SANJEEV COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE – RENAMED FROM …



INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY FOR MANAGERSQ. Explain of different generations of computer.A. Generations of computers:There are five generations of computers. They areFirst Generation Computers: During the period of 1940 to 1956 first generation of computers were developed. This generation computers based on Vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. A vacuum tube is a device generally used to amplify a signal by controlling the movement of electrons in an evacuated space. First generation computers were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. Examples of first generation computers are ENIVAC and UNIVAC-1.Advantages?Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.?Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.?These computers could calculate data in millisecond.Disadvantages?The computers were very large in size.?They consumed a large amount of energy.?They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.Second Generation Computers: During the period of 1956 to 1963 second generation of computers were developed. The second generation computers emerged with development of Transistors. The transistor was invented in 1947. A transistor is a small device made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon. Even though the Transistor were developed in 1947 but was not widely used until the end of 50s. The transistor made the second generation computers faster, smaller, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation computers. Even though the transistor used in the computer generated enormous amount of heat which ultimately would lead to the damage of the computers but was far better than vacuum tubes.Advantages?Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.?The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable?Used less energy and were not heated.Disadvantages?Cooling system was required?Constant maintenance was required?Commercial production was difficultThird Generation Computers: During the period of 1964 to 1971 third generation computers were developed. The third generation computers emerged with the development of IC (Integrated Circuits). The invention of the IC was the greatest achievement done in the period of third generation of computers. IC was invented in 1958-59. IC is a single component containing a number of transistors. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.Advantages?Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.?More reliable.?Used less energyDisadvantages?Air conditioning was required.?Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.Fourth Generation Computers: After 1971 the fourth generation computers were built. The fourth generation computers were the extension of third generation technology. The fourth generation computers emerged with development of the VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration).With the help of VLSI technology microprocessor came into existence. The computers were designed by using microprocessor, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable and affordable. As a result, they give rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.Advantages?More powerful and reliable than previous generations.?Small in size?Fast processing power with less power consumptionDisadvantages?The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.Fifth Generation Computers: After 1990’s Fifth generation computers are in developmental stage which is based on the artificial intelligence. The goal of the fifth generation is to develop the device which could respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will be used in this technology. So we can say that the fifth generation computers will have the power of human intelligence. IBM Watson computerises one example that outsmarts Harvard University Students. The advancement in modern technologies will revolutionize the computer in future.Q. classifies the computers. Explain about different types of computers.Analogue Computers Digital ComputersHybrid ComputersThere are three basic kinds of computers. This is based on the hardware structure and the way physical quantities are represented in a computer. The following are the three types.Analogue ComputersAnalog computers are used to process Analogue data. Analogue data is of continuous nature and which is not discrete or separate. Such type of data includes temperature, pressure, speed weight, voltage, depth etc. These quantities are continuous and having an infinite variety of values.It measures continuous changes in some physical quantity e.g. The Speedometer of a car measures speed, the change of temperature is measured by a Thermometer, the weight is measured by Weights machine. These computers are ideal in situations where data can be accepted directly from measuring instrument without having to convert it into numbers or codes.Digital ComputersA Digital Computer, as its name implies, works with digits to represent numerals, letters or other special symbols. Digital Computers operate on inputs which are ON-OFF type and its output is also in the form of ON-OFF signal. Normally, an ON is represented by a 1 and an OFF is represented by a 0. So we can say that digital computers process information which is based on the presence or the absence of an electrical charge or we prefer to say a binary 1 or 0.A digital computer can be used to process numeric as well as non-numeric data. It can perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and also logical operations. Most of the computers available today are digital computers. The most common examples of digital computers are accounting machines and calculators.Hybrid ComputersA hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers. It combines the best features of both types of computers, i.e. it has the speed of analog computer and the memory and accuracy of digital computer. Hybrid computers are used mainly in specialized applications where both kinds of data need to be processed. Therefore, they help the user, to process both continuous and discrete data. For example a petrol pump contains a processor that converts fuel flow measurements into quantity and price values. In hospital Intensive Care Unit (ICU), an analog device is used which measures patient's blood pressure and temperature etc, which are then converted and displayed in the form of digits. Hybrid computers for example are used for scientific calculations, in defence and radar systems.According to Computer Processing capability computer are divide into: Micro, Mini, Mainframes and Supercomputers!Broadly, digital computers may be classified in four major categories:1. Micro computers2. Mini computers3. Mainframe computers 4. Super computerMicro Computers:They are small in physical size. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers. Personal computers (PCs) fall into this category.The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment, education and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony and Toshiba.Minicomputer: Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called as “Midrange Computers”. These computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments of a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process. Few Minicomputers are: K-202, Texas Instrument TI-990, SDS-92, IBM Midrange computer.Mainframe computer:Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes to run their business operations. The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of its size. Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity, Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data about their customers, students & insurance policy holders.Supercomputer:The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like NASA use supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space exploration purpose. The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire building.In 1964, Seymour Cray designed the first super computer CDC 6600.Q. Explain the characteristics of a computer High Speed:Computer is a very fast device.It is capable of performing calculations of very large amount of data.The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picoseconds.It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compressed to means who will spend many months for doing the same task.Accuracy: In addition to being very fast. Computers are very accurate.The calculations are 100% error puters perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been given.Storage Capability:Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.A computer has much more storage.Capability than human beings.It can store large amount of data.It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.Diligence:Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.It can work continuously without any error and boredom.It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.Versatility:A computer is a very versatile machine.A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game.Reliability:A computer is a reliable machine.Modern electronic components have long puters are designed to make maintenance easy.Automation:Computer is an automatic machine.Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.Reduction in paper work:The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up a process.As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.Reduction in cost:Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.Q. Draw Block diagram of computer. Explain different parts of the computer.When a computer is asked to do a job, it handles the task in a very special way:It accepts the information from the user. This is called input. It stored the information until it is ready for use. The computer has memory chips, which are designed to hold information until it is needed. It processes the information. Input Unit:-Input Unit accepts the instructions and data from the outside world. Then it converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form. After that it supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.Output Unit:-The output unit is just reverse of the input unit. It accepts the result produced by computer, which are in coded form and can't be easily understood by us. Then it converts these coded results into human readable form. After that it supplies the converted results to the outside world.Memory Unit:-The Memory Unit is the part of the computer that holds data and instructions for processing. Although it is closely associated with the CPU, in actual fact it is separate from it. Memory associated with the CPU is also called primary storage, primary memory, main storage, internal storage and main memory. There are two types of computer memory inside the computer:Primary MemorySecondary MemoryPrimary Memory:-Primary storage, presently known as main memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner. However, the primary memory can hold information only while the computer system is ON. As soon as the computer system is switched off or rest, the information hold in primary memory disappears. Also it has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive. Secondary Memory:-Secondary storage, sometimes called auxiliary storage, is all data storage that is not currently in a computer's primary storage or memory. This is computer memory that is not directly accessible to the processor but uses the I/O channels. It is for storing data not in active use and preserves data even without power, meaning it is non-volatile. In a personal computer, secondary storage typically consists of storage on the hard disk and on any removable media, if present, such as a CD or DVD.Arithmetic Logical Unit:-An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit that performs arithmetic and logical operations. The ALU is a fundamental building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, and even the simplest microprocessors contain one for purposes such as maintaining timers. The processors found inside modern CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) accommodate very powerful and very complex ALUs; a single component may contain a number of ALUs. Control Unit:-The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the various components of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in the program one by one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that operate the other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance. Its functions are:Central Processing Unit:-The control unit and ALU of a computer system are jointly known as the CPU. The CPU is the brain of computer system. It takes all calculations and comparisons in a computer systems and it s also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of computer system.Q. What is input? Define Input devices? Explain in detail about different Input devices?A. Input: We give data and program to the computer. So what we give to the computer is known as input.Input devices: Through which devices we give the input is called input devices.Keyboard: Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions. Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys, or 108 keys are also available for windows and internet.The keys on the keyboard as follows:Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally give same layout as that of typewriters.Numeric Keypad: It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.Function Keys: The twelve function keys are present on the keyboards which are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.Control keys: These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control (ctrl), Alternate (alt), Escape (esc).Special Purpose Keys: Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps lock, Num lock, Space bar, Tab and Print Screen.About Special Keyboard Keys:-The flashing light on the computer cursor can be moved up and down or left and right by pressing the 4 keys that have arrows on them. These arrow keys are called cursor keys.Shift Key: When this key is pressed at the same time you press a letter key, a capital letter appears on your computer screen. When it is held down when you press a key with a symbol and number, the op symbol appears on the computer screen. There are two shift keys on your keyboard.The Backspace: When this key is pressed the cursor moves back one space to the left on your computer screen. This key is very helpful when you press the wrong letter or number you can erase your mistakes.The Space bar: This is the long bar located at the bottom of the keyboard. Every time you press this bar, the cursor moves one space to the right on the computer screen.The Enter Key: When you write a letter or a story pressing the Enter key makes the cursor jump down to the next line. This is a very helpful key to use when you want to start a new paragraph or you’re typing your spelling list.The Function Keys: Most computer keyboards have between 10 and 12 function keys. These keys are usually located at the top of the keyboard and give the computer user fast ways to give the computer special instructions.The Numeric Keypad Keys: On the right side of the keyboard there is a set of keys grouped together in a square. These keys have two functions. When the number lock key is pressed, these keys offer a quick and easy way of entering numbers into the computer. When the number lock key isn’t pressed, these keys control the movement of the cursor.Mouse: It’s called a mouse because of its shape and the way the cable attaching it to the computer looks a bit like a tail. There are two kinds of mice. Some use a roller ball that allows the mouse to roll around a flat surface. When you do that and look up at the screen, you’ll see a small moving arrow. This arrow is called the pointer. Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.Joystick: Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. Track Ball: Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball. Pointer can be moved, since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.Light Pen: Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system place in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed. Its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.Micro Phone: Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation for mixing music.Graphic Tablet or Digitizer: Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as tablet or Graphics tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR): MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed every day. The bank’s Code number, Account number and Cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.Bar Code Reader: Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.Optical Character Reader (OCR): OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.Optical Mark Reader (OMR): OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.Q. What is output? Define output devices? Explain in details about different output devices.Output devices: Monitor Loud speakers Printers PlottersMonitor: Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Flat – Panel displayCathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor: The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the world help. A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes-fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. Flat – Panel Display Monitor: The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculations, videogames monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.The flat-panel display is divided into two categories: Emissive displays: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Examples are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).Non-Emissive Displays: The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device)Printers: Printers is an output device, which is used information on paper.There are two types of printers.Impact printers.Non-Impact printers. Impact Printers: The Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the paper.Character Printer: Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time. These are further divided into two types.Dot Matrix Printer: In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix printer. These printers are popular because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of a matrix of pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix printer.Daisy wheel Printers:-Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name) that is why it is called Daisy wheel printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.Line Printers: Line Printers are the printers which print one line at a time.Drum Printers: This printer is like a drum in shape, so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e., for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.Chain Printers: In this printer, chains of character sets are used so it is called chain printer. A standard character set may have 48, 64 or 96 characters.Non-Impact Printers: Non impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time so they are also called as page printers.Laser Printers: These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to be printed on a page.Inkjet Printers: These are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.Plotters: Plotter is a device that draws pictures on the paper on command from a computer. Plotters difference from printers in that they draw lines using a pen. As a result they can produce continuous lines whereas printers can only simulate lines by printing a closely spaced series of dots. In general plotters are consideration more expensive than printers. They are used in engineering application where precision mandatory.Sound Cards & Speakers: An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROM and have become common place on modern personal computers sound cards can be the computer to output sound. Through speakers connected to the Board to record sound. Input from a microphone connected to the computer and manipulate sound stored on disk.Floppy Disk: It is 3.5 inch in diameter. The capacity of a 3.5 inch floppy is 1.44 mega bytes. It is cheaper than only other storage devices and is portable. The floppy is a low cost device particularly suitable for personal computer system.Q. Write about Primary memory? Primary Memory (Main Memory): Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.Random Access Memory: RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased. Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive. Static RAM (SRAM): The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis. Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor. READ ONLY MEMORY: ROM stands for Read Only Memory. From the Read Only memory we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. Following are the various types of ROM: MROM (Masked ROM) The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory): PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable. EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory): The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow. Write about Secondary Memory? And write about Secondary storage devices?Secondary Memory: Secondary Memory This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc. Characteristic of Secondary Memory: These are magnetic and optical memories. It is known as backup memory. It is non-volatile memory. Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off. It is used for storage of data in a computer. Computer may run without secondary memory. These are slower than primary memories.Punch Cards: The punched cards are rigid places of paper which contain rows and columns of numbers. These cards are kept in punch machine which makes holes in the cards to represent the data. Purchases and has the following advantages: It is relatively cheaper. Both user as well as machine can read data.Paper Tape: This is a continuous strip of paper on which the characters are represented by using a code which is made of combination of holes punched across the width of the paper.Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tapes are made of then plastic coated with magnetic materials like IRON OXIDE. It can be magazines in either of two directions. Magnetic tape drive used to read and also so write data on the magnetic tape. Magnetic Disk: It was storage by IBM in 1956. It has large storage capacity disk 0 to 0,001 seconds the important was given. It rotates with very high speed inside the disk drive data are stored on both the surface of the disk. Magnetic disks are most popular for direct access storage.Hard Disk: Hard disk is usually made from aluminium or other materials instead of Mylar or other plastic like material. Hard disk is permanently installed in the drive. This disk is usually large (about 14 inches). These disks also come in various sizes like 9 inch, 5 inch etc.Floppy Disk: This new device used for secondary storage media, this small, flexible, faster and cheap alternative for the storage purpose. This disk is made up of flexible plastic material, coated magnetic materials like iron oxide. Data is recorded in the form of invisible magnetic spots on coating. This floppy diskette comes in three basic sizes are 8 inch, 5.25 inch and 3.5 inches to store data in the floppy it has to formatted i.e., Optical Disk: This is similar to the laser-optical video disks which are sold for home purpose. Optical disks use same technology for storing data onto them. This disk is made of hard metal ranging from 4.72 inches to 14 inches in size. These disks were initially developed and used as compact disks for video and audio applications. To store data laser beams are used to burn the microscopic “pits” to represent binary digits i.e., 0’s and 1’s. These pit patterns represent data. Erasable Optical Disks: These are the disks which are erasable and can be reused. These disks are bit expensive. We can use CD-writer to write in to these CD’s.Flash Driver: Flash Drives have many names - Jump Drives, Thumb Drives, Pen Drives, and USB key chain drives. Data storage device that uses flash memory and has a built in USB connection. Flash drives are typically no more than two to three inches in length and less than an inch in width. Their size and shape may resemble a thumb or a small pan flash drives and also very large often having a depth of less than a centimetre. Because of their small form factor. They are highly portable and can easily fit in a pocket or a key chain. There are 2 GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16 GB etc.UNIT-3Q. Write about classification of operating systemsA. Various operating systems have evolved depending on the requirement and the cost bearing capacity of the users. Operating systems are classified into:Single user operating system: A single user operating system is a type of operating system (OS) that is developed and intended for use on a computer that will only have a single user at any given time, i.e. only one person can use the machine at a time and operating system is available to the single user at a time. Example is MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System).Multi-user operating system: A multi-user operating system is a type of operating system (OS) that allows multiple users on different computers or terminals to access a single system with one operating system on it. It allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. Single tasking operating system: Single tasking operating systems are those operating systems that can process one application at one time. The user can only work on one application at a time; i.e. user can’t start another application till the processing of one application has been finished by the operating system. Example is MSDOS ( Microsoft Disk Operating System).Multi tasking operating system: A multi-tasking operating system is a type of operating system that is capable of running more than one application at a time. For example, at some time you might be downloading something from internet, as well as you are writing mail to your friend and listening music also. Example is Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows NT.Multi-programming operating system: Multi-programming refers to execution of two or more different and independent programs by the same computer. In this two or more program resides in main memory (RAM) and are executed concurrently. This is done by switching the CPU from one program to another almost instantaneously. Example is Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows NT.Single processing operating system: Single processing operating systems are designed to work with one processor/CPU. Desktop computers and laptops are generally Unix-processor systems. These systems can manage the processing needs of a home or a small organization, but they are not suitable for high level designing and complex calculations. Example is Windows 95, Windows ME etc.Multi processing operating system: A multi-processing operating system allows a program to run on more than one central processing unit (CPU) at a time. If one of the CPU breaks down, the other CPU will automatically takes over its job. This is also called parallel processing. Multi-threading operating system: A multi-threading operating system allows different parts of a single program (threads) to run concurrently. These threads will be alternately active, on standby, suspended or destroyed, according to the priority assigned to them or may be run simultaneously. Example is Windows 2000, UNIX, LINUX.Time sharing operating system: Time sharing is a technique of allocation of computer resources in a time dependent fashion to several programs simultaneously. It helps to provide a large number of user’s direct access to the main computer. In timesharing, the CPU is divided among different users on a scheduled basis. Therefore, each user is given a brief share of the CPU time unlike multi-programming, where CPU is allocated to programs on priority basis. Network operating system: Networking operating system (NOS) is the software that runs on a computer, which acts as a server. NOS provide the capabilities required for network operations. It enables the server to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. NOS are based on a client/server architecture in which a server enables multiple clients to share data and resources. It allows remote users to connect to a network. Real time operating system: A Real Time operating system is an operating system that has been developed for real-time applications. Real time operating systems are designed to handle events as they occur. Real-time operating systems are commonly found and used in Robotics. Example of Linux. Q. Write about Mobile Device Operating Systems?A. A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an operating system that is specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones, smart phones, PDA (A personal digital assistant, also known as a palmtop computer, or personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager.), tablet computers and other handheld devices. It controls a mobile device just like an operating system such as Windows or Linux controls a desktop computer or laptop. Android OS: Android OS is an open source operating system primarily used in mobile devices. It is a Linux-based platform for mobile devices. It was initially developed by Android inc. and was eventually purchased by Google in 2005.BlackBerry OS: BlackBerry OS is the proprietary mobile platform developed by RIM (Research in Motion) in 1999 exclusively for its BlackBerry smart phones and mobile devices. Unlike other mobile operating systems like Android, Microsoft Windows Mobile and Symbian, the BlackBerry OS can run only on BlackBerry phones.iPhone OS/iOS: iOS (“i” stands for internet and the “OS” stand for Operating System) was originally developed by Apple Inc. for use in its iPhone devices. It was originally named the iPhone OS introduced in 2007, but was renamed to the iOS in June 2009. The iOS currently runs on the iPhone, iPad touch, and iPad. Apple iOS is derived from Apple’s Mac OS X operating system.Symbian OS: Symbian OS is officially the property of Nokia. It means that any other company will have to take permission from Nokia before using this operating system. Some of the phones currently running on Symbian OS are Nokia C601, Nokia 603, Nokia 700, Nokia 701.Windows Mobile OS: Windows Mobile is Microsoft’s mobile operating system used in smart phones and mobile devices – with or without touch screen. Microsoft designed Windows Mobile to have a similar appearance as the standard Windows operating system found on desktop and laptop computers. Windows Mobile OS is an open source operating system especially designed for Windows phones. Some of the latest Windows Phones are Nokia Lumia 800, Nokia Lumia 900, Samsung Focus and HTC Titan 2.Q. Write about Notebook Operating Systems?A. A notebook computer is an extremely lightweight personal computer that generally comes in the size of real notebook. It is usually smaller than a briefcase that can easily be transported and conveniently used in temporary spaces such as on airplanes, in libraries, temporary offices and at meetings. The term “notebook computer” originated when laptops were routinely more than 10 pounds in weights, and lighter models were placed in a special “notebook” category.Mac OS X: OS X is Apple’s operating system released on 2001 that runs on Macintosh computers. The OS X desktop interface is called the Finder and includes several standard features. The Finder also includes a Dock, which is displayed by default on the bottom of the screen. The Dock provides easy one-click access to frequently used applications and files.Ubuntu: It is an open-source operating system with additional proprietary software’s are available and it is based on the Linux distribution released in 2004. Being a Linux-based operating system, Ubuntu has a well-deserved reputation for stability and security. Ubutu incorporates all the features of a UNIX OS with an added customizable GUI (Graphical User-interface), which makes it popular in universities and research organizationsFedora: Fedora is a Linux-based operating system that provides users with access to the latest free and open source software, in a stable, secure and easy to manage form. Fedora is the second-most commonly used Linux distribution, after Ubuntu. Fedora OS provides the same functionality, processes and usability as a typical operating system and includes a suite of collaboration tools, office productivity applications, media playback, virus protection and other desktop application and services. Fedora is more focused on security. A firewall is present right from the start in Fedora OS.Windows 8: It was release in OCTOBER 2012. It was Microsoft’s first attempt to combine the Desktop PC and Notebook\Smartphone\Tablet operating system into one operating system.Q. What is Application software? Write about features of Application software. Explain about Application software.A. Application software is the software that is designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. Some examples of application software are MS-Word, MS-Excel and MS-PowerPoint etc.Word Processing: A Word processor enables us to create a document, store it electronically on a disk, display it on a screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from the keyboard, and print it on a printer.Features of Word processing: WYSIWYG (What you see is what you get) With WYSIWYG, a document appears on the display screen exactly as it will look when printed.Insert Text: Allows user to insert text anywhere in the document.Delete Text: Allows user to erase characters, words, lines, or pages as easily as we can cross them out on paper.Cut and Paste: Allows user to remove (cut) a section of text from one place in a document and insert (paste) it somewhere else.Copy: Allows user to duplicate a section of text.Page size and margins: Allows user to define various page sizes and margins, and the word processor will automatically readjust the text so that is fits.Search and replace: Allows user to direct the word processor to search for a particular word or phrase. We can also direct the word processor to replace one group of characters with another everywhere that the first group appears.Word Wrap: The word processor automatically moves to the next line when we have filled one line with text, and it will readjust text if we change the margins.Print: Allows user to send a document to a printer to give hardcopy.Font specifications: Allows user to change fonts within a document.Graphics: Allows user to embed illustrations and graphs into a document.Headers, footers, and page Numbering: Allows user to specify customized headers and footers that the word processor without at the top and bottom of every page. The word processor automatically keeps track of page numbers so that the correct number appears on each page.Spell checker: A utility that allows us to check the spelling of words. It will highlight any words that it does not recognize.Spreadsheets: Spreadsheet software allows users to perform calculations. Spreadsheets are compute programs that let user create and manipulate spreadsheets electronically. A Spreadsheet document is often called a worksheet. In a spreadsheet application, each value sits in a cellPresentation Graphics: Presentation Graphics software is a tool used to create visual presentations. These presentations are usually delivered in a slide show format, and can be created with a variety of programs. The programs make it possible to combine text and graphic elements to convey important information to a group of people all at onceFeatures of Presentation Graphics: Database Management: DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a software system used to manage database and its various operations like insertion, deletion, updation and retrieval. It enables users to store, modify and extract information from a database as per the requirements. It acts as an intermediator between the user and the database. Desktop Publishing (DTP): It is the process of creation of high quality printed documents that contain both text and graphics. At its most basic level, desktop publishing is taking some text and some images and mixing them together on a page the publishing that page in the form of brochure, newsletter, greeting card, business card and even a web page. The primary advantage of DTP is conventional publishing tools are low cost and ease of use. A typical desktop publishing system comprises a personal computer, a video monitor, a high-resolution printer, and various input devices, such as keyboard, mouse, or digital scanner. Some of the commonly used DTP software’s Q. Write about Graphics Software or discuss the various categories of graphics software.A. Graphics software is a program that allows the user to manipulate and display images on computer. It is also image editing software. Using graphics software, a user can create, store, edit and display the visual images (charts, graphs, maps, and drawings). Three basic categories of graphics software packages:1. Presentation Graphics2. Analysis puter aided Design software1. Presentation Graphics: 1. Presentation graphics is a type of business software that enables users to create graphically rich stylized images for slide show presentations. A presentation program is used to create a sophisticated presentation that includes text, graphics, movies, and other objects.It has three major purposes:An editor that allows the insertion and formatting of text.A method that allows insertion and manipulation of images.A slide-show that allow the system to display the information.One of the most widely used presentation graphics programs is Microsoft’s PowerPoint. Other popular products include Apple Keynote, Open Office Impress, Corel Presentations and Harvard Graphics. This software is generally used to create slide shows for business and academic purposes. Most of the presentation graphics software provides predefined backgrounds and sample page layouts to assist in the creation of computer-driven slide shows.2. Analysis Graphics: This application allows users to convert analyzed data (statistical data or quantitative data) into graphic formats like bar, charts, line charts, pie charts, line graphs, and histograms and scatter diagrams. Both presentation graphics and analysis graphics are useful in preparing large amounts of information into easy-to-understand formats that clearly and effectively communicate important points. This software is generally used for business presentations, from sales results to marketing research data.3. What is Computer Aided Design (CAD): This software allows designers to use computer technology for designing item for manufacturing. It is used by architects, engineers, drafters, artists, and others to create precision drawings or technical illustrations. CAD is used to create two-dimensional [2-D] drawings or three-dimensional [3-D] models of the physical components of manufactured products. CAD helps to create conceptual design and product layout, strength and dynamic analysis of assembly and the manufacturing processes themselves in softwareQ. What is Programming language? What are Programming languages? Classify computer programming languages in terms of generations?A. A programming language is a computer language used to write instructions for the computer in a well-defined format. The set of instructions is technically termed as program and the process of creating programs is called programming. Computer languages are the interface (intermediary) between a computer and a human being.Different types of computer languages are: 1. Machine language/Binary language: First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest level programming language understood by computers, to perform various input/output operations.The set of instruction codes, which can be directly understood by the CPU of a computer system without the help of any translating program, is called machine code or object code and the programming languages which contains the machine code, is called Machine language.2. Assembly language: Assembly language was the next higher level of computer programming languages, which we categorized under second generation languages. Assembly language is easier to understand and use as computer to machine language because certain English-based words (mnemonics) are used for performing specific operations. Like ‘ADD’ used for addition, ‘SUB’ used for subtractions etc.3. High-level language/Procedural language: Third generation language was the next improvement in the field of computer programming languages. It refers to a high-level programming language such as FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal and C, which enables programmers to develop software applications.4. Very High-level language/Non-procedural language: Very High-level languages (VHLL) are the easiest programming languages available today. They are very easy to learn, because their syntax and grammar is very easy to learn. Programming in these languages does not require any programming experience in other languages.5. Natural Programming language: Fifth generation programming languages are designed to make the computer solve a given problem without the programmer. Natural programming language based on solving problems using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer.6. Visual Programming language: A visual programming language is a programming language that allows the users to create programs by manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually.The graphic elements or icons included within a visual program serve as input, activities, connections and/or output of the program.7. Hypertext Markup language: HTML stands for Hypertext Mark-up language, and it is the most widely used languages to design Web pages. A webpage is a web document that is accessible through the internet using a web browser like internet explorer. A webpage is accessed by entering a URL (Uniform Resource Locator- a mechanism used to locate a webpage on the internet.) addresses in the Address field of web browser. 8. Modeling language: A modelling language is an artificial language that can be used to represent information or a system in a structured manner by using a consistent set of rules.A modeling language can be graphical or textual. Graphical modelling languages use a diagram technique with named symbols that represent concepts and lines that connect the symbols and represent relationships between them. 9. Object-Oriented programming language: Object-oriented programming language (OOPL) is a high-level programming languages primarily based upon the concept of object.The fundamental idea behind Object-oriented programming language (OOPL) is to combine the data and functions operate on the data into a single unit. Such a unit is called an object.UNIT-4Q. Explain Network Classification on the basis of Geographical spanA. Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified into 3 main categories1. Personal Area Network (PAN): Networks spanning an area of several meters around an individual are called Personal area networks.Personal area network includes devices such as laptop computers, personal digital assistants and wireless connections. 2. Local Area Network (LAN): It is a network of computers that operates in a very small geographic area up to few kilometers. It is used to link devices in a single office, building or a campus. It has following characteristics: It covers small geographical area (up to 5-6 kms).It is used to link devices in a single office, building or a campus. A LAN is used to connect the computers and other network devices so that the devices can communicate with each other to share the resources.3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN is a network that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city. It has following characteristic:MANs are an extension of LANs spreading over an entire city. It may be a single network such as a cable TV network converting entire city or group of several LANs. 4. Wide Area Network (WAN): A wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even the whole world to share data and resources. It contains several LANs and MANs. It has following characteristics: WANs provide interconnectivity without any distance limit.Since WAN spans whole of the world, it may utilize public, leased of private communication devices.Q. Write about Virtual Private Network (VPN)A. A virtual private network (VPN) extends a private network across a public network, such as the Internet. It extends a computer or network- enabled device to send and receive data across shared or public networks as if it were directly connected to the private network, while benefiting from the functionality, security and management policies of the private network. A VPN is created by establishing a virtual point-to-point connection through the use of dedicated connections, virtual tunnelling protocols, or traffic encryption. Q. Write about Network Classification on the basis of RelationshipA. On the basis of relationship between the different devices of the network, there are three types of networks:1. Peer to Peer Networks2.Client Server Networks3.Hybrid Networks.1. Peer to Peer Networks: In Peer to Peer networks, all the devices have same status in the network and share the link equally. In such networks there is no master or controller or server. Each device is responsible for setting up and maintaining its own security i.e. each device acts as client and server of its own. Peer to Peer relationship is suitable for small networks having less than 10 computers on a single LAN.2. Client Server Networks: In these networks, there exists a central controller called server. A server is a specialized computer that contains the network resources and provides services to other computers in the network. All other computers in the network are called clients. A client computer receives the requested services from a server. A server performs all the major operations like security and network management. All the clients communicate with each other via centralized server. If client 1 wants to send data to client 2, it first sends request to server to seek permission for it. 3. Hybrid Network: Hybrid network are the networks that are based on both peer-to-peer and client-server relationship. Hybrid networks incorporate the best features of workgroups in peer-to-peer networks with the performance, security and reliability of server-based networks. Hybrid networks still provide all of the centralized services of servers, but they also allow users to share and manage their own resources within the workgroup.Q. Write about different Network TopologiesA. Topology refers to the way in which the various nodes or computers of a network are linked together. Two or more devices connect to a link. Two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links connecting the devices or nodes. Topology determines the data paths that may be used between any pair of devices of the network.The following factors are considered while selecting a topology: 1. Cost2. Reliability3. Scalability4. Bandwidth capacity.5. Ease of installation6. Ease of Troubleshooting7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.A link is the physical communication pathway that transfers the data from one device to another.Types of Topologies: 1. Bus topology2. Ring topology 3. Star topology4. Tree topology5. Hybrid topology 6. Mesh topology1. Bus topology: Connection of nodes: All the nodes are connected to a single communication line with the help of drop lines and taps.Expansion: Easier, Addition of new node can be easily added using a connector.Chances of data collision: data Collision occur frequently.Failure of a node: Failure of a node does not affect the whole network. Fault identification & isolation: Fault identification and isolation is not easier.Access rate: Sharing a single channel results in slower access rate.Cabling cost: Low as only single cable is required to connect n nodes.Installation and reconfigure: It is easy to install and reconfigure.2. Ring topology:Connection of nodes: All the nodes are connected in form of ring. Each device in a ring is connected to two devices on either side of it. Expansion: Difficult. Addition of new node disrupts the whole network. Chances of data collision: data Collision is low.Failure of a node: Failure of a node does affect the whole network and communication stops. Fault identification & isolation: Fault identification and isolation is relatively easy.Access rate: communication delay increases with the increase of number of number of nodes in a network. Cabling cost: Very high as n cables are required to connect n nodes.Installation and reconfigure: It is difficult to install and reconfigure.3. Star topology:Connection of nodes: All the nodes are connected to central controller called HUB with a dedicated point to point link.Expansion: Very easy. Addition of new node can be easily connected to central HUB.Chances of data collision: data Collision is very low.Failure of a node: Failure of a node does not affect the whole network. Fault identification & isolation: Fault identification and isolation is very easy. Access rate: Access rate is very fast as each node has dedicated point to point link. Cabling cost: High as n-1 cables are required to connect n nodes. Installation and reconfigure: It is easy to install and reconfigure.4. Mesh topology: Connection of nodes: Each node is connected to every other node in the network using dedicated point to point. Expansion: Difficult. Addition of new node has to be connected to all the existing nodes using separate link. Chances of data collision: data Collision is very negligible. Failure of a node: Failure of a node does not affect at all as alternate routes are available that compensate failed link. Fault identification & isolation: Fault identification and isolation is very easy. Access rate: Access rate is very fast as each node is connected to every other node with a dedicated link. Cabling cost: Highest as n (n-1)/2 links are required to connect n node. Installation and reconfigure: It is very difficult to install and reconfigure.5. Tree topology: Tree topology is an extension of star topology. It is suitable for networks having hierarchical flow of data. This means the data travels level by level. In the tree topology, computers are connected like an inverted tree. The server or the host computer is connected at the top. Data can flow from top to bottom and bottom to top in level by level manner. In this topology nodes are connected to central hub that controls the traffic of the network. There are no closed loops, hence failure of one branch does not affect the whole system.6. Hybrid topology: A combination of different topologies makes a Hybrid topology or Hybrid network. Different topologies have their own benefits and drawbacks so hybrid network provides a means to take the benefit of these topologies collectively. The two most common hybrids found today are Star-but and Star-ring topology. When two hubs of different topologies are joined so that the devices attached to them can communicate is called Star-bus network. Q. Define WWW. Write about WWW. A. The term WWW refers to World Wide Web or simply the Web. The World Wide Web consists of all the public Web sites connected to the internet worldwide, including the client devices (such as computers and cell phones) that access web content. The WWW is just one of many applications of the internet and computer networks.The World Web is based on these technologies:HTML – Hypertext Markup LanguageHTTP – Hypertext Transfer ProtocolWeb servers and Web browsersWORLD WIDE WEB: When most people think of the internet, the first thing they think about is the World Wide Web. The terms “Internet” and “World Wide Web” are often used interchangeably, but they’re actually not the same thing.WWW is known as Web, is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the internet. World Wide Web is a set of programs, standards and protocols that allows the text, images, animations, sounds, and videos to be stored and accessed and linked together in the form of websites. Basically, WWW is a collection of millions of web pages stored in thousands of computers all over the world. It is a safe house for storing information on the internet. They are very helpful in searching all the information present on the internet. With a browser, one can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and navigate between them by using hyperlinks.There are basically three components which together form the World Wide Web. They are the Internet, the Information Servers which contain and distribute information, and the Web Browser which the individual uses to obtain information and pages from the web.Features of WWW:The amount of information available on the internet has become so large that it is difficult to search for specific information. The World Wide Web (WWW) makes retrieval easy and quick.The WWW is a search tool that helps you find and retrieve information from a website using links to other sites and documents. The WWW was built on the technology called Hypertext. This technology increases accessibility to linked documents on the internet and helps user to navigate between documents very easily.A major advantage by underlined text and a different color usually. Hypertext can make links within the same document or to other documents.Each time you access a new document by choosing a link, there is a connection made with a web server that the document is on. Once the appropriate document is retrieved the connection is broken. There is no point in maintaining the link while you are viewing it. This is one reason why the WWW is so efficient.WWW lets you search, traverse, and use many types of information at numerous sites and in multiple forms. This interface is called a browser. Some people refer to a browser as a “web browser”.The WWW is intended to help people share information resources, and services with the widest possible community of users. Thus a user can access the WWW on Apple, UNIX, Macintosh, DOS, Windows, and other operating systems.Just like internet, the WWW has a protocol, which is known as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).UNIT-5Q. Explain about Artificial Intelligence conceptsA. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans i.e. it is the development of such computers that can think and respond like human beings. This is one of the fastest growing branches of computer science.Applications of Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence has been used in wide range of fields including finance, hospitals and medicine, industry, music, games etc.Finance: Bank use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations, invest in stocks, and manage properties. Banks are intelligent software applications to screen and analyze financial data.Hospitals and Medicine: A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to organize bed schedules, make a staff rotation, and provide medical information.Industry: Robots have become common in many industries. They are often given jobs that are considered dangerous to humans. Robots have proven effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may lead to mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in concentration and other jobs which humans may find degrading.Aviation: Air lines use expert systems in planes to monitor atmosphere conditions and system status. The plane can be put on auto pilot once a course is set for the destination.Weather Forecast: Neural networks are used for predicting weather conditions. Previous data is fed to a neural that learns the pattern and used that knowledge to predict weather patterns.Speech Recognition: In the 1990s, computer speech recognition reached a practical level of limited purposes. Speech understanding systems are capable of recognition several thousand words continuous speech.Natural Language Processing: Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that humans speak. Many researchers hope that a sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would be able to acquire knowledge on its own, by reading the existing text available over the internet. Some straightforward application of natural language processing includes information retrieval for text mining and machine translation. Computer Vision: In Computer vision, the systems are capable of face recognition.Robotics: Creating robots that could perform physical tasks that were too dangerous or boring for human beings was considered to be an important commercial application of AI.Q. Explain about Business Intelligence (BI)A. Business Intelligence: Business Intelligence (BI) refers to computer-based technique that presents a collection of processes, tools and technologies helpful in achieving more profit by considerably improving the productivity, sales and service of an enterprise. With the help of BI methods, the corporate data can be organized, analyzed in a better way and then converted into a useful knowledge of information needed to initiate a profitable business action. Thus business intelligence is about turning a raw, collected data into intelligent information by analyzing and re-arranging the data according to the relationships between the data items by knowing what data to collect and manage and in what context.The main objective of business intelligence is to support better business decision-making. Thus a BI system can be called a decision support system (DSS).Business intelligence tools are a type of application software designed to retrieve, analyze, and report data. The tools generally read data that have been previously stored in a data warehouse or data mart. Some commonly used business intelligence tools are – Spreadsheets, Data mining, Data warehousing, OLAP etc.Scope of Business intelligence: A company’s collected raw data is an important asset where one can find solutions to many of an organization’s critical questions like what was the net profit for a particular product last year and what will be sales this year and what are the key factors to be focused this year in order to increase the sales? So, there arises a necessity of a well planned BI system which can lead to a greater profitability by reducing the operating costs, increasing the sales and thereby improving the customer satisfaction for an enterprise.For example: Let’s assume a company has implemented a BI system to analyse the customer interests and requirements enabling them to promote a particular product in the near future. All the analysis and knowledge management will be pointless and a waste of investment if they don’t have a proper plan to approach the right customer at the right time. So, Business intelligence is all about strategies in increasing business efficiency. With the help of a BI system, a company may improve its business or rule over its competitors by exploring and exploiting its data to know the customer preferences, nature of customers, supply chains, geographical influences, pricings and how to increase its overall business efficiency.Q. Explain about Knowledge Discovery in Database (KDD)A. Knowledge Discovery in Database (KDD): Knowledge discovery is a process that extracts implicit, potentially useful or previously unknown information from the data available in the database. Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) is an automatic, exploratory analysis and modeling of large data repositories. KDD is the organized process of identifying valid, novel, useful, and understandable patterns from large and complex data sets.Why Do We Need KDD?The traditional method of turning data into knowledge relies on manual analysis and interpretation. For example, in the health-care industry, it is common for specialists to periodically analyze current trends and changes in health-care data, say, on a quarterly basis. The specialists then provide a report detailing the analysis to the sponsoring health-care organization; this report becomes the basis for future decision making and planning for health-care management. In business, main KDD application areas includes marketing, finance (especially investment), fraud detection, manufacturing, telecommunications, and Internet agents.Marketing: In marketing, the primary applications database marketing systems, which analyze customer databases to identify different customer groups and forecast their behavior.Investment: Numerous companies use data mining for investment, but most do not describe their systems. One exception is LBS Capital Management. Its system uses expert systems, neural nets, and genetic algorithms to manage portfolios totaling $600 million; since its start in 1993, the system has outperformed the broad stock market.Fraud detection: HNC Falcon and Nestor PRISM systems are used for monitoring credit card fraud, watching over millions of accounts. The FAIS system (Senator et al. 1995), from the U.S. Treasury Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, is used to identify financial transactions that might indicate money laundering activity.Telecommunications: The telecommunications alarm-sequence analyzer (TASA) was built in cooperation with a manufacturer of telecommunications equipment and three telephone networks (Mannila, Toivonen, and Verkamo 1995).Q. Explain about Data WarehouseA. Data warehousing is the process of constructing and using a data warehouse. A data warehouse is constructed by integrating data from multiple heterogeneous sources that support analytical reporting, structured and/or ad hoc queries, and decision making. Data warehousing involves data cleaning, data integration, and data consolidations.Using Data Warehouse Information:-There are decision support technologies that help utilize the data available in a data warehouse. These technologies help executives to use the warehouse quickly and effectively. They can gather data, analyze it, and take decisions based on the information present in the warehouse. The information gathered in a warehouse can be used in any of the following domains: Tuning Production Strategies - The product strategies can be well tuned by repositioning the products and managing the product portfolios by comparing the sales quarterly or yearly. Customer Analysis - Customer analysis is done by analyzing the customer's buying preferences, buying time, budget cycles, etc. Operations Analysis - Data warehousing also helps in customer relationship management, and making environmental corrections. The information also allows us to analyze business operations. Integrating Heterogeneous Databases:-To integrate heterogeneous databases, we have two approaches: Query-Driven Approach:-This is the traditional approach to integrate heterogeneous databases. This approach was used to build wrappers and integrators on top of multiple heterogeneous databases. These integrators are also known as mediators.Process of Query-Driven Approach:- When a query is issued to a client side, a metadata dictionary translates the query into an appropriate form for individual heterogeneous sites involved. Now these queries are mapped and sent to the local query processor. The results from heterogeneous sites are integrated into a global answer set. Update-Driven Approach:-This is an alternative to the traditional approach. Today's data warehouse systems follow update-driven approach rather than the traditional approach discussed earlier. In update-driven approach, the information from multiple heterogeneous sources are integrated in advance and are stored in a warehouse. This information is available for direct querying and analysis. Functions of Data Warehouse Tools and UtilitiesThe following are the functions of data warehouse tools and utilities: Data Extraction - Involves gathering data from multiple heterogeneous sources. Data Cleaning - Involves finding and correcting the errors in data. Data Transformation - Involves converting the data from legacy format to warehouse format. Data Loading - Involves sorting, summarizing, consolidating, checking integrity, and building indices and partitions. Refreshing - Involves updating from data sources to warehouse. A data warehouse different from a database: Data warehouse is a repository of multiple heterogeneous data sources, organized under a unifier schema at a single site in order to facilitate management decision-making.Q. Explain about Data Mart?A. Data Mart: Data marts contain a subset of organization-wide data that is valuable to specific groups of people in an organization. In other words, a data mart contains only those data that is specific to a particular group. For example, the marketing data mart may contain only data related to items, customers, and sales. Data marts are confined to subjects. Need of a Data MartListed below are the reasons to create a data mart: To partition data in order to impose access control strategies. To speed up the queries by reducing the volume of data to be scanned. To segment data into different hardware platforms. To structure data in a form suitable for a user access tool. Points to Remember About Data Marts Windows-based or Unix/Linux-based servers are used to implement data marts. They are implemented on low-cost servers. The implementation cycle of a data mart is measured in short periods of time, i.e., in weeks rather than months or years. The life cycle of data marts may be complex in the long run, if their planning and design are not organization-wide. Data marts are small in size. Data marts are customized by department. The source of a data mart is departmentally structured data warehouse. Data marts are flexible. Related to Data Warehouse: Data marts are related sets of data that are grouped together and separated out from the main body of data in the data warehouse. Data marts are designed to be made available to specific sets of users. For example, data about manufacturing can be put into a data mart and be made available to the production department. Human resource data can be put into another data mart and be provided to the human resources employees. So, a data mart is a simple form of a data warehouse that is focused on a single subject (or functional area), such as sales, finance, or marketing. Data marts are often built and controlled by a single department within an organization.Q. Explain about Data MiningA. Data mining refers to extracting or mining knowledge from large amount of data. It is a process of discovering interesting knowledge from large amounts of data stored either, in a database, data warehouse, or other information repositories and using it to make crucial business decisions. In other words, data mining is a process that analyzes the large amount of data to find the new and hidden information that improves business efficiency. It contributes a lot of benefits to business strategies, scientific, medical research, governments and even individual.Need of Data Mining: In field of information technology, we have huge amount of data available that need to be turned into useful information. Extracting useful information from this huge set of data is called data mining. This information further can be used for various applications such as market analysis, fraud detection, customer retention, production control, science exploration etc.We are living in an extremely competitive world today where very small information can make or break a business. More and more insight is needed to get past the competitors in any business. Managers and executives of these organizations are always under pressure to obtain and apply more and more effective methods of carrying out their business. This ever-increasing need of more and more business intelligence has motivated the development of data mining more than anything. Applications of Data mining:Data mining in Sales / MarketingData mining in Banking / FinanceData mining in Health Care and InsuranceData mining in TransportationData mining in Fraud DetectionData mining in TelecommunicationQ. Explain about Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)A. according to business intelligence ltd. opal can be defined in five words – fast analysis of shared multidimensional information. fast means that the system is targeted to deliver most responses to users within about five seconds, with the simplest analysis taking no more than one second and very few taking more than 20 seconds. Analysis means that system can cope with any business, logic and statistical analysis that is relevant for the application and the user, and keep it easy enough for the target user. Shared means that the system implements all the security requirements for confidentiality (possibly down to cell level) and, if multiple write access is needed. Concurrent update locking at an appropriate level. Multidimensional means that the system must provide a multidimensional conceptual view of the data, including full support for hierarchies and multiple hierarchies. Information is refined data that is accurate, timely and relevant to the user..Characteristics of OLAP: The main characteristics of an OLAP system:OLAP helps the knowledge worker (executive, manager and analyst) to make faster and better decisions.OLAP supports multidimensional analysis. It enables users to interactively analyze multidimensional data from multiple perspectives.It creates an advanced data analysis environment that supports decision making, business modelling and operation research activities.It provides easy-to-use end user interfaces.It supports client/server architecture.It facilitates interactive query and complex analysis for the users.It improves the understanding of result sets through visual presentations using graphs and charts.It can be implemented on the Web.OLAP applications involve data stored in a data warehouse that has been extracted from many tables and perhaps from more than one enterprise database.OLAP systems are designed for decision makers. So, they are likely to be accessed only by a select group of managers and may be used only by dozens of users.Q. Explain about Geographic Information System (GIS)A. GIS stands for Geographic Information Systems. It is a computer-based tool that allows you to create, manipulate, analyse, store and display geographically referenced information based on its location. A GIS technology allows you to compare the locations of different things in order to discover how they relate to each other. GIS, integrates, data, hardware, software and different kinds of geographic information, such as digital maps, aerial photographs, satellite images and global positioning system data (GPS).GIS benefits organisations of all sizes and in almost every industry. There is a growing interest in and awareness of the economic and strategic value of GIS. Common examples include real estate site selection, route/corridor selection, evacuation planning, conservation, natural resource extraction, etc. Making correct decisions about location is critical to the success of an organization. Geographic data is stored either in a vector graphics or a raster graphics format. A vector format allows two-dimensional data storage in terms of x and y coordinates. A road or a river can be described as a series of x,y coordinate points. Nonlinear features such as town boundaries can be stored as a closed loop of coordinates. The vector model is good for describing well-delineated features. A raster data format expresses data as continuously changing set of grid cells. Q. Explain about Supply Chain Management (SCM).A. A supply chain is a network of facilities that performs the functions of procurement of materials, transformation of these materials into intermediate and finished products, and the distribution of these finished products to customers. Supply chain exists in both service and manufacturing organizations, although the complexity of the chain may vary greatly from industry to industry and firm to firm. Traditionally, marketing, distribution, planning, manufacturing, and the purchasing organization along the supply chain operated independently. These organizations understood the importance of cumulative effort to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. Hence, these organizations are referred to collectively as the supply chain. The organizations that make up the supply chain are “linked” together through physical flows and information flows. Physical flows involve the transformation, movement, and storage of goods and materials. Information flows allow the various supply chain partners to coordinate their long-term plans, and to control the day-to-day flow of goods and material up and down the supply chain.Supply chain management, then is the active management of supply chain activities to maximize customer value. Supply chain activities cover everything from product development, sourcing, production, and logistics, as well as the information systems needed to coordinate these activities.Q. What is an Enterprise? Explain about Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)A. An Enterprise is a group of people with a common goal, which has certain resources at its disposal to achieve that goal. The enterprise acts as a single entity. This view of a company or organization is drastically different from the traditional approach. In the traditional approach, the organization is divided into different units(like manufacturing or production department, the production planning department, the purchasing department, the sales and distribution department, the finance department, the R&D department and so on.) Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP): ERP is an acronym for Enterprise Resource Planning. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is business process management software that integrates the various functions that are essential to running a business, including inventory and order management, accounting, human resources, customer relationship management (CRM) into one complete system to streamline processes and information across the entire organization. Benefits of ERP for business: Integration of all essential business processes – ERP system fully integrate the all aspects of your business from the customer facing front end, through planning and scheduling, to the production and distribution of the products you make.Enhance productivity: Since ERP automate the business processes, ERP makes them more efficient, less prone to error, and faster. It also frees up people from mundane tasks such as balancing data.Increase overall performance: The integration of disparate business processes ensures coherence and avoids duplication and discontinuity. The cumulative positive effect when business processes integrate well is overall superior performance by the organization.Quality Reports and Performance Analysis: Analysis on ERP enables the financial and boardroom quality reports, as well as to conduct analysis on the performance of your organization.Integrates across the entire supply chain: An ERP system extend organization by integrating with both your supplier and customer systems to ensure full visibility and efficiently across your supply chain.Q. Explain about Customer Relationship Management (CRM)A. Customer Relationship Management (CRM) is a business strategy that builds a long-term, profitable, company’s relations with specific customers, clients and sales prospects. It involves technology to organize, manage, automate, and synchronize customer interactions and data throughout the customer lifecycle. CRM is a customer-oriented feature that provides service response on customer’s request based on customer input, one-to-one solutions to customer’s requirements, direct online communications with customer and customer service centres that are intended to help customers solve their issues. The company may communicate with customers through various modes including the company’s website, telephone, live chat, direct mail, marketing materials and social media.CRM software stores customer related information into a single CRM database so business users can easily access and manage centralize database. The other main functions of this software include recording various customer interactions (over email, phone calls, social media or other channels, depending on system capabilities), automating various workflow processes such as tasks, calendars and alerts, and giving managers the ability to track performance and productivity based on information logged within the system.The important features of CRM are: Sales force automation: CRM software analyzes sales promotion. It also automates the tracking of a client’s account history in order to prevent duplicate efforts between a salesperson and a customer.Marketing Automation: CRM software analyzes marketing promotion. It automates the tracking of marketing efforts in order to prevent repetitive marketing tasks to customers at different points in the lifecycle.Contact centre automation: CRM reduce tedious aspects of a contact centre agent’s job, contact centre automation might include pre-recorded audio that assists in customer problem-solving and information dissemination.The advantages of CRM to business are:Increase the number of customersAchieve high retention ratesRetain the most profitable customersAchieve a greater share of customer’s spending, ................
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