The Secularization of the Muslim World: Failure or Success



The Secularization of the Muslim World: Failure or Success?

By

Sary Farah

Throughout human history, the world has witnessed an alternation of civilizations and cultures that prevailed, conquered and dominated over other cultures and groups of people. The domination had various expressions and manifestations, whether military, cultural, economical, doctrinal etc… Some civilizations perished, and left only some artifacts and ruins for us to study later on. Other civilizations had a larger impact especially in the field of thoughts and ideologies. It is hard to remember ancient Greece without mentioning the city state (Polis), democracy, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, and Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The latter, that is the Greek philosophy and schools of thought, influenced and are still influencing the human intellect. This phenomenon indicates that the biggest treasure that a civilization leaves behind is that of knowledge. The relevance and influence of that transmitted knowledge is reflected through its survival and presence in our contemporary world. Few of the past civilizations lived for long and contributed to our present-day fields of thought. One of the most influential civilizations in history is the Islamic civilization.

In his book "The Antichrist", Frederick Nietzsche stated that:

"Islam at least assumes that it is dealing with men... The wonderful culture of the Moors in Spain, which was fundamentally nearer to us and appealed more to our senses and tastes than that of Rome and Greece, was trampled down… Why? Because it had to thank noble and manly instincts for its origin, because it said yes to life... a civilization beside which even that of our nineteenth century seems very poor and very "senile".[1]

Thomas Carlyle said:

"A poor shepherd people, roaming unnoticed in its deserts since the creation of the world: a hero prophet was sent down to them with a word they could believe: see the unnoticed becomes world notable… within one century afterwards, Arabia is at Grenada on this hand, at Delhi on that."[2]

A man of reason would definitely wonder at that phenomenon; how did those Arabs become rulers of the world and revive the sciences that were dormant in the preceding centuries? In other words, what is the reason behind that radical transformation? Muslims will say, and other anthropologists and sociologists would agree that Islam's belief system was the cardinal motivator that inspired the Arabs, as Carlyle stated. Another witness to that phenomenon is Edward Gibbon who acknowledged that Islam is a faith that united the hostile tribes of the Arabs in belief and obedience.[3]

Islam is a universal monotheistic faith. In English, The word Islam means Submission. Etymologically, Islam comes from the Arabic root-word Salaama, which means to be in peace, to be in safety. It is also explained as being in amity with God, the universe, the society, and yourself. In other words, peace can be achieved through submission to God.

"…whosoever follows My (God's) guidance, on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve."[4]

Muslims believe that Islam is the true revealed religion since Adam, the first created man. After the time of Adam, God revealed to many other prophets in order to call the people back to the obedience of God, warn them from the consequences of their digressions, and to fulfill the religion. Among those prophets; Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, John the Baptist, and Jesus:

"We[5] have sent thee inspiration, as We sent it to Noah and the Messengers after him: we sent inspiration to Abraham, Isma'il, Isaac, Jacob and the Tribes, to Jesus, Job, Jonah, Aaron, and Solomon, and to David We gave the Psalms. Of some apostles We have already told thee the story; of others We have not; and to Moses God spoke direct; Apostles who gave good news as well as warning, that mankind, after (the coming) of the apostles, should have no plea against God: For God is Exalted in Power, Wise." [6]

The last prophet of God, as Muslims believe, is Muhammad. By his advent and accomplishment of his message in the early 7th century C.E., God's religion was completed and fulfilled:

"This day have I perfected your religion for you, completed My favor upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as your religion." [7]

Islam is a complete and holistic way of life. It is not only concerned with the rites of worship and prayers; it is a well detailed way of life that involves even the minute details of a Muslim's living. Leopold Weiss (now Mohammad Asad)[8] stated that:

"Islam appears to me like a perfect work of Architecture. All its parts are harmoniously conceived to complement and support each other. Nothing is superfluous and nothing lacking, with the result of an absolute balance and solid composure."

It is believed to be a mercy from God that He revealed this religion to mankind. The Islamic rationale supporting that statement is that human beings can not produce a religion for themselves since their minds are bound to their senses. Their senses and perceptive abilities are also limited and hence their knowledge. Therefore, the divine revelation is considered as guidance from a perfect transcendent and omniscient source; the Creator, God. The prophets and messengers to whom the revelation was revealed are considered to be as human role-models for believers.

"…There hath come to you from God a light and a perspicuous Book, wherewith God guides all who seek His good pleasure to ways of peace and safety, and leads them out of darkness, by His will, unto the light, guides them to a path that is straight." [9]

In less than a century after the hijra –the migration of Muslims from Makka to Madina– and the establishment of the Islamic state, the realm of the Muslims reached the borders of China in the East, and Iberia (Spain) until the borders of France in the West. The Muslim reign witnessed vast periods of justice and prosperity, witnessed by modern Western historians, philosophers and Orientalists such as Sir Thomas Arnold, Ernest Renan, Arnold Toynbee, Edward Gibbon and Simon Oakley, Gustave Lebon, Montgomery Watt, Will Durant the writer of The Story of Civilization, and many others. The greatest progress induced by Muslims is that of science. In his book, Islam: The Straight Path, John L. Esposito emphasizes that:

"Muslim scientists, who were often philosophers of mystics as well, viewed physical universe from within their Islamic worldview and context as a manifestation of the presence of God, the Creator and the source and unity and harmony in nature."[10]

Science was flourishing in the Muslim world centuries before any serious scientific movement in Europe:

"Muslim physicians did not specialize in a single subject, but conducted studies in a wide range of fields, including pharmacology, surgery, ophthalmology, gynecology, physiology, bacteriology and hygiene…The works in anatomy of Zakariya Qazwini, Hamdullah al-Mustaufi al-Qazwini (1281-1350), and Ibn al-Nafis, laid the foundation of modern medicine. These scientists demonstrated, as early as the 13th and 14th centuries, the connections between the heart and the lungs… Al-Biruni knew that the earth rotates about its own axis, some 600 years prior to Galileo, and determined the earth's circumference some 700 years prior to Newton… Thabit ibn Qurrah (Thebit), who lived in the 9th century, invented differential calculus centuries before Newton. Battani, a 10th century scientist, is the first developer of trigonometry… Al-Khwarizmi wrote the first book on algebra in the 9th century… Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen), who lived in the 11th century, was the founder of optics. Roger Bacon and Kepler made use of his works, and Galileo invented the telescope by referring to them... Ali ibn al-Abbas lived in the 10th century and was the first to perform cancer surgery. In the same century, Ibn el Jessar introduced the reasons and treatment methods of leprosy…"[11]

This revolution of science and knowledge tempted many Europeans at that time, such as Roger Bacon who invited his fellow Europeans, and even sent a letter to the Catholic pope, in order to start learning from the Muslims and translate their works into Latin.

On the other side, in the Western world, particularly in Europe, while the Islamic world was witnessing periods of prosperity, things were not going well between the governed and their authorities, especially that of Church. The name of the Church was paired with the Inquisition, oppression and with the persecution of scientists and thinkers. For a considerable period of time, it was seen as standing against freedom of thought. The bigotry of the Catholic Church had nothing to do with faith. A good example is that scientists like Galileo, Giordano Bruno and Copernicus, who were persecuted by the Church, were actually devout people; at least as their writings indicate. This example reveals that the pressure the religious establishment brought upon science is not a consequence of faith, but the distortion of religion.

As a reaction to that form of oppression and intolerance, European intellectuals started calling covertly, then gradually in an explicit manner –especially in the enlightenment era– to the withering away of the church authority; the separation of state and religion. Thus, secularism was born. Secularism, a term coined by George Jacob Holyoake (1817-1906), described a nineteenth century movement that was expressly intended to provide a certain theory of life and conduct without reference to a deity or a future life.[12] In 1789, a manifest victory was scored against the church-monarchy authority through the French revolution, inspired by thinkers such as Voltaire (died 1778), Montesquieu, Rousseau, and others. The divorce between state and religion gradually took place in other European states. In addition to their confiscation of the lands belonging to Catholic Church, the French revolutionists set up a system of public, non-religious education, deprived the clergy of their high status and introduced civil marriage, thus established a lay state.[13] A radical form of secularism is laicism, from French laïque, conceived of as "a doctrine of complete freedom, and non-interference by religion".[14] This model was propagated by Charles Bradlaugh (1833-91), who claimed that it is impractical to ignore rather than deny religion. He argued that secularism would be more vigorous when linked with anti-religious views.[15] In brief laïcisme promotes the cornering or even annihilation of all religious aspects and expressions. France, Turkey and Tunisia are excellent models of laicized states. French nationalism emerged consequently and replaced religion[16] as a concept that binds people together. As a reaction to French nationalism, other European nations became nationalistic themselves (Spain, Germany, Italy, Russia etc.) The people became loyal to the nation instead of the church.

Starting from around the 17th century C.E., the Islamic caliphate was gradually declining. A number of reasons contributed to the downfall of the Muslim rule. Some Muslim intellectuals of the last two centuries of the Ottoman caliphate attributed the deterioration of the Umma to the lack of piety and despotism of several Ottoman rulers. After reaching the zenith, a leader of an empire would usually seek means of luxury, being assured that things will continue to run for his welfare. This is something that was observed and discussed by historians such as Ibn Khaldun, who stressed in his Muqaddimah on the move from nomadic to sedentary societies and the life-spans of nations. It is also a sociological and psychological fact. In the famous fable, the hare raced the tortoise and lost after taking a nap. The caliphs of the late era literally took a nap; they couldn't follow the expeditious scientific and industrial progress that Europe witnessed after the renaissance. This led into a scientific as well as an educational stagnation in the Muslim world. A few caliphs attempted to bring about reform in that era. In the dawn of the 19th century, the exceptionally self-made Sultan Salim III –unlike most of his predecessors– introduced some improvement. He even taught engineering personally in university and brought up renovation to the army. However, he was assassinated by conservative army leaders. This was never enough to compete with Europe.[17]

"The crusaders later made war on something before which it would have been more fitting for them to have groveled in the dust… What they wanted, of course, was booty: the orient was rich."[18]

The West always dreamt of taking over the Muslim Orient and its precious and abundant goods. After the end of the crusades, many strategies were used by the West to have a hand over the East. In the early 20th century, Sharif Hussein of Arabia was looking forward to establish an Arab kingdom in the Middle East over the rubbles of the Ottoman Empire. In order to make the dream into reality, he sought the help of the Allies, who gave him some soothing promises. However, they disappointed him and divided the Arab Middle East into territories under the French and British mandates.[19]

"Western dominance on the military and economic levels was accompanied by attack on the cultural identity of the Arab-Muslim world."[20]

About a century before that deception, Western educational and cultural institutions, such as Protestant and Jesuit schools and colleges were founded in the East.[21] These institutions had an important role; they prepared elites of intellectuals who were pro-Western and pro-secular, and who eventually held leading positions in the Muslim world. In addition to them, many others were already being nurtured in the West. The most vital step performed by those who were abroad was the establishment of the "Young Turks", whose alias was Al-Ittihaad wal-Taraqqi, "Union and Progress". The Committee had been established at first in Paris by Turkish youth who had been saturated by French thoughts and deeply cultured about the French revolution. It was established as a secret revolutionary Committee. The leader of this revolutionary group was Ahmed Redha Beik. He was a prominent personality among people and his idea was to import the Western culture to his home country of Turkey. This group adopted nationalism as a cardinal principle, and sought following the European secular model by calling to the separation of religion from life.

In 1924, the dream of Turkish secular nationalists came true. Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938), also known as Atatürk – meaning literally the father of Turks – was their hero. Mustafa Kemal was a little known junior officer when the First World War broke out. He was known for his Western thought and his rebellion against the Islamic principles, and for his inclination towards the British and his hatred for the Germans, who were at that time the allies of the Ottoman caliphate. As a result of subsequent events, he became head of the opposing government in Ankara, and in 1922, he abolished the government of Istanbul –the caliph's government– by a military coup, and caliph Wahid-ud-Deen ran away to Malta. However, caliph Abdul-Majid succeeded Wahid-ud-Deen and had some support. Mustafa Kemal persisted on abolishing the caliphate. In the night of the third day of March 1924, Kemal went with a garrison from the police and the army to the caliph's palace and forced him to climb aboard a car that took him through the borders towards Switzerland. Two days later, Mustafa Kemal gathered all the throne’s princes and princesses and deported them outside the country. Thus, Turkey became a republic with an elected president and a constitution that is 100% secular, and a legislation that allows what the Islamic legislation forbids: Prostitution, liquor, gambling, usury, etc. Since then, the secularization of Turkey started with all possible means. All religious functions were cancelled; the Awqaaf (religious endowments) of the Muslims were nationalized, and the religious schools were turned into civil schools under the auspices of the education ministry. Kemal shifted the writing of Turkish language into Latin lettering, in order to isolate the Turks from the traditional Islamic literature, and thus reinforcing their sense of local national –Turkish– identity. He even worked upon the abolishment of overt religious symbols and manifestations; Aadhan –the call to prayer in Arabic–, Hijaab which is the Islamic dressing code for women, religious lessons and speeches in public places and even mosques were banned, and some mosques were turned into museums for tourists. These drastic changes were dispensed with rejection by a large portion of Muslim Turks, which led into confrontations with the state's power, which suppressed the protests of believers.[22]

Another model of secular extremism in the Muslim world is Tunisia. The Tunisian leader Al-Habib Bourguibah is the "champion" who laicized the country after its independence from the French mandate in 1956 by setting upon a course of modernization.[23] Bourguibah was an admirer of Atatürk, he even named a few streets in Tunisian cities after him. Nevertheless, he said in a speech of his in 1974 that the only mistake that Atatürk made was that he overtly declared secularism and openly opposed Islam. Instead, he preferred the overt claim of being pro-Islamic and a covert, pragmatically justified secularization.[24] For example, Bourguibah, the president, went live on television during the day in Ramadan with a glass of water that he drank, and he said that he is the Imam (leader) of the people –thus he ought to be emulated by them– and he is asking them to stop fasting. He then justified his Fatwa –legal ruling– by claiming that fasting decreases productivity, and is an obstacle to the prosperity of Tunsia.[25] Moreover, his claim of imam-ship was supported by his statement that he is a Sorbonne –a renowned university in France– graduate, which makes him better than Muhammad the prophet of Islam who was illiterate.[26] The Tunisian leader took similar procedures to those that Mustafa Kemal did before in terms of law, education and religious teaching and expression. Young men praying in the mosques are monitored by the police, so are those who turn the lights of their houses at dawn for prayer. Tunisian girls and women wearing Hijaab are deprived of school and university education, accessing hospitals –even for birth–, and governmental employment.[27] In addition to torture and extreme forms of discrimination, all the above continues in present-day Tunisia, under the rule of the Bourguibah's successor Zainul'aabideen[28] bin Ali. The laic model of Tunisia was also opposed by Muslim believers –such as those of the renaissance, Al-Nahda party– who met the same destiny as those in Turkey.

On the ideological level, secularism is unjustified in the case of Islam. The periods, in which Islam was implemented by just rulers, Muslim countries did not witness any form of oppression and tyranny. Gibbon stated that non-Muslims, especially the people of the book (Jews and Christians) were entitled to the freedom of conscience and religious worship.[29] He also said that Spain never witnessed prosperity the way it had during the Muslim reign, and that Muslims practiced religious toleration towards Jews and Christians of all sects.[30] This tolerance comes from the essence of the Islamic revelation:

"Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error: whoever rejects evil and believes in God hath grasped the most trustworthy handhold that never breaks. And God heareth and knoweth all things."[31]

Moreover, Dr. Azzam Tamimi confirmed that:

"If secularism was justifiable in the West due to the nature of religion there, it is entirely unnecessary in the Muslim world. Muslims can progress and develop without having to create a wall between their religious values and livelihood. Secularisation of Muslim societies, though short–lived, has been possible only through force as wielded by despotic governments."[32]

The "projective" understanding of Islam resulted in prejudice and misconceptions. This phenomenon –projection– is denounced by Bernard Lewis in his book Islam and the West.[33] Unlike what some people think, the clerical-system does not exist in Islam. Hence, the Islamic system is not theocratic. Muslims believe in the supremacy of God, that His laws are ultimate and His wisdom is infinite. However, Islam doesn’t accept any notion claiming that a particular group of people can claim for themselves to be representatives of God on earth. This is confirmed by Gibbon who said:

"The temporal and spiritual ambition of the clergy are unknown to the Moslems, and the sages of the law are the guides of their conscience and the oracles of their faith. From the Atlantic to the Ganges, The Koran is acknowledged as the fundamental code, not only of theology but of civil and criminal jurisprudence."[34]

The sources of legislation –The Qur'an, The Sunnah or prophetic way, the rulings of the scholars– are accessible to anyone and not exclusive to the "religious elite". Furthermore, the scholars are not considered infallible, they are, as well as the governor, accountable for what they say and do. Consequently, the public opinion in a Muslim state is functional, and a ruler can’t gain legitimacy as a ruler without people's consent, not to have it imposed on them; the people are entirely free to choose their rulers.[35]

Consensus (Shoura) is Islamically important and is recommended in family, work, and government:

"Those who hearken to their Lord, and establish regular Prayer; who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation; who spend out of what We bestow on them for Sustenance."[36]

As we mentioned before, Islam includes rulings about both spirit and matter, the affairs of this world, as well as the hereafter, and it is not only bound to rituals. Above all, Muslims believe that the law ought to be from the Creator, not man-made. The whole universe, from atoms to galaxies, works according to the laws of God, and hence the harmony and perfection. Why shouldn't man then abide by God's laws?

"He draws the night as a veil o'er the day, each seeking the other in rapid succession: He created the sun, the moon, and the stars, (all) governed by laws under His command. Is it not His to create and to govern? Blessed be God, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the worlds!"[37]

Governing according to divine laws will certainly lead to success and prosperity in this life and in the life to come. Laws that are promulgated by men are imperfect; they don't lead to the best of results, and could also lead to negative consequences.

"… If any do fail to judge by (the light of) what God hath revealed, they are (no better than) Unbelievers." [38] "Do they then seek after a judgment of (the days of) ignorance? But who, for a people whose faith is assured, can give better judgment than God?"[39]

The American writer Michael H. Hart in his book on rating of those who contributed towards the benefit and upliftment of mankind wrote:

“My choice of Muhammad to lead the list of the world’s most influential persons may surprise some readers and may be questioned by others, but he was the only man in history who was supremely successful on both the religious and secular levels.”[40]

What is meant here as secular is all affairs that can be labeled worldly, such as politics, economics, trade, army, etc.

Nationalism was a cause of wars and conflicts, and racism is the offspring of nationalism. It limits the human spectrum to the locality and ethnicity of the nation. Hitler's Nazi party was based on an extreme form of nationalistic ideology. It led to massacres, mass murders and genocides, inspired by the belief that the Arian race is the "fittest" and therefore it has the right to dominate and exterminate other races and nations. It is rare to find a nationalistic ideology that does not include hatred towards a certain race, ethnicity, or group of people. While in Islam, all humans are equal in term of dignity; the variety among races and nations does not necessarily imply that one nation is preferred over another because of its color, physical characteristics or geographical location:

"O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of God is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And God has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things)."[41]

This was also referred to by prophet Muhammad in the famous sermon that he delivered on the ninth day of the lunar month of Dhul–Hijjah in the tenth year of the Hijrah, near Mecca: "…All of mankind comes from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non–Arab, nor does a non–Arab have any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over a black, nor does a black have any superiority over a white, except by piety and good action."[42] The famous African-American leader Malcolm X narrated his personal experience of universal brotherhood in Islam in the following words:

"My pilgrimage (Hajj) broadened my scope. It blessed me with a new insight. In two weeks in the Holy Land, I saw what I never had seen in thirty–nine years here in America. I saw all races, all colors, blue-eyed blonds to black-skinned Africans, in true brotherhood! In unity! Living as one! Worshipping as one! No segregationists, no liberals; they would not have known how to interpret the meaning of those words... In the past, yes, I have made sweeping indictments of all white people... The true Islam has shown me that a blanket indictment of all white people is as wrong as when whites make blanket indictments against blacks... Since I learned the truth in Mecca, my dearest friends have come to include all kinds... My friends today are black, brown, red, yellow, and white!"[43]

Henceforth, the universality of Islam appeals more to the human conscience than any nationalistic ideology.

Even in Europe itself, the divorce between religion and life did not give birth to a soothing alternative. The world for a European became de-spirited; a sense of disenchantment of the world dominated over the minds of both average and intellectual individuals. Denis Diderot the French materialist philosopher wrote:

"I am maddened at being entangled in a devilish philosophy that my mind can't help approving and my heart refuting."[44]

Theorists like Freud, depicted a dark image of man and man's fate, which added to the malaise of the Western thought. The dissatisfaction that resulted from skepticism and materialistic ideologies was also displayed in the 1960's by Erich Fromm who wrote:

"I believe that neither Western capitalism nor Soviet or Chinese communism can solve the problem of the future. They both create bureaucracies which transform man into a thing."

He added:

"I believe that reason cannot be effective unless man has hope and belief. Goethe was right when he said that the deepest distinction between various historical periods is that between belief and disbelief, and when he added that all epochs in which belief dominates are brilliant, uplifting and fruitful, while those in which disbelief dominates vanish because nobody cares to devote himself to the unfruitful… I am offered that the Western world in twentieth century deceives itself about the fact that it has lost hope and belief."[45]

In addition to the spiritual void, the West was and still is suffering from severe social ailments. In his controversial book, The Clash of Civilizations, Samuel Huntington avowed that problems of moral decline, cultural suicides and political disunity are far more significant than economics and demography. Such problems are: increases in antisocial behavior, such as crime, drug use and violence. Family decay including increased rates of divorce, illegitimacy, teen–age pregnancy and single parent families. A decline in “social capital” occurred, that is membership in voluntary associations and their interpersonal trust associated with such membership. General weakening of the “work ethic” is taking place and the rise of a cult of personal indulgence. Decreasing commitment to learning and intellectual activity manifested in the United States in lower levels of scholastic achievement.[46] From Muslims' perspective, these are the symptoms and the consequences of the absence of a Divine moral code. These phenomena are not only appearing in the West, they already crawled to the East, North and South through the channels of globalization. A Muslim would say here: "Islam is the solution: it offers both, the cure and the prevention, it provides humanity with a purpose of life and a positive regard to man..." Another might reply that this is a mere slogan; we need to be practical here. Therefore, let's have a quick overlook on some countries that were in the process of secularization in the last century.

In Turkey, the ideal secular prototype, the Islamists survived and even reached the parliament, which reflects, more or less, the choice of the people. Daniel Pipes in his In the Path of God wrote:

"After Atatürk's death in 1938, popular pressure forced the government to retreat from strict secularism and Islam gradually re-entered the public area in subsequent decades"[47]

Regardless to the extent they follow Islamic principles, the current Turkish prime minister is an Islamist (Recep Tayyip Erdogan), and he's knocking on Europe's door for EU membership. Religious education was reintroduced in the 1980's, more than 470,000 adolescents enrolled in religious schools… in addition to the construction of hundreds of new mosques.[48] The Turkish pro-secular army leaders are still, nevertheless, pressuring in order to repress and contain the Islamic flood, yet, they can only compromise in the current situation. In Palestine, Islamic politics emerged and took away the spotlight from the nationalist PLO,[49] whose leader and members started using –recently– more religious quotes in their speeches as well as religious symbols. In Algeria, the Islamic Salvation Front "swept municipal and parliamentary elections" in 1992. However, the Algerian army intervened after the directions of their secular elites and cancelled the final round of the elections…[50] In Central Asia, during the reign of the USSR; attempts to transform the area, which contained 70% of Soviet Muslims who were around 56 millions in the late 1980's, into "Homo-Sovieticus" were unsuccessful. As Igor Lipovsky wrote:

"The majority of the native population of Central Asia has retained its Muslim faith."[51]

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, although Central Asia remained under the control of ex-communist leadership, hundreds of mosques were built, some religious education was restored, and the level of Muslim institution activities increased, indicating that throughout the past years, Muslims retained their faith, in various degrees, and to a certain extent, as long as some suppression exists.

Charles J. Adams, Mc Gill University, wrote:

"Muslims have turned again to the glories of their past to seek identity and guidance in the modern world... Islam is once more on the rise. The new vitality of Muslims has also led to a religious awakening among them... perhaps the most remarkable thing is the sheer devotion to Islam which 20th century Muslims exhibit at a time when religion generally has declined. Islam has acquired renewed dynamism and is a major force stimulating Muslims to achieve a better place for themselves in the world."[52]

What are the chances for Muslims to unite and reemerge? And when would they do so? What is missing, what do they need to accomplish resurgence? Would the Muslim world witness prosperity and progress again under Islamic rule? Will the Islamic holistic faith prove that it is available for all places and times? Many questions need to be answered.

Bernard Lewis answered some, by saying that:

"Islam is a powerful but still an undirected force in politics...(despite all) this leaves the possibility of a more convincing leadership, and there is ample evidence in virtually all Muslim countries of the deep yearning for such a leadership and a readiness to respond to it. The lack of an educated leadership has so far restricted the scope of Islam and inhibited religious movements from being serious contenders for power... How this new religious leadership will force-in exercising and retaining political power remains to be seen."[53]

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Reference List

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Ali Al–Nadawi, Madha Khassira Al–'Alam bi Inhitaat Al–Muslimin? What did the World Lose by the Decline of the Muslims (Arabic), El–Sonna Bookshop, Cairo, 1990.

Andrea Nüsse, Muslim Palestine, The Ideology of Hamas, RoutledgeCurzon, London, 1998.

Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West, Oxford University Express, 1993.

Beverly Milton-Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, I.B Tauris Publishers, London-New York, 1996.

Bryan S. Turner (ed.), Islam: Critical Concepts in Sociology, Routledge, 2003, London.

Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God, Basic Books Inc, Publishers, New York, 1983.

Dr. Jamal Badawi, Religion and Politics,

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Encyclopedia Americana, International Edition, vol. 15, Islam, Grolier Incorporated, 1999.

Erich Fromm, Beyond the Chains of Illusion, Touchstone, New York, 1962.

Frederick Nietzsche, The Antichrist, translated by H.L. Mencken, 1920.

Harun Yahya, The Qur'an Leads The Way To Science, Nickelodeon Books, 2002.



The Last Sermon of the Prophet Muhammad,

Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. Touchstone, 1998.

Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, an introduction to history, translated by Franz Rosenthal, edited and abridged by N. J. Dawood, Bollingen Series, Princeton University press, New Jersey, 1989.

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John L. Esposito and Azzam Tamimi (ed.), Islam and Secularism in the Middle East, Hurst and Company, London, 2000.

John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1991.

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W. Schlucter, The Rise of Western Rationalism, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1981.

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[1] Frederick Nietzsche, The Antichrist, translated by H.L. Mencken, 1920, chapters 59, 60.

[2] Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History, London, 1959.

[3] Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. V, Lovell, Coryell and Company, New York, p. 169.

[4] The Holy Qur'an, English Translation of Meanings and Commentary, by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Islamic Computing Centre, London, 1999, [2:38].

[5] We = used here as a plural of majesty for God.

[6] The Qur'an [4:163-164].

[7] The Qur'an [5:3].

[8] Austrian statesman, journalist, former foreign correspondent for the Frankfurter Zeitung. He embraced Islam in 1926. Author of "Islam at the Crossroads" and "Road to Mecca" and translator of the Qur'an -into German-.

[9] The Qur'an [5:15,16].

[10] John L. Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path, Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 54.

[11] Harun Yahya, The Qur'an Leads The Way To Science, Nickelodeon Books, 2002, p. 69-72.

[12] James Hastings and T. Clark (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Edinburgh, 1971, vol. II., p. 347.

[13] W. Schlucter, The Rise of Western Rationalism, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1981.

[14] John L. Esposito and Azzam Tamimi (ed.), Islam and Secularism in the Middle East, Hurst and Company, London, 2000, p. 15.

[15] Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. II., p. 348.

[16] In Latin, Religio stands for: that which binds people together.

[17] Ali Al-Nadawi, Madha Khasira Al-'Alam bi Inhitaat Al-Muslimin?: What did the World Lose by the Decline of the Muslims? (Arabic), El-Sonna Bookshop, Cairo, 1990, p. 218-221.

[18] Frederick Nietzsche, The Antichrist, translated by H.L. Mencken, 1920, chapter 60.

[19] Joseph Dunner (ed.), Dictionary of Political Science, Vision, London, 1964, p. 395.

[20] Andrea Nüsse, Muslim Palestine, The Ideology of Hamas, RoutledgeCurzon, London, 1998, p. 11.

[21]Dr. Mustapha Khalidy and Dr. Omar Farroukh, Al-Tabsheer wal Isti'mar fee Al-Bilaad Al-Arabiya: Missionary Work and Colonization in the Arab Countries (Arabic), Al-Maktaba Al-'Assriya, Saida-Beirut, 1986, p. 90-112.

[22] Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, At-Tatarruf Al-'Ilmani fee Muwajahat Al-Islam: The Secular Extremism in Opposition to Islam (Arabic), Maghreb Center for Research & Translation, London, 2001, p.113,114.

[23] Joseph Dunner (ed.), Dictionary of Political Science, Vision, London, 1964, p. 60.

[24] Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, At-Tatarruf Al-'Ilmani fee Muwajahat Al-Islam: The Secular Extremism in Opposition to Islam (Arabic), Maghreb Center for Research & Translation, London, 2001, p. 122, 123.

[25] Ibid. p. 129.

[26] Ibid. p. 122, 123.

[27] Ibid.

[28] His first name means in Arabic: the best of God's worshipers.

[29] Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. V, p. 264.

[30] Ibid. p. 269, 270.

[31] The Qur'an [2:256].

[32] John L. Esposito and Azzam Tamimi (ed.), Islam and Secularism in the Middle East, p. 28.

[33] Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West, Oxford University Express, 1993, p. 133,134.

[34] Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. V, p. 167.

[35]Dr. Jamal Badawi, Religion and Politics,

[36] The Qur'an [42:38].

[37] The Qur'an [7:54].

[38] The Qur'an [5:44].

[39] The Qur'an [5:50].

[40] Michael H. Hart, The 100: a Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, New York, 1987, p. 33.

[41] The Qur'an [49:13].

[42] The Last Sermon of the Prophet Muhammad,

[43] –

[44] Thomas H. Leahy, History to Psychology, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2000, 5th edition, p. 188.

[45] Erich Fromm, Beyond the Chains of Illusion, Touchstone, New York, 1962, p. 180-181.

[46] Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. Touchstone, 1998, p. 304.

[47] Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God, Basic Books Inc, Publishers, New York, 1983.

[48] John L. Esposito and Azzam Tamimi (ed.), Islam and Secularism in the Middle East, p. 5.

[49] Beverly Milton-Edwards, Islamic Politics in Palestine, I.B Tauris Publishers, London-New York, 1996, p. 103-116.

[50] John L. Esposito and Azzam Tamimi (ed.), Islam and Secularism in the Middle East, p. 3,4. and Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West, p.139.

[51] Bryan S. Turner (ed.), Islam: Critical Concepts in Sociology, vol. II, Islam State and Politics, Routledge, 2003, London, p. 313-331.

[52] Encyclopedia Americana, International Edition, vol. 15, Islam, Grolier Incorporated, 1999.

[53] Bernard Lewis, Islam and the West, p.154.

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