, carbon dioxide, ions, glucose, proteins, hydrophobic molecules and hydrophilic molecules across the cell membrane.

• Draw an epithelium, labeling the apical and basolateral membranes. Trace movement of a compound across the epithelium. Explain the functional significance of a polarized distribution of transport proteins to the apical or basolateral membrane.

• Explain saturation, competition, and specificity for a transport or receptor protein.

• Diagram a cell with the components to perform specific tasks.

• Differentiate between the terms osmole, osmolarity, osmolality and tonicity. List typical values and ranges for plasma osmolarity and osmolality (see text back cover).

• Use measurements with molecular weight, grams, mole, and osmole.

• Define and convert between units used to describe concentration of a solution: percent, Eq/l, grams/l, molarity, osmolarity. (see text pp.35-36)

• List the body water compartments of the body and describe their separation.

• Differentiate between hyper-, hypo-, and isosmotic solutions and predict osmosis between solutions of these types.

• List the normal value and range for plasma and interstitial Na+, K+, H+ (pH), HCO3-, Cl-, Ca2+ and glucose.

• List the normal value and range for intracellular Na+, K+, H+ (pH), HCO3-, Cl-, Ca2+.

• Differentiate between hyper-, hypo-, and isotonic solutions and predict solute movement and osmosis in and out of cells for each.

• Describe the action of water and solutes in various solutions using penetrating (glucose, urea) and non-penetrating (NaCl) solutes (including Table 5-9 IV solutions).

➢ Cell to cell communication, homeostasis and control pathways (Ch. 6)

• Distinguish among types of cell-to-cell communication.

• List the four classes of membrane receptors. Explain how receptors facilitate specific cellular responses.

• List and describe the components of signal transduction and the molecules involved. Trace specific second messenger signal transduction pathways (see tables 6.1 & 6.2).

• Define each of the following and predict their effect on signal transduction:

o agonist and antagonist for one receptor

o receptor isoforms (one ligand, multiple receptors)

o one ligand, delivered at a varied rate (tonic control)

o two antagonistic ligands on one target tissue

• Describe the principles of and give an example of positive feedback, negative feedback and feed forward control.

• List the components of a control pathway (summary Fig. 6-30). Note that you will use these components to construct neural, muscular and endocrine pathways.

• Given an example physiological process, identify its control pathway components.

➢ Endocrinology (Ch.7)

• Define hormone, target cell, ligand, receptor, endocrine, paracrine and autocrine.

• State the basic characteristics of hormones.

• For each hormone in Figs 7-2 and 7-13, state the following:

- full name (spelling counts)

- name and location of secreting organ

- chemical class and basic chemical structure

- receptor type and mechanism of action

- target(s) and main effect on target(s)

- primary function(s) in the body

- control pathway

- predicted consequences of a change in any part of the control pathway.

• Compare and contrast hormone actions that are exerted through changes in gene expression with those exerted through changes in protein phosphorylation.

• Compare and contrast peptide, steroid and amine hormones in their synthesis, storage, transport, receptor type, and signaling pathway (effector mechanism of response).

• State the effect of plasma hormone binding proteins on access of hormones to their sites of action and their degradation.

• Contrast the anterior and posterior pituitaries in hormones and mechanisms of release (innervation and vascular supply).

• Diagram the negative or positive feedback control loops of anterior pituitary hormones.

• Describe types of interactions between hormones acting on the same target cell, including additive, synergistic, and permissive interactions. (Relate to agonists, antagonists).

• Explain the points in a hormone control pathway where changes would lead to disease.

• Predict changes in secretory rates of hypothalamic, pituitary and primary gland hormones caused by over- or under-secretion of any hormone in a control pathway.

II. Neurophysiology, Central and Sensory Nervous Systems

➢ Basic Neurophysiology (Ch. 5 pp.156-162)

• Define concentration gradient, electrical gradient, membrane potential difference, equilibrium potential, depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization.

• Predict the movement of an ion based on its charge (e.g. negative towards positive)

• State the membrane potential difference of a cell given intracellular and extracellular fluid absolute and relative charges.

• Explain how the resting membrane potential is generated and the role of ATP transporters.

• Given an increase or decrease in Na+, K+ or Cl- permeability, predict how the membrane potential will change, using correct terminology.

• Write the Nernst equation and explain how it accounts for both the chemical and elecrical forces acting on a single ion. Predict the movement of any ion through an open channel using the Nernst equation.

• State the normal ICF and ECF concentrations of Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl-. Determine the equilibrium potential for each ion using the Nernst equation.

• Describe how a change in Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl- concentrations across the cell membrane will affect membrane potential (hyper- /hypokalemia) and ion movement through an open channel.

➢ Neuroanatomy - basic organization (Ch. 8)

• Describe the basic organization of the nervous system of the human body and relate these to the components of a control path including the afferent sensory, integrating and efferent autonomic and somatic motor neurons (see Fig 8-1

• Define and draw a diagram with dendrites, axon, axon hillock, soma (cell body) and axon terminal. Describe the anatomy & roles of each of these structures.

• Draw two neurons with the presynaptic neuron, the synapse and the postsynaptic neuron defined.

• Name and describe the function of the six glial cell types

➢ Neurotransmission of signals (Ch. 8)

• Explain how the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation represents the resting membrane potential of a cell.

• Define graded potential. Identify where and how a graded potential can occur on a neuron.

• Define threshold and action potential. Identify where and how an action potential can occur on a neuron.

• Compare and contrast graded potentials with action potentials.

• Explain the effects of demyelination on action potential propagation.

• State mechanisms that can result in changes in membrane ion permeability, including mechanisms for ion channel action. Give examples for different ion channel types, including the axon voltage-gated sodium channel.

• Explain how a neuron can transmit a distinct signal, given that action potentials all look the same.

• Describe the ionic basic for an EPSP, an IPSP, summation, threshold, an action potential and neurotransmitter release.

• List major neurotransmitters and describe their mode of action including specific receptor types (see list Table 8-4. omit agonist and antagonist drugs)

• Distinguish between divergent and convergent pathways.

• List the steps involved in a neurotransmission event from graded potential to action potential to neurotransmitter release to postsynaptic graded potential.

➢ Central Nervous System (Ch. 9)

• Define plasticity in relation to the abilities of the nervous system.

• Distinguish gray matter, white matter, nuclei, neuron, nerve, ganglion, ventricle, tract.

• Identify the anatomy of the protective components of the CNS

• Describe the formation, composition and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid, including the anatomy and function of the choroid plexi, arachnoid villi and venous sinus.

• Describe the anatomy and functional physiology of the blood-brain barrier.

• Identify the anatomical components, including arrangement, of the spinal cord and spinal nerves. List the 4 anatomical sections of the 31 spinal nerves (see Fig.9-4)

• Identify each major area of the brain by anatomical location on a diagram: cerebrum (including lobes, functional areas such as specialized motor, sensory and association areas, basal ganglia and amygdala and hippocampus of the limbic system), thalamus, hypothalamus (review endocrine function and add functions from this chapter), cerebellum, midbrain, pons, medulla, reticular formation

• Describe the functions of the major brain areas including specialized subregions.

• Name the cranial nerves and identify their number, type, function & connection site

• Compare and contrast the cranial and spinal nerves

• List the structural and functional components of the cerebrum and cerebral cortex, including areas important for language.

• Name and describe the major functions of the major CNS neurotransmitters. (Refer back to Ch. 8 for descriptions of the mechanisms of action for the neurotransmitters.) State the major neurotransmitter involved in the diffuse neuromodulation systems.

• Discuss the general theories of CNS control of circadian rhythms, sleep, emotion, motivation, mood, learning, memory and personality (to the degree explained in your textbook). (Suggestion: Try to explain how these work to a friend.)

➢ Sensory Afferent Nervous System (Ch. 10)

• List the stimuli to which we have receptors and, for each, identify the type of receptor

• Describe the process of sensory transduction in general

• Define receptive fields, convergence and divergence and explain how results of a two-point discrimination test would differ given different combinations of each

• Distinguish receptor potential from action potential

• Distinguish tonic and phasic receptor function

• For each sense (pressure, temperature, touch, pain, smell, taste, hearing, equilibrium, and vision) identify the following:

▪ receptor type(s) including specialized receptor structures

▪ specific receptor intracellular signal transduction mechanism

▪ mechanism for sensory coding of intensity and duration

▪ pathways of conduction to CNS, including names of specific cranial nerves

▪ any specialized structures associated with the sense organ

▪ general function and anatomy of the sense organs

III. Efferent Nervous Systems, Skeletal and Muscle Systems

Peripheral Efferent Nervous Systems (Ch. 11)

➢ Describe the anatomy, control and function of the parasympathetic, sympathetic and somatic motor systems including neurotransmitters, receptor types, mode of action and connectivity to the CNS (review Ch. 8, Ch. 6 as needed)

➢ Compare and contrast the parasympathetic, sympathetic and somatic motor systems

➢ List the response of specific organs to parasympathetic versus sympathetic input

➢ Describe the sensitivity, locations and intracellular actions of efferent PNS receptors

➢ Predict the effects of agonists and antagonists to autonomic and somatic receptors

➢ Include specific motor efferents, neurotransmitters and receptors in a neural pathway

Muscle Physiology (Ch. 12)

Skeletal muscle structure (anatomy)

• Draw and label the molecular components of a sarcomere.

• Diagram the structure of thick and thin myofilaments.

• Describe the cellular components of a muscle fiber including myofilament bundles and organelles

• Draw and label a whole muscle. Describe the association of connective tissues, nerves, neurons and blood vessels.

• Draw the structure of the neuromuscular junction.

Muscle excitation and contraction

• Diagram the chemical and mechanical steps in the cross-bridge cycle and explain the effect on the muscle fiber length.

• List the steps in excitation-contraction coupling including the roles of each molecule involved.

• Distinguish between endplate potential and action potential in muscle.

• Describe the roles of ATP in muscle function.

• Describe the sources of ATP for muscle function.

• Explain why muscle would fatigue.

Skeletal Muscle Mechanics

• Define a motor unit.

• Describe the different skeletal muscle fiber types and how their physiology differs.

• Explain muscle properties during contractions of varying strengths and lengths.

• Distinguish the three lever types and relate them to different muscle/joint arrangements.

• Describe how the arrangement of a skeletal muscle to the skeleton can influence the mechanical performance of the muscle. Solve equations representing these relationships.

Modified by Dr. Gill from the Medical Curriculum Objectives Project

© 2005, The American Physiological Society, Bethesda, MD

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download