Chapter 18 notes - Mesa Public Schools



APUSH

Chapter 18 notes

Mr. Dunn

Chapter 18: The Age of the City

I. The Urbanization of America

A. The Lure of the City

• Urban population increased sevenfold after the Civil War

• In 1920, the census revealed that for the first time, a majority of Americans lived in urban areas

o NY grew from 1 million in 1860 to 3 million in 1900; Chicago from 100,00 to over a million

• City attracted people because it offered conveniences, entertainments, and cultural experiences

• Most of all, cities attracted people because they offered more and better paying jobs

B. Migrations

• Among those leaving rural America for industrial cities were young rural women

• Southern blacks were beginning a century-long exodus from the countryside to the city

• Factory jobs for blacks were rare and professional opportunities almost nonexistent

• Most important source of urban population growth in late 19th century was the arrival of immigrants

• 10 million between 1860 & 1890; 18 million more in the three decades after that

C. The Ethnic City

• NY had more Irish than Dublin & more Germans than Hamburg; Chicago had more Poles than Warsaw

• In some towns, a dozen different ethnic groups found themselves living in close proximity

• Benefits of ethnic communities: newspapers and theaters in their native tongue, native foods, churches or synagogues and fraternal organizations that linked their national pasts

• Jews and Germans advanced more rapidly than the Irish

• Immigrants who aroused strong racial prejudice found it very difficult to advance

• Most notably African Americans, Asians, and Mexicans

• The Irish in NY & Boston and Germans in Milwaukee gained advantage by exerting their political power

D. Assimilation

• Majority of newcomers were between 15 and 45 years old

• Second generation immigrants were more likely to try to assimilate completely into American culture

• Assimilation put a strain on relationships between men and women in immigrant communities

• Many immigrant women began working outside the home and developed friendships & interests outside the family

• Assimilation was not entirely a matter of choice: Public schools taught children in English & employers

insisted that workers speak English on the job

E. Exclusion

• Arrival of so many new immigrants provoked fear and resentment among native-born Americans

• “Foreignness” seen as source of all disorder and corruption in the urban world

• “These people are not American, but the very scum and offal of Europe. . .”

• Native laborers were incensed at immigrant workers for accepting lower wages

• In 1887, Henry Bowers founded the American Protective Association

• Immigration Restriction League was designed to separate the desirable from the undesirable

• Immigration was providing a rapidly growing economy with a cheap and plentiful labor supply

II. The Urban Landscape

A. The Creation of Public Space

• Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux teamed in the late 1850s to design Central Park in NY

• Cities were also creating great public buildings: libraries, art galleries, museums and theaters

• Wealthy residents of cities were the principle force behind creation of public buildings and parks

• The 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago inspired the “City Beautiful” movement

• Aimed to impose order and symmetry on disordered life of cities

• In Boston, a large marshy area was created into the neighborhood known as “Back Bay”

B. Housing the Well-to-do

• Availability of cheap labor and accessibility of tools & materials reduced the cost of building

• Richest urban residents lived in mansions and created lavish “fashionable districts”

o Fifth Ave. (NY), Back Bay/Beacon Hill (Boston), Lake Shore Dr.(Chicago) & Nob Hill (SF)

• Chicago, in the 1870’s, boasted nearly 100 residential suburbs connected to the city

• Real estate developers promoted suburban communities

C. Housing Workers and the Poor

• Most urban residents could not afford a house in the city or to move to the suburbs

• In Manhattan, the average population density in 1894 was 143 people per acre – higher rate than the most crowded cities in Europe (Paris had 127 per acre and Berlin 101)

• In NY, more than a million people lived in tenements

• Tenements became miserable abodes w/ windowless rooms, no plumbing or heating, and perhaps privies in the basement

• Jacob Riis shocked middle-class Americans w/ his 1890 book, How the Other Half Lives

D. Urban Transportation

• By 1890, Chicago had paved only about 600 of its more than 2,000 miles of streets

• In 1870, NY opened its first elevated railway

• Richmond, VA introduced the first electronic trolley line in the 1880s

• In 1897, Boston opened the first American subway

• Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John A. Roebling, was finished in the 1880s

E. The “Skyscraper”

• By the 1850s, there had been successful experiments with machine powered passenger elevators

• The Equitable Building in New York was completed in 1870

• The Modern skyscraper was made possible by steel girder construction

• Chicago architect Luis Sullivan introduced modern, functional elements to the genre: large windows, sheer lines and limited ornamentation to emphasize the height of the building

III. Strains of Urban Life

A. Fire and Disease

• Chicago and Boston suffered “great fires” in 1871

• Encouraged construction of fireproof buildings & development of professional fire departments

• Forced cities to rebuild at time when new technology and architectural innovations were available

B. Environmental Degradation

• Improper disposal of human & industrial waste was a common feature of large cities

• Air pollution from factories, stoves and furnaces was constant and at times severe

• New sewage and drainage systems were created to protect drinking water from sewage disposal

• Alice Hamilton documented ways in which improper disposal of such dangerous substances as lead, chemical waste, and ceramic dust were creating widespread sickness

• In 1912, the federal govt. created the Public Health Service ( led to creation of OSHA in 1970

C. Urban Poverty

• The expansion of cities spawned widespread poverty

• Middle-class people believed too much assistance would breed dependency

o Poverty was the fault of the poor ( result of laziness, alcoholism & other kinds of irresponsibility

• Salvation Army concentrated more on religious revivalism than on the relief of the homeless & hungry

• “Street Arabs” attracted more attention from reformers than any other group

D. Crime and Violence

• US murder rate rose from 25 murders per million people in 1880 to over 100 by end of the century

• Native-born Americans blamed immigrant groups, but natives were as likely to commit crimes as immigrants

• Rising crime rate encouraged many cities to develop larger and more professional police forces

• Police forces themselves could spawn corruption and brutality because they were filled through political patronage

• Urban national guard groups built armories on the outskirts of neighborhoods in preparation for uprisings

E. The Machine and the Boss

• The urban machine was one of America’s most distinctive political institutions

o Politicians who could mobilize that power stood to gain enormous influence & public office

• Principal function of the political boss was to win votes for his organization

• Above all, he rewarded his followers w/ patronage: jobs in city govt. or city agencies as the police, building/operating new transit systems & opportunities to rise in the political organization

• Most famous corrupt city boss was William M. Tweed, NY City’s Tammany Hall, in the 1860s & 1870s

• Political organizations were responsible not just for corruption, but for modernizing city infrastructures, expanding role of government, and creating stability in a political and social climate

• Several factors made boss rule possible: power of immigrant voters, link between political organizations and the wealthy & the structural weakness of city govts.

IV. The Rise of Mass Consumption

A. Patterns of Income and Consumption

• Incomes in the industrial era were rising for almost everyone, although at highly uneven rates

• The salaries of “white collar” workers rose on average by a third between 1890 and 1910

• Industries with large female, African- American, or Mexican work forces saw very small increases

• Important to the new mass market was development of affordable products & new merchandising techniques

• By the end of the century, virtually all Americans bought their clothing from stores

o As a result, people became more concerned w/ personal style

• Another example of the rise of mass market was the way Americans bought & prepared food

o The changes meant improved diets & improved health

B. Chain Stores and Mail- Order Houses

• Chain stores were able to sell manufactured goods at lower prices than local, independent stores

• Rural people gradually gained access to the new consumer world through the great mail-order houses

• Bulky catalogs from Ward & Sears changed the lives of many isolated people

C. Department Stores

• Marshall Field in Chicago created first American department store; followed by Macy’s in NY

• Brought together enormous array of products that had previously been sold in separate shops

• Strove to create an atmosphere of wonder & excitement

• Took advantage of economics of scale to sell merchandise at lower prices than individual shops

D. Women as Consumers

• Consumer economy produced new employment opportunities for women as sales clerks and waitresses

• National Consumers League formed to improve wages and working conditions for women workers

• Mobilization of women behind consumer causes was an important political development

V. Leisure in the Consumer Society

• Working hours in factories declined from 70 hours a week in 1860 to fewer than 60 in 1900

• Lives of Americans were becoming compartmentalized w/ clear distinctions between work & leisure

A. Redefining Leisure

• Industrial workers adopted, “Eight hours for work, eight hours for rest, and eight hours for what we will”

• Leisure time was an important contribution to an individuals emotional & spiritual health

• Economist Simon Patten articulated this new view of leisure; tied closely to rising interest in consumption

• New economies could create enough wealth to satisfy not just needs, but also desires

• Principal goal should be an abundance of goods & the pursuit of pleasure

• In earlier times, entertainment meant “going out” to amusement parks like Coney Island, as did thousands

in dance halls, vaudeville houses & concert halls,

• NY enjoyed Central Park and moviegoers enjoyed lavish “movie palaces”

• Saloons & sporting events tended to be male preserves

• Shopping, tea rooms & luncheonettes were characteristic of female leisure

• There were relatively few places where people of widely diverse backgrounds gather together

B. Spectator Sports

• Baseball, by the end of century was on its way to becoming “national pastime”

• Football, second most popular game, originated in colleges and universities

o Amos Alonzo Stagg formed the Western Conference, or Big Ten, in 1896

o In 1910, the NCAA revised the rules of the game to make it safer & more honest

• Basketball was invented in 1891 at Springfield, MA by Dr. James Naismith

• Spectator sports were closely associated with gambling

o Throwing of 1919 World Series in the infamous “Black Sox Scandal”

• Women’s colleges were beginning to introduce students to more strenuous sports - track, crew, swimming and basketball

C. Music and Theater

• Ethnic communities maintained theaters; immigrants listened to music of their homelands and heard comedians make light of their experiences in the New World

• One of the most distinctively American entertainment forms was the musical comedy

• Vaudeville consisted of a variety of acts like musicians, comedians, magicians and jugglers

D. The Movies

• Movies were the most important form of mass entertainment until radio and television

• Early movies were usually plotless films designed mainly to show off the technology

• D. W. Griffith carried motion pictures into a new era with silent epics

• Some films contained notoriously racist messages indicating that audiences were overwhelmingly white

E. Working-Class Leisure

• People w/ time but little money found life of the street an appealing source of camaraderie and energy

• Saloons were often ethnically specific and became political centers

• Anti-Saloon League attacked saloons to weaken political machines; saloons were places of crime, violence, and prostitution

• Boxing matches in small rings and saloons were organized by ethnic clubs

F. The Fourth of July

• Was, for many decades, one of the few full days of leisure that many workers had

• Ethnic groups organized their own Fourth of July events with picnics, games and parades

• In southern cities, the Fourth of July was complicated, shaped by the memory of Civil War and continuing racial divisions in southern society

• Whites imposed tighter restrictions on how African Americans could celebrate

G. Private Pursuits

• Americans amused themselves by reading; dime novels became popular after the Civil War

• Music was a popular form of leisure; public performances attracted large crowds

• Middle-class families placed high value in learning to play an instrument

• Affluent families emphasized classical music, middle-class families favored traditional and sentimental ballads, and ragtime extended into the home

H. Mass Communications

• Between 1870 and 1910, circulation of daily newspapers increased nearly ninefold

• Emergence of national press services made use of telegraph to supply news and features to papers throughout county

• Most powerful was William Randolph Hearst, by 1914 controlled nine newspapers and two magazines

• Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer popularized “yellow journalism” – deliberately sensationalized, lurid reporting presented in bold graphics to reach a mass audience

• Edward W. Bok, by targeting a mass female audience, built circulation to over 700,000

VI. High Culture in the Age of the City

A. The Literature of Urban America

• A strong impulse in American literature was the effort to re-create urban social reality

• Socialist write, Upton Sinclair, published The Jungle in 1906; designed to reveal depravity of capitalism

• Exposed abuses in meatpacking industry; produced legislative action to deal w/ problem

• Reading clubs made literature a social experience for women that has continued into the 21st century

B. Art in the Age of the City

• By 1900, a number of American artists broke form Old World traditions and experimented with new styles

• Members of Ashcan School produced work startling in naturalism & stark in portrayal of social realities

• Among the first Americans to appreciate expressionism and abstractionism; they helped stage the famous and controversial “Armory Show”

• The work marked the beginning in America of artistic movement known as modernism

• Modernists rejected the past and embraced new subjects and new forms; it gloried in the ordinary & coarse and looked to the future & gloried in the new

C. The Impact of Darwinism

• Single most profound intellectual development in late 19th century was theory of evolution

• Darwinism argued that human species evolved from earlier forms of life through “natural selection”

• Rise of Darwinism contributed to a deep schism between new, cosmopolitan culture of the city and more traditional, provincial culture located in rural areas

• According to pragmatists, modern society should rely for guidance not on inherited ideals and moral principles but on the test of scientific inquiry

• Darwinism promoted growth of anthropology & encouraged scholars to examine other cultures in new ways

D. Toward Universal Schooling

• In 1860, there were 100 public high schools in the US; by 1900, there were 6,000 & by 1914 over 12,000

• In 1879, Pratt organized Carlisle Indian Industrial School to “kill the Indian and save the man”

• Colleges and universities benefited particularly from the Morrill Land Grant Act of the Civil War

• Other universities benefited from millions of dollars contributed by business and financial tycoons

o Rockefeller and Carnegie gave generously to Ivy League schools & others

E. Education for Women

• At the end of the Civil War, only three American colleges were coeducational

• Proponents of women’s colleges saw the institutions as places where female students would not be treated as “second-class citizens”

• Most faculty members & many administrators were women; women became the leaders of many reform activities

• Over 25% did not marry at all, but devoted themselves exclusively to careers

• Growth of female higher education became a liberating experience for women

Chapter 34

The Age of Globalization

I. Resurgence of Partisanship

• Bill Clinton took oath of office in January 1993.

• Won the votes of under half the electorate.

• Republican leadership in Congress opposed president with unanimity on many issues.

A. Launching the Clinton Presidency

• Failed effort to end long time ban on gay men and women serving in military met with ferocious resistance from armed forces and conservatives.

• Banking and real estate ventures involving the president and his wife became known as the Whitewater affair.

• Won approval of North American free trade agreement which eliminated most trade barriers among U.S, Canada, and Mexico.

• Appointed tack force chared by wife, Hillary, which proposed sweeping reformed designed to guarantee coverage to every American and hold down costs finical care.

• Congress abandoned health-care reform effort.

• United Stated was among nations to send peace keeping troops to Bosnia.

B. The Republican Resurgence

• 1994 election, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress.

• “Contract with America” called for tax reductions, changes in federal spending, and other promises.

• The gap between Democratic White House and Republican Congress on many major issues was relatively small.

• In November 1995 and January 1996, federal government shut down for several days because President and Congress could not agree on budget.

C. The Election of 1996

• Clinton versus Dole

• Clinton could campaign as champion of peace, prosperity, and national well-being.

• In spring and summer of 1996, Congress passed several important bills.

• Raised minimum wage for first time in more that a decade.

• Passed welfare reform bill.

• Ended fifty-year federal guarantee of assistance to families with dependent children and turned most of responsibility for funds to states.

• It shifted bulk of benefits away from those without jobs and toward support for low-wage workers.

• Clinton received over 49 percent of popular vote and 379 electoral votes.

D. Clinton Triumphant and Embattled

• Bill Clinton was first Democratic president to win two terms as president since Franklin Roosevelt.

• Negotiated effectively with Republican leadership on plan for balanced budget.

• Had been bedeviled by alleged scandals almost from first weeks in office.

• Whitewater

• Chares of corruption leveled against members of cabinet and staff.

• Accusations of illegalities in financing 1996 campaign.

• Civil suit for sexual harassment by former state employee in Arkansas, Paula Jones.

• Paula Jones case led to charges that president had sexual relationship with White House intern, Monica Lewinsky.

• Clinton finally admitted that he and Lewinsky had and “improper relationship”.

D. Impeachment, Acquittal, and Resurgence

• House Judiciary Committee and full House approved two counts of impeachment:

• Lying to grand jury and obstructing justice.

• Trial ended with acquittal of president.

• Iraqi president Saddam Hussein now balked at agreements he signed at end of the Gulf war and refused to permit international inspectors to examine military sites in country.

• Clinton ordered a series of American bombing strikes at military targets in Iraq.

• Conflict between Serbian government of Yugoslavia and Kosovo separatists erupted into a civil war in 1998.

• May 1999, NATO forces began a major bombing campaign against Serbians led leader of Yugoslavia, Slobodan Milosevic, to agree to a cease-fire.

E. Election of 2000

• George Bush versus Al Gore.

• Gore won national popular cote by .05%. But on election night, both remained short of 270 electoral voted needed because no one could determine who had won Florida.

• Technology of voting soon became central to dispute.

• In a number of Florida counties votes were cast by notoriously inaccurate punch-card ballots, which were counted by machines.

• Gore campaign moved quickly with demand for hand recounts of ballots in three critical counties.

• Bush campaign struck back in court and through Republican Secretary of state, Katherine Harris.

• Florida Supreme Court voted to require Harris to permit the hand recounts and to accept results after the deadline.

• Third and largest county called off recount, claiming they could not finish in time.

• Harris certified Bush winner in Florida by more than 500 votes. Gore campaign contested results in court and prevailed in Florida Supreme Court. United States Supreme Court late on December 12, overruled Florida Supreme Court’s order for recount, insisted that any revised recount order be completed by December 12.

F. The Second Bush Presidency

• George W. Bush assumed presidency in January 2001.

• Widespread perception that he was ill prepared for office.

• Principle campaign promise had been that he would use predicted budget surplus to finance a massive tax reduction.

• Won passage of largest tax cut in American history- $1.35trillion.

• President’s adviser, Karl Rove, encouraged administration to take increasingly conservative positions.

• Appealed to gun lobby by refusing to support renewal of assault weapons ban.

• Proposed constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage.

• Bush administration’s proposals for incorporating “faith-based” organizations into circle of institutions were part of broad unsuccessful effort to mobilize Christians as part of republican coalition.

G. The Election of 2004

• President Bush, who was unopposed within party, against John Kerry.

• Bush won 51% of popular vote to Kerry’s 48%.

• Electoral vote was closer, 286 for Bush, 251 for Kerry.

• President argued that social security system was facing bankruptcy and must be reformed.

• Proposed the creation of private accounts by which individuals would be able to invest a portion of their own contributions to social security.

• Opponents argued that private accounts would worsen financial condition of social security system.

II. The Economic Boom

A. From “Stagflation” to Growth.

• Many American corporations began making important changes in way they ran businesses.

• Businesses invested heavily in new technology, to make themselves more efficient and productive.

• Corporations began to consider mergers to provide themselves with more diversified bases for growth.

• Many enterprises created more energy efficient plants and offices.

• American businesses sought to reduce labor costs.

• Took much harder line against unions.

• Growth of digital technology made possible new products that became central to American economic life: Computers, Internet, phones, digital music, video, cameras, personal digital assistants, and others.

• Gross National Product rose from $2.7 trillion in 1980 to over $9.8 trillion in 2000.

• 1997 and 1998, annual growth rates reached 5% for first time since 1960’s.

• From 1994 to 2000, the economy recorded growth in every year.

B. Downturn

• Alan Greenspan, chairman of Federal Reserve Board, warned of “irrational exuberance” with which Americans were pursuing profits in stock market.

• April 2001 was a sudden and disastrous collapse of booming new “” sector of company.

• At first, bursting of “tech bubble” seemed to have few effects on larger economy. But by beginning of 2001, the stock market began substantial decline which continued for almost a year.

• Enron Corporation, energy-trading company, announced on December 2, 2001 that it was filing for bankruptcy.

• Enron collapse became major preoccupation of media because of allegedly illegal deceptions that it revealed.

• Charge that Enron had manipulated energy priced in California to create artificial crisis.

• Crisis helped lead to successful recall of Democratic governor, Gray Davis, and replaced with Arnold Schwarzenegger, Republican.

C. The Two-Tiered Economy

• In 2000, median annual income of a person with less than high school education was $21,000. Number rose to $27,000 for high school graduate. College graduate’s median salary was $43,000 and median salary with advanced degree was $55,000.

• Between 1980 and 2000, average family income of wealthiest 20 percent of population grew by 20 percent; average family income of next 20 percent of population grew by more than 8 percent. Incomes remained flat for remaining 60 percent and declined for bottom 20 percent.

• Poverty in America had declined in years after WWII.

• End of 1970’s, percentage of people living in poverty had fallen to 12 percent.

• 1980’s, poverty rate rose again, sometimes as high as 15 percent.

• By 2003, it dropped down to under 13 percent.

D. Globalization

• As late as 1970, international trade still played a relatively small role in American economy.

• Exports rose from just under $43 billion in 1970 to over $789 billion in 2000.

• Imports rose from just over $40 billion in 1970 to over $1.2 trillion in 2000.

• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs were boldest of long series of treaties designed to lower trade barriers stretching back to 1960’s.

• American workers lost jobs as American companies began “off-shoring” work.

III. Science and Technology in the New Economy

• “New Economy” that emerged was driven and helped to drive new scientific and technological discoveries.

A. The Personal Computer

• By the 1990’s, most Americans were doing banking by computer.

• Most retail transactions were conducted by computerized credit mechanisms.

• Most businesses, schools, and other institutions were using computerized record keeping.

• Among most significant innovations was development of microprocessor, first introduced in 1971 by Intel.

• Microprocessor miniaturized central processing unit of computer, making it possible for a small machine to perform calculations that in past only very large machines could do.

• In 1977 Apple launched Apple II personal computer, the first such machine to be widely available to public.

• IBM entered personal computer market with first “PC”. IBM engaged small software development company (Microsoft) to design operating system for new computer.

• Known as MS-DOS (DOS for “disc operating system”)

• Computer enthusiasts talked about imminent coming of “paperless office”.

B. The Internet

• The internet is a vast geographically far-flung network of computers that allows people connected to network to communicate with others all over world.

• Began in 1963 in U.S. governments Advanced Research Projects Agency.

• In 1963 J.C.R. Licklider, launched program to link together computers over large distances known as the Arpanet, both size and uses of network expanded.

• “Store-and-forward packet switching” made possible transmission of large quantities of data between computers without wiring computers together.

• Development of computer software that would allow individual computers to handle traffic over network known as Interface Message Processor.

• In 1989, Tim Burners-Lee, introduced the World Wide Web, through which individual users could publish information.

C. Breakthroughs in Genetics

• Scientists began to identify specific genes in humans and other living things that determined particular traits, and to learn how to alter or reproduce them.

• In 1989, federal government appropriated $3 billion to National Center for the Human Genome.

• Project setout to identify all of more than 100,000 genes by 2005. (Completed in April 2003.)

• In 1997 scientists in Scotland announced they had cloned sheep using a cell from adult ewe.

• Many people grew uneasy about predictions that new science might give scientists ability to alter aspects of life.

IV. Changing Society

A. The Graying of America

• After decades of steady growth, nation’s birth rate began to decline in 1970’s and remained low through 1980’s and 1990’s.

• Aging of the population was a cause of the increasing costliness of Social Security pensions, meant rapidly increasing health costs for Medicare system and private hospitals and insurance companies.

• In last 20 years of twentieth century, number of people aged 25 – 54 in native-born workforce in U.S. grew by over 26 million.

B. New Patterns of Immigration and Ethnicity

• In 2004, over 34 million Americans consisted of immigrants.

• The Immigration Reform Act of 1965 eliminated quotas based on national origin; newcomers from regions other than Latin America were admitted on first-come, first-served basis.

• People from Latin America constituted more than a third of total number of legal immigrants to U.S. every year after 1965.

• By 2000, there were more than 10 million Asian Americans in U.S.

C. The Black Middle Class

• Number of African Americans attending college rose by 350% in decade following passage of Civil Rights Act.

• African Americans made up 12% of college population in 1990’s.

• Nearly half of all employed blacks in U.S. had skilled white-collar jobs.

D. Poor and Working-Class African Americans

• “Underclass” made up as much as a third of nation’s black population.

• Fewer than half of young inner-city blacks finished high school; more than 60% were unemployed.

• 1991 in Los Angeles a bystander videotaped several Los Angeles police beating apparently helpless black man, Rodney King.

• Black residents of South Central Los Angeles precipitated largest racial disturbance of 20th century. More than 50 people died.

E. Modern Plagues: Drugs and AIDS

• Enormous demand for drugs and “crack” cocaine in late 1980’s and early 1990’s spawned multibillion-dollar industry. In absence of significant funding for “war on drugs” programs, efforts appeared to be having little effect.

• AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)

• Gradually destroys body’s immune system and makes victims highly vulnerable to a number of diseases to which they would otherwise have natural resistance.

• In 2002 U.S. government agencies estimated that about 870,000 Americans were infected with HIV virus and that 502,000 had already died from disease.

• In mid 1990’s AIDS researchers began discovering effective treatments for disease. The drugs were not a cure for AIDS; people who stopped taking them experience a rapid return of disease.

V. A Contested Culture

A. Battles over Feminism and Abortion

• For those who favored allowing women to choose to terminate unwanted pregnancies, Supreme Court’s decision in Roe vs. Wade seemed to settle question.

• Catholic Church lent institutional authority to battle against legalized abortion.

• Changing composition of Supreme Court in 1980’s and early 1990’s renewed right-to-life movement’s hopes for reversal of Roe vs. Wade, in Webster vs. Reproductive Health Services. Courts stopped short of overturning 1973 decision.

• “Pro-choice” movement was defending not so much abortion itself as every woman’s right to choose whether and when to bear a child.

B. The Changing Left and the Growth of Environmentalism

• Environmental movement continued to expand in last decades of 20th century.

• By end of the 1970’s many scientists were warning that release of certain industrial pollutants into atmosphere was depleting ozone layer of earth’s atmosphere.

• Scientists warned of related danger of global warning, a rise in earth’s temperature as a result of burning fossil fuels.

• In 1997, representatives of major industrial nations met in Kyoto, Japan and agreed to broad treaty banning certain emissions into atmosphere. But in March 2001, second Bush administration rejected treaty.

C. The Fragmentation of Mass Culture

• Idea about advertising became powerful in 1970’s known as “targeting”.

• Instead of finding promotional techniques that appeal to everyone, advertisers sought to identify product with particular “segment” of market and create advertisements designed to appeal to it.

• As late as 1970’s American audiences overwhelmingly watched programs on 3 major networks: NBC, CBS, and ABC. In 1980’s, that began to change.

• VCR’s, DVD players (which were estimated to be in 2/3 of all homes by 2004.)

• Increasing availability of cable and satellite television

• Many people turned from television and began to explore internet

VI. The Perils of Globalization

• Television viewers around world followed dawn of new century from Australia, through Asia, Africa, Europe, and into Americas.

A. Opposing the “New World Order”

• To many Americans on both left and right, nation’s increasingly interventionist foreign policy was deeply troubling.

• Critics on left charged that U.S. was using military action to advance economic interests in 1991 Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War.

• Critics on right claimed that nation was allowing itself to be swayed by interests of other nations and was ceding its sovereignty to international organizations.

• Labor unions insisted that rapid expansion of free trade agreements led to export of jobs from advanced nations to less developed ones.

• In November 1999, when leaders of seven leading industrial nations gathered for annual meeting in Seattle, Washington, tens of thousands of protesters clashed with police, smashed store windows, and all but paralyzed city.

• In July, 2001, at a meeting of same leaders in Genoa, Italy, an estimated 50,000 demonstrators clashed violently with police.

• Participants in meeting responded to demonstrations by pledging $1.2 billion to fight AIDS epidemic in developing countries, and by deciding to hold future meetings in remote locations.

B. Defending Orthodoxy

• The Iranian Revolution of 1979 was one of the first large and visible manifestations of a phenomenon that would eventually reach across much of the Islamic world and threaten stability of globe.

• Among some militant fundamentalists, battle to preserve orthodoxy came to be defined as battle against West and U.S. in particular.

• Continuing struggle between Palestinians and Israelis (defined in eyes of many Muslims by American support for Israel) add further to their contempt.

• Militants used isolated incidents of violence and mayhem, designed to disrupt societies and governments and to create fear among peoples known as terrorism.

C. The Rise of Terrorism

• Term “terrorism” was used first during French Revolution to describe actions of radical Jacobins against French government.

• United States experienced terrorism for many years, these included bombing of marine barracks in Beirut in 1983, explosion that brought down American Airliner over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988, bombing of American Embassies in 1988, assault on U.S. naval vessel Cole in 2000, and September 11, 2001.

D. The War on Terrorism

• Attacks on World Trade Center and Pentagon, government intelligence indicated, had been planned and orchestrated by Middle Eastern agents of Al Qaida.

• Leader, Osama Bin Laden, quickly became one of most notorious figures in world.

• U.S. began sustained campaign of bombing against regime and sent in small numbers of ground troops to help a resistance organization overthrow the Afghan government.

• American forces rounded up several hundred people suspected of connections to Tali Ban and Al Qaida in aftermath of fighting and eventually moved these prisoners to facility at American base in Guantanamo, Cuba.

• Were among the first suspected terrorists to be handled with new and more draconian standards established by federal government in dealing with terrorism after September 11, 2001.

E. The Iraq War

• For over a year Bush administration slowly built public case for invading Iraq. Case rested on 2 claims.

• Iraq was supporting terrorist groups that were hostile to U.S.

• Iraq either had or was developing what came to be known as “weapons of mass destruction”.

• Less central to arguments, was the charge that Hussein government was responsible for major violations of human rights.

• Except for last, none were true.

• In March 2003 American and British troops invaded Iraq and quickly toppled Hussein regime.

• Hussein eventually was captured in December 2003.

• Of nearly 2000 American soldiers killed in Iraq as of September 2005, 1600 of them died after “Mission Accomplished” speech.

• Support for war in U.S. steadily declined in months after first claim of victory

• Failure of invaders to find evidence of “weapons of mass destruction” was one blow to war’s credibility.

• Another blow came from reports of torture and humiliation of Iraqi prisoners by American soldiers at Abu Ghraib prison in Bagdad and other sites.

• Invasion of Iraq was most visible of basic change in structure of American foreign policy under presidency of George W. Bush.

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