Archaeology of Digital Environments - CORE

Archaeology of Digital Environments

Tools, Methods, and Approaches Andrew Douglas Reinhard

Doctor of Philosophy University of York Archaeology November 2019

Abstract

Digital archaeologists use digital tools for conducting archaeological work, but their potential also lies in applying archaeological thinking and methods to understanding digital built environments (i.e., software) as contemporary examples of human settlement, use, and abandonment. This thesis argues for digital spaces as archaeological artifacts, sites, and landscapes that can be investigated in both traditional and non-traditional ways. At the core of my research is the fundamental argument that human-occupied digital spaces can be studied archaeologically with existing and modified theory, tools, and methods to reveal that human occupation and use of synthetic worlds is similar to how people behave in the natural world. Working digitally adds new avenues of investigation into human behavior in relation to the things people make, modify, and inhabit. In order to investigate this argument, the thesis focuses on three video game case studies, each using different kinds of archaeology specifically chosen to help understand the software environments being researched: 1) epigraphy, stylometry, and text analysis for the code-artifact of Colossal Cave Adventure; 2) photogrammetry, 3D printing, GIS mapping, phenomenology, and landscape archaeology within the designed, digital heritage virtual reality game-site of Skyrim VR; 3) actual survey and excavation of 30 heritage sites for a community of displaced human players in the synthetic landscape of No Man's Sky. My conclusions include a blended approach to conducting future archaeological fieldwork in digital built environments, one that modifies traditional approaches to archaeological sites and material in a post/transhuman landscape. As humanity continues trending towards constant digital engagement, archaeologists need to be prepared to study how digital places are settled, used, and abandoned. This thesis takes a step in that direction using the vernacular of games as a starting point.

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List of Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iii List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1.2. Archaeology of Digital Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.3. Towards an Archaeology of Synthetic Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 1.4. Towards an Archaeology of Digital Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 1.5. Towards an Archaeology of Digital Affinity Spaces . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 1.6. Digital Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 1.7. Heritage and the Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 1.8. Digital Material Culture of the Recent Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14 1.9. Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.10. Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 1.11. Chapter Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.12. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2. Archaeology of Digital Environments: Video Games. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.2. Archaeogaming as Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 2.3. Archaeogaming and Archaeological Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 2.4. Video Games as Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 2.5. Video Games as Archaeological Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 2.6. Landscape Archaeology in Synthetic Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 2.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 3. Case Study One: The Archaeology of Colossal Cave Adventure: Epigraphy, Stylometry, Text Analysis, and Human Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.1.1. Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49

3.1.2. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 3.1.3. Why Colossal Cave Adventure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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3.2. Tools and Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 3.2.1. Code Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.2.2. EXIF Data and the CCA Chronology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66

3.2.3. CHECKSUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.2.4. CCA Directory Structures and Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 3.2.5. Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.2.6. A Geography of CCA Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 3.2.7. Gender and CCA Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 3.2.8. Method for Stylometric Analysis of Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.2.9. Tools for Stylometric Analysis of Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.3. Stylometric Analysis of Code: Quantified Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.3.1. FORTRAN Code Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 3.3.2. Narrative Data Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 3.3.3. ReadMe Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 3.4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 3.4.1. Research Questions Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 3.4.2. Data, Analysis, and Digital Community and Storytelling . . . . . . . . . . .123 3.4.3. A Reflection on Digital Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 4. Case Study Two: The Archaeology of Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim VR: Phenomenology, Landscape Archaeology, Photogrammetry, GIS, and Sharing Digital Heritage Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.1.1. Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 4.1.2. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 4.1.3. Why Skyrim VR? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 4.2. Tools and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 4.3. Applied Archaeology in a Digital Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139 4.3.1. VR Technology and Video Game Archaeology

in Skyrim VR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 4.3.2. Photogrammetry, 3D Printing, Videography, and GIS

in Synthetic Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 4.4. Landscape Archaeology in Synthetic Worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170 4.4.1. Phenomenology and Interpreting Heritage in Skyrim VR . . .. . . . . . . .172 4.5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 5. Case Study Three: The Archaeology of Abandoned Human Settlements in the Digital Environment of No Man's Sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 5.1. Introduction: Can Real Archaeology be Done in Digital

Environments? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

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5.1.1. Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 5.2. Methods: How I Designed and Executed my Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

5.2.1. Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 5.2.2. Reconnaissance and Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 5.2.3. Photography and Videography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197 5.2.4. Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 5.2.5. Digital Heritage Designation in a Synthetic World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 5.2.6. Site Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

5.3. Results: General Trends in Settlement, Abandonment, and Communication in No Man's Sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

5.3.1. Disaster-Driven Human Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 5.4. Community: How I Engaged with the Player Community, and Their Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 5.5. Reflexivity in No Man's Sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Chapter 6: Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 6.2. Threads of Commonality between Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 6.2.1. Thread I: Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 6.2.2. Thread II: Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 6.2.3. Thread III: Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 6.3. Human Archaeology of Digital Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 6.4. Proposed Future Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 6.4.1 From Colossal Cave Adventure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260 6.4.2. From Skyrim VR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 6.4.3. From No Man's Sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 6.5. Reflections and Final Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Appendixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Appendix A: Complete Narrative Text from William Crowther's Original Source Code of Colossal Cave Adventure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Appendix B: Complete FORTRAN IV Code from William Crowther's Original Colossal Cave Adventure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Appendix C: Installation and Use of Software Tools for the CCA Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 C.1. Digital Tools for CCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

C.2. Installation and Use of Non-Stylometic Software Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 C.3. How to Install and Use the Stylometric/Text Analysis Tools . . . . . . . . . 317

Appendix D: Results of Running Stylo against Narrative Data Sets . . . . . . . . . . .325 Appendix E: Results of Running TextReuse against Narrative Data Sets . . . . . . .329

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Appendix F: Results of Running Stylo against ReadMe Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Appendix G: Results of Running TextReuse against ReadMe Files . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Appendix H: Instructions for Using Software Tools for In-Game

Photogrammetry, VR Recording, and GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337 H.1. In-Game Photogrammetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 H.2. Creating a VR Tour in Skyrim VR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 H.3. Creating 360? Panoramic and Spherical Photos to Share with the Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 H.4. Making GIS Maps of Digital Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Appendix I: Online Resources Created for the No Man's Sky Archaeological Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Appendix J: List of No Man's Sky Data, Metadata, Media, and Site Reports (5 April?6 July 2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Games Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

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