An Introduction to Confucian Governing Ideas
Confucian Ideas in the Making of American DemocracyDave Wang St. John’s UniversityImmediately following the conclusion of the American War of Independence in 1783, the Founding Fathers of the fledgling nation faced the challenge of creating a stable political institution to preserve the hard-earned fruits of their revolution. As John Adams (1735-1826) described this daunting task, “It is much easier to pull down a government, in such a conjuncture of affairs as we have seen, than to build up at such season as present.” The Founding Fathers of the United States appreciated the gravity and unprecedented nature of their actions as they established the country’s charter during the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Unsurprisingly, the Constitution was a controversial document. Following its completion, critics “condemned it as a betrayal of the core principles of the American Revolution” while defenders of the Constitution saluted it as a “sensible accommodation of liberty to power and a realistic compromise with the requirements of a national domain.”The Founding Fathers, raised under western schools of thought, were influenced by ideas regarding the role of government as expounded during the European Enlightenment. The Founders were receptive to the concept of popular rule made increasingly popular by Enlightenment philosophers. One such philosopher was John Locke (1632-1704), who expressed his influential social contract theory in his Two Treatises on Government (1689 and 1690). This theory opposed the divine right of kings in favor of government grounded on the consent of the governed, so long as the latter agreed to forfeit certain liberties in exchange for basic rights to life, liberty, and property. Perhaps somewhat unexpectedly, several figureheads of the Enlightenment, such as Locke and Voltaire (1694-1778), held Confucian governing principles in high regard. For instance, Locke agreed that the governed have the right of rebellion, consistent with Confucian political theory. Locke reasoned that if a government failed to protect its subjects’ natural rights, then these subjects had a right to revolt and establish a new ruling class. The Founders expressed similar convictions on how the fundamental purpose of government was to serve its people. Yet simultaneously, the ruling class had to check the commoners; Founders such as James Madison (1751-1836) expressed concern that ceding too much political power to the uneducated and impoverished might destabilize society from a social and political perspective. The United States, guided by the founding principles set forth in its Constitution, has often been hailed as an example of modern democracy. However, the American system is not a pure democracy: for instance, the nation’s President is appointed through an “indirect popular election” based on the Electoral College, rather than via a direct majority vote. The Electoral College was an innovative idea created by the Founders to reduce the power of the general public, thereby addressing the concerns expressed by Madison and his compatriots. Under the Electoral College system, a presidential candidate who wins the popular votes is not guaranteed the keys to the White House; instead, the President is elected through a majority of electoral votes.The role of Confucianism in the crafting of American democracy is perhaps one of the most conspicuous absences in the lists of founding influences. Evidence suggests that the Founding Fathers frequently drew on Confucian political philosophy when crafting a new and unique American political system. Noah Webster (1758-1843), known as the father of American Scholarship and Education, went so far as to proclaim Confucianism as one of the most influential forces in the development of the United States Constitution. With this essay, I will examine how the Founders introduced Confucian ideas of government in their creation of a new political institution in the United States. This paper will provide a brief overview of Confucian philosophies regarding government, and then discuss Benjamin Franklin’s political theory and the Founders’ efforts to apply Confucian principles in their creation of a new government system. An Introduction to Confucian Governing IdeasConfucius (551-479 BCE) was a Chinese philosopher, teacher, and political figure whose works were posthumously installed as the nation’s official philosophy during the Han Dynasty (206 – 220 CE). One of the guiding principles of Confucianism was that moral cultivation should originate from the leader of a nation. Remarkably, given the violent nature of his time, Confucius believed that rulers should govern subjects through education and personal example rather than through force. Confucius also maintained that government should exist for the people; between the ruler and his people, the latter was viewed as more the precious and important. Confucius believed that a ruler’s good virtue was the primary prerequisite for leadership. Virtue, pronounced in Chinese as “dé,” was seen as a moral force that enabled rulers to gain the loyalty of others without physical coercion. As Confucius noted, “Lead them by means of regulations and keep order among them through punishments, and the people will evade them and will lack any sense of shame. Lead them through moral force (dé) and keep order among them through rites (‘lǐ’), and they will have a sense of shame and will also correct themselves”. Confucius stated, “If the rulers lived by the highest principles, the people would then follow, and there would be reform from the greatest to the least.” The virtuous ruler was analogous to a “pole-star” around which the lesser stars would orbit. Notably, Confucius taught the democratic principle that sovereign rule originated from the people. He compared the ruler to a boat and the people to water: “Water can carry the boat, and it can upset the boat.” In other words, the ruler’s right to govern was made possible through the consent of the people. Yet Confucius also believed that the moral character of the ruler had a sure and inevitable effect on his subjects. The moral power of the ruler could be represented as the wind, and the people as the grass: wherever the wind blew, the grass would be sure to bend.In addition, Confucius opposed the misuse of official positions to enrich oneself. He said, "To act with an eye to personal profit will incur…resentment." One of his foundational tenets was that leaders should set moral examples. He said, “Exemplary persons (junzi) understand what is appropriate; petty persons understand what is of personal advantage." As Confucius further explained: "Wealth and honor are what people want, but if they are the consequence of deviating from the way (dao), I would have no part of them. Poverty and disgrace are what people deplore, but if they are the consequence of staying on the way, I would not avoid them. Wherein do the exemplary persons (junzi) who would abandon their authoritative conduct (ren) warrant that name? Exemplary persons do not take leave of their authoritative conduct even for the space of a meal. When they are troubled, they certainly turn to it, as they do in facing difficulties."Finally, Confucius also helped pioneer the concept of meritocracy, the notion that the selection of a ruler should be on the basis of talent, effort, and achievement rather than heredity or wealth. The modern concept of political meritocracy is based on this framework, demanding first that political leaders are capable and virtuous, and second that such individuals are elected as governmental officials.Having East Combining with the West---Benjamin Franklin’s Political TheoryThe Founding Fathers were heavily influenced by the European Enlightenment, which demarcated a dramatic shift in Western thought. Confucian principles had a meaningful impact on the Enlightenment and, by extension, the formation of the American political system.Since the introduction of Confucianism into the West by the Jesuits in the 17th Century, the European intellectuals have advocated many of Confucius’ ideals regarding ethics, social conduct, and the role of government. With an increased volume of translations of Confucian classics during the?Age of Enlightenment, the philosopher’s principles of political meritocracy increasingly won the admiration of the European intellectuals, who encouraged the adoption of the Confucian system. Voltaire and?Fran?ois Quesnay?(1694-1774) were two such intellectuals: Voltaire claimed that Confucius created "perfected moral science" while Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after Confucianism. The Enlightenment intellectuals’ emphasis on “reason and virtue,” influenced by Confucianism, spread across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the American colonies during the first half of the 18th century. It was around this period that Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), dissatisfied with the corruption of the British government, formulated his theory for transforming the western political system. For Franklin, the ideal political system was one that combined Confucian government principles with western social traditions. Franklin described his theory in a letter to George Whitefield (1714 – 1770), a well-known Christian minister during the Great Awakening, in which he summarized the government-led Confucian social progress model with the masses-initiated Western one: “I am glad to hear that you have frequent opportunities of preaching among the great. If you can gain them to a good and exemplary life, wonderful changes will follow in the manners of the lower ranks; for,?ad Exemplum Regis, &c.?On this principle Confucius, the famous eastern reformer, proceeded. When he saw his country sunk in vice, and wickedness of all kinds triumphant, he applied himself first to the grandees; and having by his doctrine won them to the cause of virtue, the commons followed in multitudes. The mode has a wonderful influence on mankind; and there are numbers that perhaps fear less the being in Hell, than out of the fashion! Our more western reformations began with the ignorant mob; and when numbers of them were gained, interest and party-views drew in the wise and great. Where both methods can be used, reformations are like to be more speedy. O that some method could be found to make them lasting! He that shall discover that, will, in my opinion, deserve more, ten thousand times, than the inventor of the longtitude.” In his letter, Franklin expressed three points that would have a meaningful impact on the nascent American political system. First, Franklin believed leaders should be the “cause of virtue.” Second, Franklin recognized that the modes of social progress were different between the East and West: the former was characterized by good government and the latter by “the ignorant mob.” Finally, combining the Western mode of social progress with Eastern governing traditions was essential to political progress. The interplay of these three points, which served as the foundation of Franklin’s theory, is illustrated below: In the East, social progress was achieved through the elite leading the masses—in Franklin’s words, the Wise and Great (Cause of Virtue) would lead the Commons (Ignorant Mobs) to social progress. This dynamic was seen as reversed in the West, where the Commons pushed the Wise and Great to social progress. Franklin viewed neither mode as complete by itself; a combination of the two would create a superior framework.Practically speaking, Franklin’s theory emphasized the importance of three elements. The first was a strong central government. In addition, leaders in the central government should be virtuous examples for the public to follow. Finally, the power dynamic between the government and public should be controlled by a system of checks and balances. Franklin’s references to Confucian principles of government were unsurprising because the Founding Father had long been familiar with the Chinese philosopher’s teachings. For example, a decade earlier in his widely circulated The Pennsylvania Gazette, Franklin had prompted Confucius’ teachings as requirements for colonial leaders: “His will inclining only to good, his soul will be entirely rectified, there will not be any passion that can make him destroy his rectitude: The soul being thus rectified, he will be employed in his exterior, nothing will be observed in his person that can offend complaisance. His person being thus perfected, his family, forming it fell according to this model, will be reformed and amended. His family being arrived at this perfection, will serve as an example to all the subjects of the particular kingdoms and the members of the particular Kingdoms to all those that compose the body of the empire. Thus, the whole empire will be well governed and justice will reign: we shall there enjoy a profound peace, twill be a happy and flourishing empire.Confucius taught that the leaders should shoulder responsibility for the actions and welfare of their people: as he described, “the family of my people is my own famine. My people’s sin is my own sin.” Franklin similarly espoused the importance of good virtue. At the Constitutional Convention of 1787, he emphasized the significance of virtue in government to fellow delegates: “Much of the Strength and Efficiency of any Government in procuring and securing Happiness to the People depends on Opinion, on the general Opinion of the Goodness of that Government as well as of the Wisdom and Integrity of its Governors.”Franklin ardently believed that moral citizenry was necessary for a healthy society and held himself responsible for instilling virtue in the nation’s youth. He believed that a populace’s wisdom and virtue were more important than its military and financial success, as in times of weak government, situations of excessive military and wealth could lead to sociopolitical instability. In this sense, a few of virtuous leaders could hold sway over huge masses. Franklin wrote: “….nothing is of more importance for the public weal, than to form and train up youth in wisdom and virtue. Wise and good men are, in my opinion, the strength of a state: much more so than riches or arms, which, under the management of Ignorance and Wickedness, often draw on destruction, instead of providing for the safety of a people. And though the culture bestowed on many should be successful only with a few, yet the influence of those few and the service in their power, may be very great. Franklin also appreciated the importance of checks and balances to discourage misbehavior from both leaders and the general public. Such measures were meant to counteract human nature, as Franklin believed government was derived “not from a voluntary human contract, but from human weakness and necessities.”Franklin resided in England from 1757-1762 and 1764-1775 as colonial representative for Pennsylvania, Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts, during which he began to formulate his theory of ideal government. Franklin underwent a “political metamorphosis” in London. In particular, he began to lose confidence in the British Parliament during this time, partly due to his realization that the British courts represented a departure from the Confucian virtues that he held in high regard. Franklin’s previously conservative attitudes began to align more closely with the radicalism of the American revolutionaries, and he would eventually become a stalwart patriot and one of the key founders of the United States.Franklin would express his concerns about the colonial government on the eve of the American Revolution. He had witnessed many poor colonial governors; however, as he had also lost faith in Great Britain’s political system, he found little guidance from across the Atlantic. In a letter dated September 1769, two decades after he had first elaborated on his theory of government, Franklin pointed out that without proper governance, “sending soldiers to Boston always appeared…a dangerous step [for Great Britain]; [the soldiers] could do no good, they might occasion mischief.” However, Franklin recognized that the colonies also bore its share of responsibilities for conflicts with Mother England, as its affairs were often poorly managed by local rulers. The colonists’ struggle for independence encouraged Franklin’s hope that the American Revolution would provide a catalyst for a superior system of government. In 1777, Franklin stated regarding the Revolution, “it is a common observation here that our cause is the cause of all mankind, and that we are fighting for their liberty in defending our own.”The following year, Franklin admonished his fellow Americans that “Only a virtuous people are capable of freedom. As nations became corrupt and vicious, they need masters.” He emphasized the importance of a virtuous government for the new nation:What the political struggle I have been engag’d in for the good of my compatriots, inhabitants of this bush; or my philosophical studies for the benefits of our race in general! For in politics, what can laws do without morals? Our present race of ephemeras will in a course of minutes become corrupt like those of other and older bushes, and consequently as wretched. In summary, Franklin recognized the importance of introducing Confucian principles during the formative years of the United States. His political theory was an amalgamation of the East and West, with the former based on Confucian political theories regarding effective government. Using Confucian Meritocracy to Check European Aristocratic Inheritance In the aftermath of the American Revolution, Franklin found an opportunity to guide the new sociopolitical environment towards certain Confucian ideals of good government. Franklin appreciated the unprecedented nature of his situation, claiming “It is a singular Thing in the History of Mankind, that a great People have had the Opportunity of forming a Government for themselves.”Several new and legacy conflicts within the fledgling United States began to resurface following the War, occupying the attention of the Founding Fathers. About six thousand loyalists moved to Canada, with some starting insurgencies such as Shay’s Rebellion in 1786. By the mid-1780s, the new nation threatened to collapse only several years after it had gained independence. Many states were roiled by social conflicts between the wealthy and the commoners, often over financial issues of credit. The country was religiously divided, with meaningful populations of Anglicans, Roman Catholics, Calvinists, Huguenots, Lutherans, Quakers, Jews, agnostics, and atheists. The country faced socioeconomic stratification as well, from the landed aristocracy to indentured servants. George Washington remarked that the thirteen states were united only "by a rope of sand." During this time, delegates at the second Continental Congress (1775-1781) and Confederation Congress (1781-1788) were unable to achieve consensus on how the nation should be governed and what powers the individual states ought to retain. The Founders were anxious to create a system of government that could sustain the nation through the ages. Regarding the nation’s new government, some revolutionaries were convinced that it was within the nation’s best interest to establish a system resembling European monarchy. In a similar vein, some Revolutionary War veterans sought to establish a hereditary aristocracy in order to “distinguish themselves and their posterity from their fellow citizens.” In 1784, these veterans formed an order of hereditary knights and organized the Society of Cincinnatus. Franklin used this opportunity to introduce Confucian meritocracy to the fledgling nation. Based on these principles, Franklin decried the members of the Society of Cincinnatus as directly opposing the “solemnly declared Sense of their Country.”38 Instead, Franklin posited the Confucian system of meritocracy to the new nation: “Thus among the Chinese, the most antient, and, from long Experience, the wisest of Nations, Honour does not descend but ascends. If a Man from his Learning, his Wisdom or his Valour, is promoted by the Emperor to the Rank of Mandarin, his Parents are immediately intitled to all the same Ceremonies of Respect from the People, that are establish’d as due to the Mandarin himself; on this Supposition, that it must have been owing to the Education, Instruction, and good Example afforded him by his Parents that he was rendered capable of Serving the Publick. This ascending Honour is therefore useful to the State as it encourages Parents to give their Children a good and virtuous Education. But the descending Honour, to Posterity who could have had no Share in obtaining it, is not only groundless and absurd, but often hurtful to that Posterity, since it is apt to make them proud, disdaining to be employed in useful Arts, and thence falling into Poverty and all the Meannesses, Servility and Wretchedness attending it; which is the present case with much of what is called the Noblesse in Europe.”Other founders, such as John Adams, John Jay (1745-1829), and Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), supported these meritocratic ideas and condemned the Cincinnati Society “as an attempt to establish hereditary nobility in the American Republic.” In 1784, Washington echoed that “unless the grounds of popular complaint were eliminated,” the Society of Cincinnatus be terminated.Confucian meritocracy was influential among other Founders as well. Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), known to be foreign born and illegitimate, had risen to a position of prominence in the United States when he would have otherwise “[languished] in obscurity” across the Atlantic. Hamilton’s political viewpoints were well respected and debated among the Founders, and he was regarded as a symbol of how meritocracy might triumph over the European aristocratic tradition. Using Virtue to Check Public OfficialsFollowing the American Revolution, the Founding Fathers were faced with justifying the doctrine of popular sovereignty as the basis of their new government. During the Colonial Era, the Founders had leveraged this doctrine to rally the colonists against the British. In the aftermath of the war, the Founders sought to balance the principles of popular rule while simultaneously maintaining a stable government that would preserve the rights and liberties of its citizens. The Constitutional Convention, held in Philadelphia from May to September 1787, was intended to craft such a government for a nation that had been built by its people. Franklin seized the opportunity at this convention to advance the political theory that he had developed. Upon returning to America in 1785, Franklin devoted himself to defining and shaping the new nation’s governmental system. Franklin was one of the most influential members of the Convention; indeed, if his health permitted, Franklin might have been the only delegate, other than George Washington, in consideration for Chairman of the Convention. Yet despite being 81 years old and facing fragile health, Franklin worked tirelessly for over four months to secure the fruits of the Revolution, bringing crucial strengths and perspectives as the oldest member of the party. He described the significance of failure during the Convention as such: “Mankind may?hereafter,?from this unfortunate instance, despair of establishing government by human wisdom, and leave it to Chance, War and Conquest.” To illustrate effective government, Franklin contrasted the state government of Massachusetts with that of Pennsylvania. Franklin was alarmed by the dangerous Shay Revolution in the former state; his reaction was consistent with the Confucian principle that effective governments would guarantee their citizens against revolution. In contrast to that of Massachusetts, the Philadelphia government was well organized with a prudent system of checks and balances. The Philadelphia government was characterized by two parties, one for “preserving the Constitution as it was, and the other for adding an upper house as a check to the Assembly.” Franklin acknowledged that although the Convention did not seek to establish a kingdom for the new nation, there was a “natural Inclination in Mankind to Kingly Government.” For example, Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804) and others had recommended a single executive appointed for life. Franklin opposed, contending that because the government of the United States “derives all its powers directly or indirectly from the great body of the people,” its president should hold office for a limited rather than permanent period. James Madison echoed Franklin’s sentiment, claiming that “An elective despotism was not the government we fought for.” Franklin cautioned fellow citizens that the way to delay the “catastrophe” of monarchy was to establish government positions as “Posts of Honor.” He also emphasized the importance of virtue; if men lacking good virtue were put in “a [Post] of Honor, they would make their positions “a Place of Profit. Franklin believed that immoral persons had ruined the British government by making it “so tempestuous.” The struggles for various British government positions were “the true Source of all those Factions which are perpetually dividing the Nation, distracting its Councils, hurrying it sometimes into fruitless, and mischievous Wars, and often compelling a Submission to dishonorable Terms of Peace.” With his overseas experiences in mind, Franklin was determined in his crafting of early American government that “The first man at the helm will be a good one.” Throughout the Convention, Franklin consistently emphasized the importance of good virtue for the leader of the new nation. He would note to other delegates that ambition and avarice were the “two passions which have a powerful influence on the affairs of men”; the combination of these two traits might produce “the most violent effects.” Franklin cautioned that if individuals with such traits were in positions of power, they might “perpetually [divide] the nation, [distract] its councils, [hurry] sometimes into fruitless & mischievous wars, and often [compel] a submission to dishonorable terms of peace.” As Franklin noted: “It will not be the wise and moderate, the lovers of peace and good order, the men fittest for the trust. It will be the bold and the violent, the men of strong passions and indefatigable activity in their selfish pursuits. These will thrust themselves into your Government and be your rulers. And these too will be mistaken in the expected happiness of their situation: For their vanquished competitors of the same spirit, and from the same motives will perpetually be endeavouring to distress their administration, thwart their measures, and render them odious to the people. The Constitutional Convention of 1788, held with these principles in mind, sought to design a centralized national government with the authority to oversee a federation of states.Using the Electoral College to Check the Populace The Founders distrusted strong central government from their own experiences with the British regime. However, they appreciated that the new government needed the authority to enforce its edicts over a diverse federation of states. Confronted with meaningful social, political, and economic disorder in the wake of the Revolution, the Founders reached a consensus in early 1787 to amend the Articles of Confederation in favor of a more centralized system.At the Convention, representatives considered several methods to elect the President. Such proposals included direct popular election, as well as selection by one of Congress, the governors of the states, state legislatures, or a special group of Members of Congress chosen by lot. One such proposal was James Madison’s Virginia Plan, which proposed that a “National Executive be chosen by the National Legislature for the terms of years.” Franklin opposed the Virginia Plan, believing it to be a violation of the separation of power: a system in which the National Legislature participated in the election of another branch would ensure that the elected executive be heavily swayed by the interests of that electoral branch.In lieu of Madison’s Virginia Plan, the Founders devised a system in which each state received presidential “electors” equal to the number of its senators and Congressional representatives. These electors, chosen by whatever means each state decided, would each vote for two men. The candidate with the majority of electoral votes became President, while the second place finisher became Vice President. This structure was noted in Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution as such: Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.This system, to be known as the Electoral College, was originally proposed by James Wilson (1742-1798). Wilson was selected to be one of six delegates who reported the final document for acceptance, an honor in recognition of his role as one of the proposal’s chief architects. Although Wilson had promoted the idea that the committee meet in secret, there was enough reason to believe that Franklin was involved in the plan given the close relationship that the two had shared.At the Convention, Wilson acted as Franklin’s speaker; it is possible that Franklin had his ideas transmitted by James Wilson among the delegates. On the last day of the Convention, September 17, 1787, Franklin had James Wilson read his final speech to the audience. Immediately after ratification, the College of Philadelphia, founded by Franklin, hired James Wilson to give a series of lecture explaining and analyzing the Constitution. In 1790, Wilson received an honorary LL.D. degree from the College of Philadelphia and became its first professor of law. In 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt had Wilson’s casket carried to Philadelphia and buried next to Franklin’s.The Electoral College reflected a compromise between the Enlightenment ideal that the “nation should govern itself” and the necessity of having a system of checks and balances. The establishment of the Electoral College reflected how Franklin and other delegates did not fully trust the population to elect the most capable candidate. Franklin hoped that the chosen electors would be able to ensure that the most qualified person became President. James Madison advocated for Franklin’s position, statinglefttop: “A dependence on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the government; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of auxiliary precautions.” By 1787, many of the Founders were similarly realistic about the importance of relying on institutional checks rather than on individual virtue as the most effective means of maintaining liberty.The Electoral College reflected Franklin’s theory of combining Eastern with Western influences. As Franklin expressed to la Rochefoucauld, the new nation presented an opportunity to experiment in politics. Franklin warned that for those who still clung to Western traditions, the introduction of new cultural elements was “natural and unavoidable.” Franklin worked to communicate the merits of various non-Western influences to various representatives, and advised that the proposed Constitution would lead the nation to be “well adminstred for a Course of Years.” Van Doren declared that Franklin “was the author of the compromise which held the delegates together” in July 1787. Throughout the Convention, Franklin had helped lay the foundation for the democratic republic that the Constitution would enshrine. As one of the most influential members of the Constitutional Convention, Franklin helped draft the Constitution and create the Electoral College.?As such, he was called Sage of the Constitutional Convention, and the ratification of the Constitution was described as his “great victory in the Convention.” John Adams Agreed with Confucian Principles: The Purpose of the Government was to Serve the PeopleJohn Adams (1735–1826) served in London as an ambassador during the Constitutional Convention of 1787, so he did not have as direct of an impact on the drafting of the Constitution. However, Adams influenced the formation of U.S. government through his political writings. Two examples of such writings were Thoughts on Government (1776) and A Defense of the Constitutions of the United States of America (1778), which helped develop the principles of American government that Franklin, Madison, and other delegates applied at the 1787 Constitutional Convention. Adams was an ardent supporter of the new Constitution.Adams, one of the premier American political minds, often referred to Confucian philosophies regarding government during the formative period of the new nation’s political system. Adams was known to discuss the nature and application of Confucian governmental principles with fellow Founding Fathers. Impressively, Adams was unsatisfied with the English translations of Confucius and would instead read the original Latin translations. In 1808, he confessed to his fellow Founders that “Having named Voltaire I may now explain my long silence. For three or four months I have been in company with such great Personages as Moses, Zoroaster, Sanchoniathan, Confucius, Numa, Mahomet and others of that Rank.”Adams believed that in determining the means of government, the United States ought to first consider the ends. He noted that throughout history, “all Divines and moral Philosophers will agree that the happiness of the individual is the end of man.” From his perspective, the best system of government would be that which brought “happiness to the greatest number of persons, and in the greatest degree.” He continued that humans “ancient and modern, Pagan and Christian, have declared that the happiness of man, as well as his dignity consists in virtue. Confucius, Zoroaster, Socrates, Mahomet, not to mention authorities really sacred, have agreed in this.”Like Franklin, Adams agreed with the Confucian principle that “the wise and brave” should be the leaders of the nation. Adams reasoned, “In a large society, inhabiting an extensive country, it is impossible that the whole should assemble, to make laws: The first necessary step then, is, to depute power from the many, to a few of the most wise and good.” Adams also emphasized the importance of virtue in a republic: “the dignity and stability of government in all its branches, the morals of the people and every blessing of society, depends so much upon an upright and skillful administration of justice”. In early January 1787, Adams had rushed the first installment of his efforts, titled A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America, to a London printer. In addition to supporting Franklin’s call for virtuous leaders to oversee the new nation, Adams attempted to devise systems to check the balance of power between rulers and commoners. Adams was wary of pure democracy, warning that such systems might lead to disaster: There never was a Democracy Yet, that did not commit suicide. It is in vain to Say that Democracy is less vain, less proud, less selfish, less ambitious or less avaricious than Aristocracy or Monarchy. It is not true in Fact and no where appears in history. Those Passions are the same in all Men under all forms of Simple Government, and when unchecked, produce the same Effects of Fraud Violence and Cruelty.” Notably, other founders such as James Madison agreed with Adams; Madison claimed, “Pure democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security, or the rights of property; and have, in general, been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.” These Founders viewed unchecked democracy as akin to mob rule and questioned the ability of such masses to collectively make informed decisions. In conclusion, several Founders, such as John Adams and James Madison, shared Benjamin Franklin’s respect for Confucian governing principles, specifically with respect to the purpose of government and the importance of virtuous leaders. Jefferson Used Confucian Political Virtue to Help Him Develop Cultural Independence Jefferson declared cultural independence from Great Britain on more than one occasion, and the poems he gathered from American newspapers reveal his distaste for the English monarchy. Although Jefferson was in France serving as minister for the United States when the Constitution was drafted in 1787, he was able to influence the development of the federal government through his correspondences with his fellow Founders. Like John Adams, Jefferson was delighted to learn the achievement of the Convention; he recalled in his autobiography that he “received a copy [of the Constitution] early in November, and read and contemplated its provisions with great satisfaction.”Jefferson had a preference for republican government. In his Notes on the State of Virginia, published in Europe in 1785, Jefferson spent a great deal of time pondering constitutional issues. While in Paris prior to the Constitutional Convention, Jefferson closely followed developments in the United States and corresponded with driving forces such as James Madison, a fellow driving force behind the 1787 Constitutional Convention and an author of the Federalist Papers.One of Jefferson’s most important contributions to the formation of the American democratic institution was his promotion of Confucian moral values for the leaders. Jefferson aspired to be the type of virtuous leader that Confucius held on a pedestal, despite having already established himself as one of the principal Founding Fathers who would eventually become the nation’s third President.Jefferson was so influenced by the Confucian emphasis on virtue that during his presidency, he collected an ancient Chinese poem, edited by Confucius, for his personal scrapbook: A Very Ancient Chinese OdeTranslated by John Collegins seqQuoted in the To Hio of Confuciues (….from a manuscript presented in the Bodlein Library) The following ode has been translated into Latin by Sir William Jones, who informs us to his Treatise on the second classic book of the Chinese, that the Ode is taken from 1st Vol. of the Shi King. “It is a panegyrick (says he) on Vucan. Prince of Guey, in the Province of Honang, who died near a century old, 756 years before the birth of Christ. The Chinese poets might have been contemporary with Homer and Hesiod, or at least must have written the Ode before the Iliad and Odyssey were carried into Greece by Lycurgus.”SEE! how the silvery river glides,And leaves' the fields bespangled sides !Hear how the whispering breeze proceeds!Harmonious through the verdant reeds!Observe our prince thus lovely shine!In him the meek-ey'd virtues join!Just as a patient carver will, Hard ivory model by his skill,So his example has impress'd Benevolence in every b[re]ast;Nice hands to the rich gems, behold,Impart the gloss of burnish'd gold:Thus he, in manners, goodly great,Refines the people of his state. True lenity,how heavenly fair !We see it while it threatens,—spare!What beauties in its open face! In its deportment—what a grace!Observe our prince thus lovely shine!In him the meek-ey'd virtues join!His mern'ry of eternal prime,Like truth, defies the power of time! The poem praised an ancient Chinese prince who Confucius used as an example for other leaders. Jefferson’s inclusion of this specific Chinese poem provides evidence for his positive attitudes towards Confucian ideals. The poem was taken from the Great Learning, which has been called a Handbook on Good Government or Instructions to Rulers.In the same period as when he preserved this poem in his scrapbook, Jefferson created a personal bible that was partially inspired by Confucian Morals. He titled this personal bible The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth; this name likely referenced The Morals of Confucius, a popular book among the European intellectuals that was published in 1689. Jefferson made this bible to save passages he believed would best represent Jesus as a moral person. In a letter to Charles Thomas, Jefferson described how he would cut certain texts out of the Bible and rearrange them in a blank book, ordered by time or subject. Jefferson would proudly describe this arrangement, “a more beautiful or precious morsel of ethics I have never seen.”A separate poem from Jefferson’s scrapbook reveals his attitude towards Confucian meritocracy and church. The poem disparaged the Church as the place where humans’ wisdom and virtue were destroyed. Interestingly, this assertion was juxtaposed with meritocracy: “Merit [never] yet found favor with the Church.”lefttopFor Jefferson, who tired of metaphysics, Confucianism was an appealing, practical doctrine that advanced private virtue. His acceptance of Confucianism was consistent with his general religious beliefs. On one hand, Jefferson rejected some forms of organized religion and certain of its doctrines; on the other, he embraced several of Christianity’s moral precepts. As Jefferson expressed to his fellow Americans, “A nation as a society forms a moral person, and every member of it is personally responsible for his society." Jefferson realized the importance of Confucian moral philosophy in creating a sound and progressive government infrastructure for the United States. Jefferson was confident that the new political institution created by the Founders would appropriately serve the new nation. In front of the representatives celebrating his [Presidential] victory, Jefferson made the following statement regarding the American government system and good virtues, “inculcating honesty, truth, temperance, gratitude and the love of man, acknowledging and adoring an overruling providence” the new nation would have great future and the Americans would be “a happy and a prosperous people.” SummaryDuring the American Revolution, Benjamin Franklin formulated his theory of combining Confucian political ideas with the traditions of the western social progress. Franklin had an unprecedented opportunity to apply this theory during the formation of the United States government. Several other Founders were similarly inspired by the revival of Confucian principles during the European Enlightenment, and drew upon the Chinese philosopher’s ideas to craft a novel and sound political system for the fledgling nation. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were the staunchest advocates of Confucian principles of political meritocracy. Together, these Founders labored to introduce Confucian governing principles to the new nation. As part of a collective effort, Franklin formulated the theory of combining Confucian governing principles with the Western mode of social progress; Adams focused on Confucian ideals regarding the purpose of government; and Jefferson espoused the importance of virtuous leaders. These Founders’ understanding of Confucian ideas was ahead of their time. Franklin’s theory would help guide the Founders in creating a stable government. Based on Franklin’s theory and drawing from Enlightenment principles, the Founders crafted new political mechanisms such as the Electoral College and the separation of power among three branches of government. The Founders also set forth a tradition of meritocracy, which would become a cornerstone of the American political system. In this way, the Founders’ regard for and application of Franklin’s theory helped spread Confucian principles into American democracy. Taking a step back, one might wonder why the Founders turned to Confucius at all. A significant reason was that the Founders sought to establish cultural independence from England following the Independence War. They were worried that the Europeans would continue to “seek to exploit America” for their own advantage, an anxiety that spurred efforts to devise a sound form of government. In Thomas Jefferson’s words, in order to better establish itself as a distinct entity, the United States would need to “fall off the parent stem”.At the Constitutional Convention, Franklin explained to the delegates why the new nation could benefit from Confucian governing wisdom. He told his fellow representatives, “We indeed seem to feel our own Want of political Wisdom, since we have been running all about in search of it. We have gone back to ancient History for Models of Government, and examin’d the different Forms of those Republicks, which, having been originally form’d with the Seeds of their own Dissolution, now no longer exist. And we have view’d modern States all round Europe, but find none of their Constitutions suitable to our Circumstances.” Among the key Founders, Franklin was not alone in his desire to look beyond Western traditions of government. Both Adams and Jefferson had concluded that Britain was ‘far gone in corruption to be seen with anything but suspicious and hostility.” As Jefferson stated: “I confess then I can neither see what Cicero, Cato &. Brutus, united and uncontrouled, could have devised to lead their people into good government, nor how this aenigma can be solved, nor how further shewn. why it has been the fate of that delightful country never to have known to this day & through a course of five & twenty hundred years, the history of which we possess one single day of free & rational government” . Furthermore, one might wonder why descriptions of Confucian influences on the foundation of the American democratic system tend to be absent from history books and classrooms. As Adams noted, Confucian political ideas were still too foreign for the general populace; if a person quoted Confucius in an argument, he would be “ridiculed and abused.” Franklin and Jefferson may have privately shared his sentiment that “pure and simple deism” was the best religion for the fledgling republic, but were reluctant to publish incendiary materials in a devoutly Christian America.As a result, the Founders used alternative terms for Confucian ideas. They made great efforts to find similar ideas from the western works that conveyed Confucian political ideas. It was with this mentality that Jefferson cut his Bible to reframe passages on mortality. Adams would separately use the Revelation to promote Christian ideas, stating, “It has been usual with zealous men, to ridicule and abuse all those who dare on this point, to quote the Chinese Philosopher; but instead of supporting their cause; they would Shake it if it could be shaken by their uncandid Asperity; for they ought to remember, that one great end of Revelation, as it is most expressly declared, was not to instruct the wise and few, but the many and unenlightened.” John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison cited Montesquieu and Blackstone as authorities to justify certain arrangements and procedures that they favored in the making of the American political system. With the help of Confucian governing ideas, the great concert of the Founders created the foundation of the great and unique American political system. Upon seeing that great and unique political institution was born in the meeting between the East and West, Benjamin Franklin had tears stream down his face at the conclusion of the Constitutional Convention. ................
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