World Cultures



World Cultures

Middle East Unit

Chapter 25

Geography and Early History of the Middle East

Section 1 – The Land and the People

The Middle East lies in southwestern Asian

Middle refers to its location only in relation to Europe

Includes North Africa

Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt

Middle East stands at the crossroads of three continents – Africa, Asia, Europe

Cultural diffusion because of migrating people, traders, conquerors

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam originated in the Middle East

Strategic location

Vital sea routes and vast reserves of oil

Suez Canal – connects Mediterranean and Red Seas

Bosporus and Dardanelles straits – link the Black and Aegean seas

Strait of Hormuz – mouth of the Persian Gulf

Five main physical regions

Northern Tier

Stretches across present-day Turkey and Iran

Anatolian Plateau has fertile soil and receives enough rain to support farming

Large population

Iranian Plateau to the east

Dry region, small population

Arabian Peninsula

Vast plateau

Borders include the Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf

Saudi Arabia is the largest nation in the region

Lack of water is the reason for the small population

Most people live around scattered oases

Oasis – fertile desert area that has enough water to support plant and

animal life

Plays a major role in world economy – huge amounts of oil

Birthplace of Islam

Fertile Crescent

Arc-shaped stretches from eastern Mediterranean along the Tigris and

Euphrates rives to the Persian Gulf

Rich soil and abundant water makes it a major population center

Few natural barriers – multiple conquerors

Nile Valley

Northeastern Africa cradle of ancient civilization

Fertile soil

Maghreb

Includes North African nations of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco

Most people live along the Mediterranean coast

Major crossroads

Climate dictates where people live

Nearly all of the region is desert

Settlements were scattered

Less than 10% of the land receives enough water to make farming possible

Irrigation systems carry water from rivers to crops

Modern irrigation methods

Drip irrigation delivers measured amount of water to each plant

Nations on the Arabian Peninsula spend huge amounts for desalination plants

Converts sea water into fresh water

Resources include salt, phosphate, copper, oil

Oil is unevenly distributed

Results in great economic differences between countries

Variety of languages, religions, traditions

Major languages – Arabic, Turkish, Hebrew, Kurdish, Persian, Greek, Armenian

Religions – Islam, Christianity, Judaism

Ethnic diversity

Majority group is Arabs

Arab is used to describe anyone whose native language is Arabic

Other ethnic groups – Turks, Iranians, Kurds

Religious diversity

The majority observes Islam

Christian sects – Coptic, Greek Orthodox, Maronite Christians

Judaism is the most ancient of the three religions of the Middle East

Section 2 – Early Civilizations

Sumerian Civilization

First civilization in the Middle East

Fertile Tigris-Euphrates delta

About 3500 BC most successful farming settlements grew into city-states

Sumerians believed gods were all powerful

Priest were very important

Only people who knew the prayers and rituals to keep gods happy

Ziggurat – chief building in each city-state, huge many-tiered temple

Scribes –young men, who learned to read and write, kept the temple records

Sumerians developed a system of writing

Record of information about trade, government, ideas

Important tool for cultural diffusion

First system was in the form of pictographs

Phonetic symbols added to represent sounds

Cuneiform – term used to describe the wedge-shaped writing of the ancient

Sumerians

Achievements

Used the wheel, invented sails, developed accurate calendar,

Used arithmetic and geometry to survey fields

System of measurement based on 60

Used today 60-second minute, 60-minute hour, 360 degree circle

1700BC – Fertile Crescent conquered by Babylonians – King Hammurabi

Hammurabi drew up a single code of law

Hammurabi’s Code – 282 laws

Regulated economic, social, moral affairs

Distinguished between major and minor crimes

1500BC – Fertile Crescent conquered by Hittites

Adopted and adapted ideas from the Babylonians

First to master iron

Phoenicians set up small city-states along the eastern Mediterranean

Earned living through commerce and trade

Never built an empire

Developed an alphabet – evolved into what we use today

Persian Empire

By 500 BC empire spread from Asia Minor to the Indus Valley

Emperor Darius I developed an efficient system of government

Necessary to rule the diverse people of the empire

Divided empire into 20 provinces

Each province corresponded to a particular group or people

Satrap – governor – was responsible for collecting taxes and keeping order

`Special inspectors kept an eye on the satrap

Improved and expanded road system – used relay stations

Set up a uniform system of coinage

Greek and Roman Influences

Alexander of Macedonia defeated the Persian Empire

Culture influence – Hellenistic civilization

Alexandria, Egypt became the center of culture

In the great library of Alexandria scholars pursued research in

Science, mathematics, medicine, philosophy

Under Roman rule trade flourished

Movement of people and goods increased the spread of ideas and technology

Christianity spread across the Roman Empire

Split of Roman Empire into

Roman Empire to the west

Byzantine Empire to the east

Greece, Asian Minor, Egypt, eastern Fertile Crescent

Section 3 – Judaism and Christianity

Drought and famine drove some nomadic Hebrews from Canaan – later called Palestine

Became enslaved to the Egyptians

Moses led the Hebrews out of Egypt to the Sinai Peninsula

About 1025BC migrated to the Fertile Crescent – formed kingdom of Israel

King David unified Israel and made it a power in the Middle East

His son, King Solomon, was noted for his wisdom

Israel (Palestine) was conquered by the Persians, the Greeks, Romans

70AD the Jews revolted against Roman rule

After a savage war, the Romans forced the survivors out of Palestine

Diaspora – scattering of Jews throughout the world

Jews preserved their religious and cultural traditions

Made important contributions to science, medicine, business, arts

Hebrew beliefs developed slowly

Monotheistic – believe in one God - Yahweh

Torah – sacred book of Hebrews – early history, moral and religious laws

Religious beliefs of the Hebrews came to be called Judaism

Belief that people and their rulers should lead moral lives

Taught that individuals are responsible for their actions

People have a choose between good and evil

Rise of Christianity

Some Jews believe Jesus was the Messiah

Messiah – one anointed by God

Most Jewish leaders rejected this view – saw Jesus as a troublemaker

Jesus’ teachings were rooted in the Jewish tradition of monotheism

He also upheld the Ten Commandments

Used parables to teach

Parables – short stories with simple moral lessons

Jesus’ followers believed he was the Son of God

Preserved his teachings – became the New Testament

Followers of Jesus became known as Christians

Romans tolerated the religious beliefs of the diverse people they ruled

Were suspicious of Christians because they refused to show respect for

Roman gods

Christians were often persecuted

Martyrs – people who suffer or die for their beliefs

313AD the Roman emperor Constantine converted to Christianity

By 395 AD, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire

Formal church was organized

Highest officials were bishops

Bishop of Rome became the head of the Church

Took on tile of pope

Pope – father of the Church

With the split of the Roman Empire (Roman and Byzantine)

The Byzantine emperor refused to recognize the pope in Rome

Emperor controlled the Church himself

The Christian Church split

Roman Catholic Church – centered in Rome

Eastern Orthodox Church – centered in Constantinople

Chapter 26

Heritage of the Middle East

Section 1 – The World of Islam

Islam emerged in the Arabian Peninsula

During the 600s and 700s, Islam spread across the Middle East and into Africa, Asian,

And Europe

Islam remains a powerful influence in the world

Almost one fifth of the worlds’ people are Muslim

Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570

At about 40 Muhammad heard the voice of Gabriel ordering him to preach to all

At first his teachings were rejected

622, Muhammad and his followers were forced out of Mecca

Went to Yathrib – changed to Medina - city of the prophet

Hejira – name given to the migration of Muhammad and his followers to Medina

This year became the first year of the Muslim calendar

In 630, Muhammad returned to Mecca with a strong army and captured the city

Islam means “submission”

A Muslim is someone who submits to God

Five Pillars of Islam – five duties accepted by Muslims

1 – Muslims proclaim their belief on one God

Muslims honor many prophets – Abraham, Moses, Jesus

Muhammad is the last and most important prophet

2 – pray five times a day, face the holy city of Mecca and pray

3 – charity to the poor and aged

4 – fasting during the holy month of Ramadan, ninth month of the Muslim calendar

5 – hajj – pilgrimage to Mecca

All Muslims who are able are required to make the journey at least once

Some Muslims look on jihad – or struggle in God’s service as a sixth pillar

Jihad includes inner struggle to achieve spiritual peace as well as battle in defense

of Islam

Koran is the sacred book of Islam

Contains the exact word of God as revealed to Muhammad

Koran is authority on all subjects

Religion, politics, law, economic and social life

Muslims had been forbidden to translate the Loran from Arabic

Arabic became a universal language uniting Muslims around the world

Muslims believe that Allah is the same God as the God of the Jews and Christians

Muslims believe in a final day of judgement

Muhammad accepted the original teachings of the Jewish and Christian scriptures as the

Word of God

Called Jews and Christians “people of the Book” because they followed God’s teachings

Muslims were to treat Jews and Christians with tolerance

By 732, Muslim Arabs had conquered an empire that reached from the Indus River to the

Atlantic Ocean

Included peoples of Persia, Arabia, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Spain

Quick expansion in part due to

Arab armies were united by their beliefs

Idea of jihad

Lure of riches

Some people looked on the Arabs as liberators

Some people found the message of Islam appealing

Muslims were tolerant conquerors

Division of Islam

Within 30 years of the death of Muhammad, a serious dispute split Islam

Sunni and Shiite

Dispute was over who should become caliph

Caliph – successor to the prophet

Shiites – smaller of the sects – believed only a descendant could be caliph

Sunni – majority of Muslims – believe that any devout Muslim could be caliph

Umayyad dynasty – 661-750 Damascus, Syria was the capital

Emphasized Arab culture

Arabic was the language of the dynasty

Highest jobs in government and army went to Arabs

In 750, Shiites and other groups overthrew the dynasty

Set up the Abbassid dynasty

Abbassid dynasty – 750-1258 – Baghdad was its capital

Supported building projects

Mosques, irrigation systems, libraries, hospitals, public baths, schools

Non-Arabs could hold high jobs in government and become religious leaders

Golden Age of Muslim Civilization

Through trade and conquest, Muslim civilization spread

Blended Greek, Persian, Indian influences

Adapted the various traditions to its own needs

Muslim merchants developed new business practices

Set up banks, issued letters of credit, wrote receipts for payment, used bills

of lading

Islamic scholars translated ancient works into Arabic

Preserving learning of early civilizations

Section 2 – Centuries of Turmoil

Foreign Invaders

Seljuks

Turkish-speaking people

Converted to Islam in Central Asia

Captured Baghdad

Their success frightened Christian rulers of Europe

Mongols

Overthrew the Sejuks

Destroyed cities

Killed the last of the Abbassid caliphs

Eventually converted to Islam and absorbed into culture of the Middle East

Crusaders

Byzantine emperor called on the Christian states of Western Europe to help

1095, Pope Urban II called for a crusade against the Muslims

Crusade – holy war

For almost 100 years, Christians poured into Palestine in a movement that became

known as the Crusades

Crusade had limited effect

Civilizations in Western Europe were less advanced than the Islamic world

1187, Saladin, a Muslim general drove the Christians out of Jerusalem

Ottoman Empire

Turkish speaking people from Central Asia

1453, captured Constantinople – ended the 1,000 year old Byzantine Empire

Reached its height under Suleiman I (1520-1566)

Ottoman Empire lasted more than 500 years

Government

Sultan rued with absolute power

Large number of officials to supervise the government

“men of the pen”

lawyers, judges, mathematicians

“men of the sword”

soldiers who guarded the sultan and fount in army

Slaves

People conquered became slaves

Upon conversion to Islam they gained freedom

Millets – non-Muslim communities

Owed loyalty to sultan but ruled by their own religious leaders

Safavid Empire

By the 1500s, the chief rival of the Ottoman Empire

Safavid Empire was in present day Iran

Safavid were Shiite – Ottoman Sunni

Abbas the Great ruled from 1587 to 1629

Safavid rulers were called shahs

Shah – king

Empire declined after Abbas – empire ended in 1736

Iran remained under the rule of a shah until 1979

Section 3 – Patterns of Life

Village Life

Most people lived in small farming villages

Farm families divided their labor

Villages included a mosque and stores that sold what farmers did not produce

A small section of each house was set aside as women’s quarters

Women remained secluded when men outside the immediate family visited

Nomadic Life

Nomadic herders moved with their animals to areas that received seasonal rains

Bedouins – desert nomads – lived in small, tightly knit tribal groups

“people of the tent”

Highland nomads

Mountains and plateaus of the Northern Tier

During the summer moved to cool upland pastures

Returned to the plains during the winter

Many villagers and traders regard nomadic herders as lawless warriors

Central governments found it difficult to collect taxes

City Life

Cities developed for different reasons

Jerusalem – capital of ancient Israel

Damascus – trading center on a key caravan route

Cairo and Baghdad – built by powerful caliphs as their capitals

Beirut – prosperous seaport

Cities were walled for protection

Mosques were at the center of life in Muslim communities

Serviced as meeting places, centers of study, and inns for travelers

Commercial hear of the city was the suq

Suq – marketplace

Family Life

Family in the Middle East was patriarchal

Father had the final say on all matters

According to the Koran, only obedience to God is more important than respect

Children owe their parents

Marriages were arranged

Koran permits a man as many as four wives

Few men can afford to keep multiple wives

Divorce is easier for men

Lives of Women

Muslim tradition and customs made women subordinate to men

Once married a woman had to obey her husband and her husband’s father

Expected to be modes and to remain secluded within the home

Wear a veil to conceal their faces from me who were not member of family

Under Islamic law women gained the right to education and own property

Section 4 – Imperialism and Nationalism

By the late 1800s, European influence in the Middle East was growing

European imperialism and growing nationalism posed a threat to the Ottoman Empire

Greeks revolted and won independence in 1832

Powerful sultans tried to strengthen the empire

Introduced reforms to modernize the government

Set up secular schools to teach western ideas in Science and technology

Late 1800s – Turkish nationalism

Group of young military leaders – the Young Turks - overthrew the sultan

Wanted to strengthen the empire and end western imperialism

Supported Turkish nationalism

Followed a brutal policy of genocide caused death of hundreds of thousands

of Armenians

Young Turks stressed the differences between Turks and Muslim Arabs

Treaty of Versailles

Allies stripped the Ottoman Empire of its Arab provinces

Arab provinces divided by mandates

Mandate – territory that was administered by not owned by a member of the

League of Nations

Britain receive Iraq, Transjordan, Palestine

France gained Syria and Lebanon

Republic of Turkey

Shortly after WW I, Greece seized land that was ruled by the Turks

Mustafa Kemal rallied Turkish resistance

Drove the Greeks out of Anatolia

1923 Kemal overthrew the sultan, abolished the Ottoman Empire

Turkey became a republic

Took the name Kemal Ataturk – ‘Father of the Turks”

Ataturk reforms

Determined to make Turkey a modern secular state

Encouraged economic development –government funds built industries

Insisted on the separation of religion and government

Replace Islamic la with a new law code based on western models

Women won the right to vote and hold pubic office

Set up a public school system separate from religious schools

Began using western calendar and metric system of weights and measure

Replace Arabic script with western alphabet

Encouraged western style clothing

Modern Egypt

Became the focus of imperialist rivalry between Britain and France

Both wanted to build a canal across the Isthmus of Suez

1805, Muhammad Ali became governor of Egypt

Egypt was still a part of the Ottoman Empire but Ali pursued his own agenda

Introduced reforms to modernized Egypt

Invited French to train Egyptians in the latest European military and scientific

techniques

Introduce new farming methods

Promoted the growing of cash crops

Set up textile mills

Ali’s successors continued his policies

Needed to borrow money from European banks

Increased debt gave France and Britain an excuse to interfere in

Egypt’s internal affairs

French won the right to build the Suez Canal

Egyptian ruler Ismail sold his shares in the canal to the British

Egyptian financial problems worsened and Britain and France took control of

its economy

Egyptians rebelled – British forces crushed the rebels

Egypt declared its independence from Britain in 1922

The canal remained in British hands until 1956

Struggle for Iran

Russia and Britain acquired spheres of influence in Iran

By early 1900s, Iranian nationalist demanded reform

1925, supported by nationalist, Reza Khan seized power

named himself shah

Wanted to end foreign control and create a modern industrial state

Built roads and factories, modernized the military, reduced the power of Muslim

clergy

Arab Nationalism

WW I fueled Arab nationalism

After WW I only Saudi Arabia a Arab ruler gained independence

The growing importance of oil made Britain and France unwilling to leave region

1932 – Iraq gained independence

1943 – Lebanon independence

1946 – Syria – became independent

Conflict Over Palestine

British mandate of Palestine became the center of a conflict between Jewish and

Arab nationalists

Late 1800s persecution of Jews led to the modern form of Zionism

Sought to reestablish a Jewish state in Palestine

Desire for a Jewish state increased as anti-Semitism increased

Anti-Semitism – hatred or fear of Jews

Theodor Herzl formed an organization to promote Zionism

Jews from Eastern Europe began migrating to Palestine

Set up communities

Called on Britain and other European powers to support them

Balfour Declaration – 1917 – British government

“His Majesty’s Government views with favour the establishment in

Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people…”

During the 1930s, immigration increased as anti-Semitism in Europe grew

Tensions between Arabs and Jews in Palestine heightened

Zionist groups helped Jews buy land from Arab landowner

Conflict eventually erupted into war

Chapter 27

The Middle East in Transition

Section 1 – Political Directions

By 1950, most nations had won independence

Continued effect of imperialism

Artificial borders

Economic dependence

Wanted western technology – opposed influence of western culture

Arab League formed in 1945

Some nationalist turned to pan-Arabism

Unite all Arabs based on common language and culture

Believed a unified Arab state would be a major world power

1958 – Egypt and Syria formed United Arab Republic – lasted 3 years

Obstacles

National, ethnic and kinship ties proved to be stronger

Greater loyalty to own country

Arab land included many ethnic and religious groups

No geographic unity

Settlements scattered over a wide area

Economic gap

Forms of government

The degree to which citizens participate in government varies

Saudi Arabia – monarch with absolute power

Jordan – constitutional monarchy – elected parliament – king holds most power

Syria – strongman ruler – single party (Baath)

Most Middle East nations have western-style law codes

Saudi Arabia and Iran rely on Shariah

Shariah – highest authority for Islamic law

Koran governs all aspects of life

Provides guidance for political, social, economic life, private behavior

Challenges to Stability

Minority ethnic groups have demanded self-rule

Rapid population growth

Urbanization

Poverty and illiteracy

Civil War in Lebanon

Home to a number of different Christian and Muslim groups

Constitution divided power among the groups

Less power to the growing Muslim population

Muslim resentment

1975 – civil war broke out – lasted 16 years

Palestinians had fled Israel now lived in Lebanon

Backed the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)

PLO launched terrorist attacks on Israel from bases in Lebanon

Syria, Israel, Iran, U.S. became involved

1991 – power-sharing agreement gave Muslims a greater say in government

Islamist movement

Some Muslims saw westernization as a form of colonialism

Westernization seen as an evil force undermining Islamic society

Demanded return to the values set out in the Koran and early Islamic traditions

Insisted governments use the Shariah as the basis of law

Wanted to restore authority to religious leaders

Spurred religious revival throughout the Muslim world

Extremism

Islamists did not promote violence – one branch turned to terrorism

Al Qaeda – used violence and terror to promote their values

Targeted U.S. for attacks

Accused U.S. of spreading its culture and values as a new imperialism

Most Middle East leaders reject the actions of extremist

Cracked down on extremist groups – unable to destroy the movement

Section 2 – Changing Economic and Social Patterns

After independence – goal was to reduce European economic influence

Foreigners owned key industries, its key asset – oil

Some Arab nations turned to socialism to control large sections of their economics

1950s some Middle Easter countries nationalized foreign-owned companies

Banking, oil, food processing

Governments took a leading role in promoting industrials growth – modernization

Governments can raise capital, make long-term plans

Rapid population growth poses a challenge to modernization

Puts strain on resources

Limited farmland and scarcity of water makes population growth a critical problem

Need to improve food production

Modernizing agriculture

Increase cash crop output to earn income

Need to increase the amount of farmland

Irrigation systems

Dams used for irrigation and hydroelectric

Desalination – converting sea water into fresh water for drinking and irrigation

Improving farming methods to increase crop yields

Better seeds and fertilizers

In Israel new farming method – “fertigation” – pumping water and fertilizer

directly to the roots of plants

Using land reform

Redistribution of land to poor farmers

Hoped to increase food output, end rural poverty, reduce power of landlords

Politically popular, limited economic success

Role of Oil

Middle East has 60 percent of the world’s oil reserves

Oil resources are unevenly distributed

Since the 1960s oil-rich nations have given money and loans to poorer

neighbors

Urban Growth

Modernization and population explosion have contributed to the rapid growth of

Middle East cities

Come looking for work, higher education, better jobs

Limited housing – millions live in shacks on the edge of the city

People from the same village cluster in the same neighborhoods

Conflicts arise between generations

Children adapt more quickly to city life

Worries that foreign ideas are undermining traditional values

Women’s Lives

Status of women vary from country to country

Depends on each nation’s government, laws, and social traditions

Education

Great emphasis is place on education

Education is uneven from country to country, urban to rural

Population explosion has created problems in education

Section 3 – Three Nations on the Road to Modernization

Iran – second-largest country in the Middle East, third-largest population

Huge oil resources – third largest in region – fourth largest in the world

Strategic location on the Persian Gulf, Islamic revolution

Home to more than a dozen ethnic groups – only a small percentage are Arab

Most speak Persian – most are Muslims – only country where Shiites are majority

Nationalized oil wells in 1951

During the 50s and 60s the shah launch economic and social reforms

Redistribution of land to peasants, improved health care and education

Finance construction and industrial growth

Women given new rights – right to vote

Reforms led to a growing gap between westernized Iranians from the rest

1979 overthrow of the shah by supports of the Ayatollah Khomeine

Iran became a theocracy – government ruled by religious leaders

Economy slowed after the revolution

U. S. trade boycott, Iran-Iraq war

Tension between reformers and traditionalist within the Islamist movement

Reformers want to quicken the pace of economic and social change

Traditionalists reject modernizing influences – might undermine Islamic

Principles

Egypt – third largest country in the Middle East – largest population – mostly desert

95 percent of population live on 5 percent of the land

Lacks vast oil resources – Nile Valley is Egypt’s greatest natural resource

1950s President Gamal Abdel Nasser promoted Arab socialism

Nationalized industries took control of foreign-owned businesses

Redistribution of land to poor farmers – increased wages to urban workers

Build the Aswan High Dam

Irrigated more farmland, control Nike flooding, hydroelectricity

Arab-Israeli tension led to two wars

Nasser’s successor – Anwar Sadat – moved away from Arab socialism

Welcomed foreign investment, supported private industry

Became the first Arab leader to make peace with Israel

1981 – assassinated by Muslim extremist

Sadat’s successor – Hosni Mubarak

2011 – Arab Spring uprising topples Mubarak

Instability continues

Turkey – located in Asia and Europe

Close economic and military ties with the West – member of NATO

Nearly all Turks are Sunni Muslims

Turkey’s language, culture, history come from the Ottoman Empire

10-15 million Turkish people are Kurds – most live in the southeast

Face discrimination and repression

Kurdish demand for self-rule or independent state has led to violence

Since the 1920s – it has become a modern, secular state

One of the most balance economies in the Middle East

Mix of modern industry and trade, along with traditional agriculture

Population growing faster than the economy

Islamic political parties have gained support

Religious goals clash with Turkey’s secular constitution

Chapter 28

The Middle East in the World Today

Section 1 – Regional and Global Issues

Middle East and the Cold War

U. S. and Soviet Union recognized the strategic importance of the Middle East

Controlled oil and vital water ways

Superpowers competed for influence

Many Middle Eastern nations chose to remain nonaligned

Accepted help from both sides

In Turkey the Soviets backed communist rebels – U.S. helped resisters

Later Turkey joined NATO – NATO air bases established

After the Cold War concern grew about weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East

Development of chemical weapons, biological weapons, nuclear weapons

Concern with the spread of nuclear weapons and the rise of extremism

Causes of extremism – oppressive governments, poverty, social inequality, westernization

OPEC – Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries – 11 members

OPEC’s power increased as the world demand for oil rose in the 1970s

During the Arab-Israeli war in 1973 OPEC stopped shipments to countries that

supported Israel – this included the I. S.

Set off a global oil crisis as prices rose and supplies dwindles

Rising oil prices affect the world economy in dramatic ways

Hardest hit are developing nations

Cuts in social programs to pay for imported oil

In industrialized countries, high oil prices cause inflation

In the Middle East – countries that import oil suffer while oil-rich

Countries earn huge profits

After the 1970s turned to conservation and alternative energy sources

Looked for oil at home, bought from non-OPEC nations

OPEC is less powerful today

Divisions within OPEC account for the fall in prices

Many OPEC countries do not want to cut production

Cuts in production mean smaller oil income

Wars in the Region - Factors – oil – border disputes

Iran-Iraq War – eight year war

1980 – Iraq launched a massive invasion of Iran

Destroyed the other’s cities, ports, oil fields

1988 – both sides accepted a UN cease-fire

No signed peace agreement

Persian Gulf War –

1990 – Iraq invades Kuwait – claimed Kuwait belonged to Iraq

Iraq posed a threat to Saudi Arabia

1991 – UN coalition moved against Saddam Hussein

Defeated Iraq forces within days

Operation Iraqi Freedom

March 2003 – military operations against Iraq began

December 2003 Saddam Hussein captured

December 2006 Saddam Hussein executed

December 21, 2011 – U. S. forces withdrawal from Iraqi

Section 2 – The Arab-Israeli Conflict

After WW II, violence between Arabs and Jews in the British mandate of Palestine increase

Jewish refugees from Europe joined with earlier setters

Determined to set up a Jewish state

Palestinian Arabs opposed the arrival of Jewish immigrants

Did not want to lose any of their homeland to make up for the wrongs of Europe

1947 – UN recommendation – Palestine be partitioned – divided into

a Jewish state an Arab state

Zionist accepted the plan – Arabs objected

Arabs regarded the plan as a violation of their right to self-determination

1948 – last British troops leave Palestine

Jews announce the creation of the state of Israel

Israel won recognition from the major world powers

Neighboring Arab nations saw the creation as a continued domination by western

powers

Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon sent separate military forces against Israel

Israel defeated the divided Arab forces

Israel then annexed about half the area set aside for an Arab by the UN

As well as half of Jerusalem

Jordan tool the rest of Arab Palestine

Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip

Palestinian refugees fled – many remain in makeshift UN refugee camps

Refuse to leave – believe leaving will be interpreted as a willingness to

Give up the goal of regaining a Palestinian homeland

Continued Conflict

1956 – Israel, Britain, France attacked after Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal

Israeli troops occupied but later withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula

1967 – third Arab-Israeli war occurred – lasted six days – Six-Day War

Israel made territorial gains

Took the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt

Took the Golan Heights from Syria

Took the West Bank from Jordan

Took East Jerusalem from the Arabs

1973 – Syria and Egypt attacked Israel in an attempt to regain lost land

Israel pushed back the invaders

UN negotiated a cease-fire

Cold War fueled the Arab-Israeli conflict

U. S. backed Israel – Soviet Union backed Syria, Iraq, Egypt

Provided military and economic aid

U.S. and Soviets would rearm their allies

Fear that continued conflict would trigger a major war

Arab countries refused to recognize Israel – Israel refused to make concessions

On the issues of Palestinian refugees

1964 – Palestinian leaders formed the PLO – Palestinian Liberation Organization

PLO attacks brought reprisals – forceful acts in response to an injury

1982 – Israel invaded Lebanon

Building a Nation

Israel is about the size of New Jersey

About 90 percent of Israelis live in urban areas – mainly along Mediterranean

Two main groups of Jews

Ashkenazim – from Eastern and Central Europe

Sephardim – from around the Mediterranean and the Middle East

Today, Sephardim Jews are in the majority and have increased influence

About 15 percent of Israelis are non-Jews

Most are Arab Muslims and Christians

The Arab population is growing rapidly

Israel has a mixed economy

Government owns some businesses but many are privately owned

Israel lacks natural resources and water

Israel remains dependent on imports of many basic goods

Much of its budget is spent on defense

Struggle to Achieve Peace

Arab nations refused to recognized Israel, called for its destruction

Israel reject the idea of a Palestinian state, would not hold discussions unless face-to-face

1979 – Egyptian president, Anwar Sadat, signed a peace treat with Israel

Other Arab nations condemned Egypt for making peace with Israel

1987 – Palestinian intifada – the shaking

Frustrated by Israeli military rule Palestinians organized strikes against Israeli

businesses, attacked Israeli soldiers and civilians

Israel responded forcefully

Arrested, jailed, deported suspected Palestinian leaders of the intifada

Destroyed homes of suspected rebels

Closed Arab schools on the West Bank

Some Palestinians joined underground, armed groups – Hamas and Islamic Jihad

These groups used terrorism and called for the destruction of Israel

Early 1990s – push for peace brought Israel and Palestinian leaders together

Issues that bogged down the peace process

Status of the occupied territories

Conditions in the refugee camps had deteriorated – poverty

Jewish settlements in the occupied lands

1993 – Oslo accords

Israel and the PLO agreed to recognize each other

PLO would stop attacking

Israel would withdraw its forces from parts of the occupied territories

1994 – Israel and Jordan signed a peace agreement

Syria and Israel could not reach an agreement

Talks stalled and Palestinians launched new protest

Palestinians attacked military and civilians

March 2002 – Israeli military invaded Palestinian-ruled areas of West Bank

Faced with criticism, Israel claimed it had a right to defend itself

Unresolved issues

Jerusalem – holds religious significance for Jew, Muslims, Christians

Palestinian demand for the “right of return”

Would give Palestinians who fled during the Arab-Israeli wars the right

to return

Future of Jewish settlements in the West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem

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