Core I – Social and Cultural Continuity and Change
Core I – Social and Cultural Continuity and ChangeAim: “To understand the nature of social and cultural research methodologies and to examine it, through the application of research methods and social theory in relation to China”Key Concepts;Beliefs A set of opinions or convictions; ideas we believe in as the truth. Beliefs can come from ones own experience and reflection, or from what is told by others Change The alteration or modification of cultural elements in a society. Change to society can occur at the micro, meso, and macro levels. It can be brought about by modernisation processes, including technological innovationThis force results in an alteration to culture ConflictA perceived incompatibility of goals or actionsCan occur at all levels in societyIts resolution can involve modification to what was previously in place ContinuityThe persistence or consistent existence of cultural elements in a society across time. Can also be referred to as the maintenance of the traditions and social structures that bring stability to societyCooperationThe ability of individual members of a group to work together to achieve a common goalGoals are in the groups interests that contributes to the continued existence of the group EmpowermentA social process that gives power or authority to people at a Micro level, to groups at meso level and to institutions at macro levelIt allows them to think, behave, take action, control and make decisions ModernisationA process of dynamic social change resulting from the diffusion and adoption of the characteristics of apparently more advance societies by other societies that are apparently less advancedInvolved the social transformation whereby the society becomes technologically advanced and updates cultural life SustainabilityThe required development to meet current human needs without jeopardising the needs?of future generations or the health of the planet for all species depending on it for their existence.They can be economic, social or environmentalImplied deliberate, responsible and proactive decision-making from the local to the global level about a more equitable distribution of resources and the minimisation of negative impacts of humans on the planet.TraditionThe body of cultural practices and beliefs that are passed down from generation to generationOften by word of mouth and behavioural modelling, that are integral to the socialisation process and that represent stability and continuity of the society or culture. ValuesDeeply held ideas and beliefs that guides our thinking, language and behaviour. Differences in values exist among groups of people in society and are a part of one’s culture.Values can be challenged. Westernisation A social process where the values, customs and practices of Western industrial capitalism are adopted to form the basis of cultural change. The Nature of Continuity and ChangeSocial Change is the significant alteration to various aspects of societies or cultures overtime Refers to the long term differences in human behaviours, cultural values and attitudesMost often seen in the institutions of family, education, religion and industryChanges in social structures affect social process, patterns, and interactionsCan be initiated by community or be part of developmentCan be natural or the conscious maintenance and preservation of some elements (can be applied to continuity) Examples of profound social changes;The Industrial RevolutionThe abolition of SlaveryThe feminist movement WesternisationChange as a Complex ProcessSocial change is NON-LINEAR It does not follow one single path or patternIt can be affected by many variables (due to cultural dynamics)Challenge ? preserving heritage in times of technological advancement DarwinismDifferent pressures mean societies and cultures need to adaptArgument that Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution (Darwinism) is responsible for changeEmerged in the 19th century ? Idea of “survival of the fittest”Social Darwinists proposed that stronger cultures, traits and practises ensure because they DOMINATE the weaker aspects of culture (and thus the weaker aspects cease to exist)Social and Cultural selection;Can often be due to certain groups beliefs about WHICH culture should remainThat groups can asserts its influence through military strength, religious, politics, judicial proceedings, or occupational emphasesMicro-Meso-MacroThe different levels of society make change a complex process.The macro levels change may filter down to affect individuals on a micro levelFor example; the presidential election – may affect people’s identities (minority groups), and their role in society (LGBTI peoples)If meso level changes are instigated, they can affect both macro and micro levels of societyFor example; protest/riots/boycotts can create macro level change by forcing governments to take action on the issue (Cronulla Riots) Social Media’s roles in Social Change – Democratisation (ARTICLE) 2011 ? Social media revolution meme Optimistic and Dystopian views of online activismFacebook and Twitter played a vital role in the coordination of protests in countries such as Turkey that threaten to destabilise their respective governmentsSocial media plays a role in regime change in these countriesEvolutionary ChangeEvolutionary change describes incremental changes that accumulate over a long period of time to alter society on a large scaleContinuity is a significant ? because of THE TIME it takes for change to take placeChanges may be triggered by; INTERNAL FACTORS – In a society e.g. the level of technological development EXTERNAL FACTORS - Outside society e.g. WesternisationChanges may take place at the micro level first and then grow to affect the meso and then macro (or visa versa)Examples of social change are; Bureaucratisation, Environmentalism and Demographic ChangeEXAMPLE; Use of technology (development of computers and laptops), industrial revolution (transformed face of society) BureaucratisationA Macro?Meso?Micro ChangeAs society’s complexity grows organisations such as the government and admin put in place systems and processes to attempt to MANAGE the huge population E.g. people using particular services are bound by the rigid polices, forms, rules, within the institutionOutcomes of it ? distinct hierarchyThe division of labour into smallest parts of a task and specialisationCan lead to employers being unwilling to take on task outside THEIR AREA of expertise to avoid having a problem to solve EnvironmentalismA Micro?Meso?Macro Change Advocates for the protection of the environment have increase over past centuryAttempt to achieve balance between productive human activity and earth’s natural cyclesBrought up the concept of “sustainability” People slowly changing customs and practises that people once thought to have benign on environment Government decisions incorporate ideas of catering to society Sustainability is crucial to any future social change Demographic ChangeIt takes a few generations to see the effects of social change and alterations on population composition, characteristics, and structure.Examples of demographic change include;The aging populationNet migrationDecreased fertility ratesSecularisationIncreased life expectancyIncreased levels of educationIncrease incomePopulation growthIn Australia changes are detected in data from the Census (every 5 years)Demographic change is tied to social changeAs structure and characteristics of population change so do the NEEDS AND WANTS of society Transformative ChangeIs dramatic and rapid that evolutionary changeTriggered byTechnologyStrong social movementsRebellionsRevolutionsInvolves groups using resources and engaging adherents to oppose current situation (or status quo)Confronting social normsOccurs Concurrently (in macro, meso and micro levels)Alters social structures by abruptly shifting people’s expectationsChange is often; profound, permanent and irreversibleLow SES groups can often trigger social movements Social movements have a LONG-LASTING impact on societyAbout empowerment EXAMPLES; voting rights for women, referendums, Social Movement Goals Women’s Suffrage To grant women the right to vote and opportunity to become members of parliament Occupy Reduce differences in society and promote more distribution of economic resources Slut-walkProtests against excusing rape due to female clothing/appearance Feminism Achieve equality for women and voice issues Fair Trade Reduce exploitation of workers in developing countries by paying higher price for goods When people want change they often do not get it ? causing revolutions, wars, epidemics etc.Revolutions spark transformative changeE.g. Egypt 2011; Protestors pressed for the overthrow of the president Hosni Mubarak. Demanded democracy, human rights and economic growth. Technology aided the revolution.Ripple affect to North Africa and Middle Easter ? causing conflictIt achieved; dissolve parliament and out law the National democratic Party, Reformed the electoral system, and arrest and try former regime officials. Resistance to ChangeThey are unlimitedThey range from disagreements on personal level to strikes, boycotts and go-slows and human barricaded on a meso or macro levelType of Change Example The Pace of Innovation Frustration at the frequent release of updated IT products and software versions Differences in beliefs and values The denial of legally recognised same-sex marriage Vested Interests/Bias towards engrained practises The loss of assets e.g. loss of culture Traditions/Fear of loss of traditions Superstitions that prevent them from trying new things Fear of the Future The removal of monarchies, status depreciation or increased complexity in lifeSocieties can be quick to adopt social changes but ALSO resistance and slow to adopt changed RELATED to cultural values and attitudesThe Theory of Cultural LagSociologist William Ogburn developed the theoryExplain the Theory to explain the extended period of time that a culture may changeSuggests that even though the development of tangible technologies may indicate a certain direction of change within society…The NON-MATERIAL culture of values attitudes and norms RESIST change and there takes longer to catch up with new technologyDifference of uptake of changes creates MALADJUSTMENT or “lag time” in society MaterialNon MaterialWilling to update Open-minded The IPhone Conservative,More cultural The App Influence of Continuity and Change on the Development of Society A word on ContinuitySociologist Orlando PattersonStates that continuity refers to any object, process or type of event that persists between two or more periods of time, entailing something that persists and some mechanism that accounts for persistence SOC and CULT need continuities to function effectively + efficientlySociety expedience tumultuous change all the time = chaos and conflictNeeds Macro levels like government, institutions, language etc.Consistency in application of rules, standards + behaviours contribute to sense of stability feeling more in controlIdentity is based on continuities Impact is when choosing to repeat acts and adopt approached to uses, ideas and habit combine to form person identity on micro levelIndicate a level of corporation and acceptance in societyFor example; patriarchal societies existed for centuries, males shaped traditions/beliefs/values that exist today, independence of these practises are optional todayStages authenticity is responsible for continuities in society Some practises not conventional or genuine as once was because of media exposure and tourismE.g. Hawaiian welcome dance or the New Zealand HakaIt promotes;Intercultural understandingIncreased awareness of historyHeightened sense of empathyGreater acceptance of diversityImpact on Micro LevelVaries depending on the;IndividualPeersFamily contextExtent to adopt or resist changeResearchers believe technological change has profound impact on societySocial change affects by;Altering family structuresInfluencing peer interactionsCreating different gender roles and expectations Raymond Kurzweil’s Theory Theory of accelerating changeFor example; suggest whenever a barrier is presented, a new technology will be developed to overcome that barrier and that this progress will become faster and fasterand as more problems are encountered, more technology innovations will take placeAs society is doubling at rate of process we see worth of progressTheory suggests exponential growth in technology lead to change rapidly and profoundly it will RUPTURE the fabric of human history The Future Shock and Information Overload Coined by Alvin Toffler in 1970’s, suggested that;Society would experience massive structural changes Technological advances would be so rapid that people will become OVERWHELMED and FEEL DISCONNECTED from societyAmount of Info available = stress and shock about futureAttracted critic Impact on Meso LevelVary between communitiesGlobalisation/Localisation Process of localisation (or globalisation) is when community tailors certain ideas and practises to sit local contextAssociated with popular cultures and corporate influenceAdaptations have to be made in communities as not all standards are acceptableFor example; continuity norms dictated that McDonalds adapted its menu to accommodate Hindu values in idea by serving tofu burgers rather than beef burgers Revitalisation Response to change and globalisation communities direct efforts towards continuity of their cultureStudies in relation to indigenous communitiesFor example; The Zapatista in Mexico, whose rebellious past has included coolest clashes with government over land use, are not focusing on tradition culture, heritage, language, identity They attempt to maintain their VALUES and SOCIAL PRACTISES WHILE adopting and adapting certain aspects of modernity Impact on Macro LevelAre those that affected collective behaviour on a LARGE SCALEExamplesChanges In…Examples to development of Australian societyGovernment Apology to Stolen GenerationSignatory to Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change LawAnti-terrorism LawsNO amendment to the preamble of the Constitution to acknowledge Indigenous owners of the land as a result of the 1999 referendum Media Freedom of the pressIncreases access for all uses24-hour news cycleEnvironment Global WarmingAdopting of principle of sustainable development Social Media Changes ARTICLEYoung people use technology to make a different Allow to;Fight Corruption250 young people met at the 3rd Global Youth Anti-Corruption Forum Talk about use of social media to fight corruptionInform peers in Paraguay and Brazil Evaluating public schools in the PhilippinesPhilippines using social media to comment on their schools and inform the publicEvaluate their schools Using e-petitions in LatviaFrom the US to allow Latvians to submit and support proposals for policy changeGovernment looked at it 20% of population supported Fighting Gender stereotypes13 year old girls in New Jersey laughed online petitionTo urge CEO of toy-maker Hasbro to feature boys on packing of the Easy-Bake Oven45000 signatories Tackling sanitation issues Sanitation hack-a-thon to develop web-based applications for water and sanitation utilise in PakistanCame to gather to find solutions for 13 water and sanitation related problems Impact of Modernisation and Westernisation ModernisationIs the process of change from traditional to modern society Involving the decline of traditional authority and practises To be modernised ? society or country will go through industrialisation Explains how Western Europe and US developedCultural Diffusion ? is the spreading of ideas and adopting other ideasEXAMPLES; growth of non-relgious schools, technology and communication transofriming Pashtrun culture Institutional ChangeWhen legislative bodies, educational systems etc. attempt to implement rules and regulation However some members of society find it difficult to deal s they negotiate.Known as bureaucratisation ? where paperwork and due process dominate course of action China:The power is centralisedIn rural areas globalisation and individualism affect the traditional roles in family Division of LabourWhen institutions and industries evolve they demand certain labour skills and thus people special in smaller tasks making up a wholeAssociated with higher economic output and productivityBecome interdependent Yield more capitalFor example;Modern society invest in mass media, transport and communication ? promote social mobilitySocial mobility is enhances by aspect of employment and education SecularisationIs when societies move away from strict adherence to religion, along with organisations, norms, beliefs, regulations and places of worshipChina: Cultural Revolution historic sites and religious artefacts were destroyed as religion and “old ways” of thinking were considered a hindrance to progress and equality Democratise Is transition to a political system where individuals have the right to cote Linked to capitalism (economic system based on private ownership)China:Following Death of Mao Zedong – The Chinese Communist Parties First Chairman – in 1976 the four goals were adopted to improve China’s economy December 1987 the former red guard posted on the democracy wall that the modernisation should be democracy ? he was jailed for 15 years Urbanisation Technological development Changing social relationships aesthetics Ie. Rise of de-facto relationshipsE.G Pashtuns ? learn to use a computer not a pistol Aesthetics Symbols such as clothing Architecture High rise building with glass facades China: Changing Gender rolesCouples living independentlyWomen delaying child-bearingChallenged to patrilineal structures Reflexive Modernisation Involved reform and reorganisation of social structuresProvides opportunities for societies to redress problems caused by modernisation to better adapt to changesFor Example; sustainably, feminism, and green movement FILM EXAMPLES; Pashtun cultureComputers ? learn to use a computer not a pistolDecline in role of Arabic madrasah’s (religious schools)Growth of non-relgious schools – Sher Alam says he won’t send Niaz to a madrasah but to a “proper” school Westernisation Describes the process of aspects of the cultures in the UK, Western Europe and North America spreading throughout the world ? countries in Western Countries (America is dominant culture) The influence and progression of America and England ? the movement of those countries to those countries Diffusion is accelerated by globalisation and close links between countriesDemocracy, politics, ? different political changes Ideas of values, language, fashion, technology, diet, religion, politics, law, and lifestyle in the West are widespread.China: Rapidly Westernised since tourism from 1979Globalisation and international policies challenged ChinaRetained elements of traditional values of collectivism, conformity and filial pietyInternet censorship; Google and Facebook are blocked and other info for external infoShanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou have embraced WesternizationUrban Chinese, fast food, Western music, and video games for young peopleRise of individualism Money into renewable energy One of the biggest polluter of CO2 Economically, Industrially WESTERNNot politically WESTERN Diaspora = The movement of people away from their cultural homelandAdoption of global food/fashion companies ? integration of global brands, McDonald’s, KFC, Nike, Change from micro and macro FILM EXAMPLES; Pashtun culturePashtun culture no longer completely isolated from western culture. Brands of fridges on sale in Pakistan similar to those on sale in Australia, the US, etc.Films music considered ‘western’ and thus ‘dangerous’ – generation differences between Niaz and Sher Alam Theories of Social Change Have been developed to help provide general explanation of changes in societyAre based on assumptions that enable to be applied to other situationsEnable different perspectivesStructural Changes Within SocietySocial structure consists of rules, institutions, and practises that are effective in influencing large groups of peopleSome people have more power than othersTheories developed to explain massive structural changes such as:Structural ChangeExampleDemographic Shifts The aging population in GermanyUrbanisationThe mass movement of people from rural and urban areas in Timor-LesteSocial DislocationThe Upheaval of some communities in the USA resulting from declining manufacturing Strengthening Civil of Society Empowering poor and marginalised groups in LaosThe growth of Institutions and their subsequent differentiation and specialisation School syllabus – STEM and coding Secularisation The loss of religious influence in Ireland/Western World Conflict and War World War 1 and World War 2 Movement of peoples following warsCreation of states Middle East Processes and Agents of Social Change Social theories to tackle processesIdentification of “megatrends” in society Megatrend ? are slow to form but, based on data, invoke the most profound long-term effects on millions of people Causes of Social Change ? STEEP Acronym S; Socio-cultural processesT; Technological ProcessesE; Economic ProcessesE; Environmental ProcessesP; Political ProcessesExamples Advances in educationUrbanisationGrowth in Individualism Ageing populationsImmigrationStatus of WomenSocial Mobility BioengineeringNanotechnologyDeveloping alternative energy sourcesCyber-terrorism Internet accessPrivacyWeapons trade Disease control Capitalism Globalisation and shifts in powerE-commerce Scaling back of pensions and social security paymentsOff-shore processing Free trade agreementsIndustrialisationConsumerism Climate ChangeScarcity of resourcesDesertificationSustainability Democratisation Changing levels of freedoms and autonomyPrivatisationColonialism BureaucratiseWorld OrderDomestic PoliticsGeopolitical conflict Directions of ChangeSocial-change theories concerned with directions of changeMajor Pattern of ChangeDefinitionExample Linear Patterns As suggested in evolutionary theory, claim that change is cumulative, non-repetitive and linear and that it involves the transition from small, undifferentiated societies and homogenous culture to large societies with a high degree of structural differentiation and heterogeneous culture. Donald Trump, Bring Back of trendsCyclical Patterns Imply that change is repetitive, which can explain the rise and fall of civilisations, but also political and economic cycles. Donald Trump Dialectical Patterns Are a combination of the previous two patterns, making a spiral pattern where short-term repetitive change, but long-term directional change are evident Key Features of Social Theories Conflict TheoryTheoristsKarl MaxMax WeberFredric Engels Ludwig GumplowiczGeorge Simmel FocusHow Social Change and development derives from conflict resulting from inequalities and differences In power in any given societyLevelMACROAssumptionsChange + conflict normal in societyInequalities in power Competition over scarce resources rather than consensus is part of all social groupsHuman interaction results in conflictAbrupt and evolutionary change occurs as a result of conflictMain pointsSociety made up of people and groups who compete for resources. Competition is inherent characteristic of humansInequalities between social structures and organisations (such as religious groups, business and governmentClasses in society are ruling class (bourgeoisie) and working class (proletariat) Ruling class derives its power from owning and controlling resources. Ruling class is able to maintain and build upon resources, gains power, self-serving actions. Uses power to influence society and to suppress and exploit working classWorking class supports ruling class but lacks resources and power; subject to coercion and constraint imposed by rulersStruggle for power and control reaches breaking point which time revolution and working class overthrow ruling classIan Robertson asserts change is abrupt and convulsive conflict reoccur until working class revolts and pushes for change against capitalismNotion of conflict goes beyond class and van be around morality, religious beliefs, gender and ageCriticisms Portrays negative view of societyNeglects social stabilityDoes not account incremental changeModern western nations avoided communist revolution so theory is inapplicableDoes not address changes in technology or familial structuresNot all individuals seek powerDoes not acknowledge that social change is possible without violence or revolutionAttributes positive aspects of society such as humanitarian aid to processes designed to control the masses Evolutionary TheoryTheoristsAuguste ComteGeorge HegelHerbert SpencerLewis MorganEdward Tyler FocusHow societies develop from small, simple entities to complex, post-industrial societies LevelMACRO AssumptionsSocieties will reach newer ad higher levels of development over timeChange is progressMain pointsEvery society develops over time and passes through the same linear processes of change than progress through the following phases;Hunting and gathering societiesConsidered very simpleNomadic groupsMove in search of foodGender division of labourAgricultural SocietiesMore secure food Supplies Subsistence living Industrial Societies Mass productionRise of capitalism and complexity Post-Industrial SocietiesDominance of the service sector; importance of information technology As evolutionary theory developed, took into account cultural differences between societies and the fact that change occurs in many different forms becoming more multilinear in it’s nature CriticismsAssumes all societies follow same pathBelieves post-industrial societies are superior to primitive societiesDescribes social change rather than explain HOW AND WHY it occursAdopts ethnocentric view of the worldEquate change with progress and more civilised consumer driven Western societyDoes not take into account globalisation, cultural diffusion and blending of societies Functionalist (structural Functionalism) TheoryTheoristsEmile DurkheimTalcott ParsonsHerbert SpencerRobert MertonAR Radcliffe-Brown FocusThe ways in which social structures meet social needs LevelMACRO/MESO AssumptionsAs societies develop, they become more complex and interdependentSociety functions more effectively when there is clear social order and when individual parts of the society work in harmony with each other Main pointsSocial norms and values (beliefs, customs, rituals and fashions) are the rules that govern social life as each has a function (Emilie)Society is held together by solidarity and agreement about what is good and worthwhile People are cooperative and bring about social orderIn simple societies ? fewer institutionsA complex society accepts that there are differing institutions such as education systems, business and governmental systems ? each has different role yet allows society to prosperEach institution works collaboratively with others to maintain stability ? healthy society dynamic equilibrium (stable state)Social processes manifest (intended consequence) and latent (unintended consequences) functions ? undesirable consequences are called dysfunctionsInterdependent of institutions means if one institution fails, the other parts must adapt to from new forms of stability ? Dysfunctional institutions cease to existChange comes through consensus, but social change is a hindrance to the development of any society and is viewed undesirable CriticismsEmphasis on social stability rather than social changeExplains slow institutional change but cannot deal with rapid changeDoes not deal well with economic or technological changeDoes not acknowledge the major role of individuals and their actions in social changeIgnores conflict and negative function – e.g. divorce in family which can be naturally occurring and bring about change Interactionist (symbolic interactionism) TheoryTheoristsGeorge MeadHerbert BlumerErving GoffmanCharles Cooley FocusRelationship of individuals within their society LevelMICRO LEVEL AssumptionsPeople help shape the worldIndividuals act according to their interpretation of the world Main pointsKent McClelland ? society consists of organised and patterned interactionPeople look for patterns and interactions between individuals ? attach meaning to symbols such as words and music that require interpretation. Interaction and communication create meaning and that is how people make sense of the worldPeople act towards things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things ? the meaning is derived from social interactionHerbert Blumer ? maintains that these meanings are handles in, and modified through an interpretive process used by a person in dealing with things he/she encounters.People adjust their behaviour depending on the actions of othersNegotiations amongst members creates temporary socially constructed relations that remain in constant flux despite relative stability in the basic framework governing those relationsPeople play many different roles when interaction and they may change approach depending on the situation ? this analysis means that sometimes these roles can be seen as very scripted while others people must improviseCharles Cooley ? coined the term “the looking-glass self’ Of which there are three componentsWe imagine how we must appear to othersWe imagine the judgment of that appearanceWe create out self-image through the judgement of others CriticismsDifficulty in remaining objective because research is often conducted via interviews and participant observationOver-emphasis on the individual and not much focus on social structuresNarrow focus on one-to-one interactionDoes not attempt to explain macro-level social change, nor changed to norms and cultureIgnores the effects of social forces and institutions on individual interactions ................
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