The major gaps for marine monitoring capacity building
Specific Support Action
DRAGON in support of harmonizing European and Chinese marine
monitoring for Environment and Security System
Making an inventory of Chinese and European capacities of marine monitoring for environment and security including routine use of Earth observation data.
D5.2: 2nd Report on The major gaps for marine monitoring
capacity building between China and Europe
DRAGONESS_D5.2.doc
Project No. 030902
Sixth Framework Programme
Priority GMES: Aeronautics and Space
|Start date of project: 01.09.07 |Duration: 36 months |
Liqin Shao, Yan Bai, Ming-Xia HE, Zhishen Liu, Ge Chen,
Chaofang Zhao, Lei Guan, Yunfei Wang, Delu Pan, Roland Doerffer
Abstract
The report reviews Chinese and European marine monitoring systems such as in-situ observing systems, space-borne observing systems, data integration and information management, ocean and coastal information products and services, based on the 1st annual report of WP1-4. Then the report focuses to identify the major gaps between two sides by the way of total assessment. EU member countries and China have established marine monitoring system independently and effectively. But European side has more advanced technology on the monitoring arrangement, accuracy, data products both in quantity and quality. Nevertheless, China and Europe marine observations have obvious respective geographical characteristics. For example, besides with their own coastal area, Europe side pays more attention to Arctic Ocean region, Atlantic ocean and global ocean, and China has more interests to watch north-west Pacific, the Equator area, South China Sea and India Ocean, because Asia Monsoon, west pacific ocean warm pool, the Tibet plateau are important factors to China’s and world climate. So two observing systems are multi-compensate. Further cooperation between Europe and China marine monitoring will be very useful which will greatly contribute to GMES and GEOSS.
1. Introduction 3
2. Background 4
2.1 Comparison about history related with ocean 4
2.2 Current economy comparison 5
2.3 China marine industry 7
2.4 China’s Navy 11
2.5 China’s marine environment 15
3. The gaps for in-situ observing systems between China and Europe 16
3.1 Overview of the in-situ observing system in China 16
3.2 Overview of the in-situ observing system in Europe 18
3.3 The gaps for the in-situ observing systems between China and Europe 21
4. The gaps for satellite ocean observing systems between China and Europe 27
4.1 Overview of the satellite ocean observing systems in China 27
4.2 Overview of the satellite ocean observing systems in Europe 30
4.3 The gaps for the satellite ocean observing systems between China and Europe 32
5. The gaps for the data integration and information management between China and Europe 39
5.1 Overview of the data integration and information management in China 39
5.2 Overview of the data integration and information management in Europe 42
5.3 The gaps for the data integration and information management between China and Europe 44
6. Comparing between the current status on the Ocean and coastal information products and services in China and Europe 46
6.1 Overview of Status on the ocean and coastal information products and services in China 46
6.2 Overview of Status on the ocean and coastal information products and services in EU 48
6.3 The gaps of the ocean and coastal information products and services between China and EU 51
7. The gap for scientific research and education. 53
Current Europe science priorities 60
The priorities of China in the frontiers for ocean science including 62
8. towards the future capacity building 64
Reference: 64
1. Introduction
This report is to identify the main gaps of capacity building in Chinese and Europe marine monitoring for environment and security system.
1) Definition of Europe in this report
It is difficult to compare China with Europe. This is because Europe is one of the world's seven continents. Europe has approximately 50 countries; Russia is the largest by both area and population. Besides Russia, some countries like France, Germany, United Kingdom etc are recognizes as G8 country. But China is only one country, and is a developing country. So how can we make such comparison between Europe and China? Therefore we have to make a definition that in this report, hereafter we use the name “Europe” but discuss only in the EU area. The EU is an economic and political partnership. The EU is currently made up of 27 countries, making up a total population of about 495 million: Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Spain, Poland, Romania, Netherlands, Greece, Portugal, Belgium, Czech Republic, Hungary, Sweden, Austria, Bulgaria, Denmark, Slovakia, Finland, Ireland, Lithuania, Latvia, Slovenia, Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg and Malta. In some necessary cases, we will mark “All Europe” instead of Europe.
2) Definition of capacity building
The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) definition of capacity building: encompasses a country’s human, scientific, technological, organizational, and institutional resources and capabilities. A fundamental goal of capacity building is to enhance the abilities of stakeholders to evaluate and address crucial questions related to policy choices and modes of implementation among different options for development. These choices would be based on an understanding of environmental potential and limits and of the needs perceived by the people of the country concerned.
GEOSS definition of Capacity building: The most efficient means to improve the geographic coverage of the Earth observing system is to encourage wider participation from all countries. The capacity building envisaged within this context must extend beyond training of qualified technical personnel to operate the observing instruments, to include building of a broader community that will be trained in the development, interpretation and utilization of value-added products from the observations. Capacity building initiatives must therefore target a spectrum of citizens – from the general public, to scientists, to managers, to decision-makers. This is essential to ensure that all countries benefit from GEOSS.
2. Background
Before we study the main gaps in the marine monitoring system, it is necessary to know that most important capacity is economy, marine industry, marine power and marine environment. .
2.1 Comparison about history related with ocean
Europe and ocean
Europe is washed upon to the north by the Arctic Ocean and other bodies of water, to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and to the southeast by the Black Sea and the waterways connecting it to the Mediterranean. The coastal zone is a suitable homeland but it is not enough. Europeans was going out and exploring the rest of the world. It is well known the importance of sea borne commerce and square-rigged ocean-going merchantmen and warships to Europe's emergence from the middle Ages, and the succession of great maritime powers in the 15th through the 17th centuries (Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, and Britain). In the Age of Exploration, European competition for overseas colonies begins. For example: Treaty of Tordesillas （1494）--Papal division of the world to regulate exploration and colonization by Portugal and Spain. England, Holland, and France begin exploration（1500’s）. Colonies established in areas in Caribbean and Latin America not already claimed by Portugal and Spain. Then, England: Eastern coast of present-day United States; France: Canada and Louisiana; Holland: New York area, South Africa and challenge of Portugal in Indian Ocean and East Indies. One of the famous stories is about Christopher Columbus (1451-1506). He was an Italian explorer who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, hoping to find a route to India (in order to trade for spices). He made a total of four trips to the Caribbean and South America during the years 1492-1504. The motive of Columbus was occupation. He demanded of the Crown that he be named "Viceroy of the Indies" and "Admiral of the Ocean Seas."
China and ocean
China has 18,000 km continental coastline, but the majority of Chinese people is living in the continental area. The emperors have to pay much attention to some serious civil wars between different parts of China, especially for northern conflicts. From the Qin dynasty [221–207 BC] onward, each dynasty invariably expended much of its manpower and material resources in repairing the Great Wall, in order to resist the harassing attacks from the close neighbours. This had a grave effect on the development of productivity. Marine concept is relatively weak in China. However, China also has a glorious sailing story, Zheng He. His original name was Ma He. He was born around 1371 in China, Kun Yang, a town in southwest Yunan Province. Zheng He’s remarkable journey began when the Emperor of the Ming Dynasty ordered him to sail to "the countries beyond the horizon, all the way to the end of the earth". Between 1405 – 1433, Admiral Zheng sailed to the Indian and Western oceans, visiting more than 30 countries from Asia to Africa and as far as the central and eastern coasts of the African nations. The economic motive for these huge ventures may have been important, and many of the ships had large private cabins for merchants. Unfortunately, after that, during the period of the European great powers’ unbridled colonial expansion, China’s rulers shut the door to the outside world with Decree(s) Forbidding Seafaring. This societal attitude of closing oneself off runs counter to the openness and global circulation characteristic of the ocean itself. In the process of industrialization, Western Europe states cut across the natural barriers of the oceans and with their heavily armed ships smashed down China’s gate.
2.2 Current economy comparison
Table 1 shows the 2008 statistics of GDP for top 25 countries.
|Table 1 2008 List by the International Monetary Fund[1] |
|Rank |
|Country |
|GDP (millions of USD) |
| |
|— |
|World |
|60,689,812 |
| |
|— |
| European Uniona |
|18,394,115 |
| |
|1 |
| United States |
|14,264,600 |
| |
|2 |
| Japan |
|4,923,761 |
| |
|3 |
|China |
|4,401,614h |
| |
|4 |
| Germany |
|3,667,513 |
| |
|5 |
| France |
|2,865,737 |
| |
|6 |
| United Kingdom |
|2,674,085 |
| |
|7 |
| Italy |
|2,313,893 |
| |
|8 |
| Russia |
|1,676,586 |
| |
|9 |
| Spain |
|1,611,767 |
| |
|10 |
| Brazil |
|1,572,839 |
| |
|11 |
| Canada |
|1,510,957 |
| |
|12 |
| India |
|1,209,686 |
| |
|13 |
| Mexico |
|1,088,128 |
| |
|14 |
| Australia |
|1,010,699 |
| |
|15 |
| South Korea |
|947,010 |
| |
|16 |
| Netherlands |
|868,940 |
| |
|17 |
| Turkey |
|729,443 |
| |
|18 |
| Poland |
|525,735 |
| |
|19 |
| Indonesia |
|511,765 |
| |
|20 |
| Belgium |
|506,392 |
| |
|21 |
| Switzerland |
|492,595 |
| |
|22 |
| Sweden |
|484,550 |
| |
|23 |
| Saudi Arabia |
|481,631 |
| |
|24 |
| Norway |
|456,226 |
| |
|25 |
| Austria |
|415,321 |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
|Notes: |
|Note a: The Eurozone in 2008 was 15 of 27 European Union countries: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France,|
|Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain. Since then, |
|Slovakia joined, on 1 January 2009. |
|Note b: Data include the French overseas departments of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Réunion |
| |
|Foreign Economic Relations |
| |
|The total value of imports and exports in 2008 reached 2,561.6 billion US dollars, up 17.8 percent over the |
|previous year. Of this total, the value of exports was 1,428.5 billion US dollars, up 17.2 percent, and the |
|value of imports was 1,133.1 billion US dollars, up 18.5 percent. China had a trade surplus (exports minus |
|imports) of 295.5 billion US dollars, an increase of 32.8 billion US dollars over the previous year. |
| |
|Table 2: Imports and Exports by Major Countries and Regions and the Growth Rates in 2008 |
|Unit: 100 million USD |
|Country or region |
|Exports |
|Increase over 2007 (%) |
|Imports |
|Increase over 2007 (%) |
| |
|European Union |
|2929 |
|19.5 |
|1327 |
|19.6 |
| |
|United States |
|2523 |
|8.4 |
|814 |
|17.4 |
| |
|Hong Kong, China |
|1907 |
|3.4 |
|129 |
|0.9 |
| |
|China mainland |
|1428 |
|17.2 |
|1133 |
|18.5 |
| |
|Japan |
|1161 |
|13.8 |
|1507 |
|12.5 |
| |
|ASEAN |
|1141 |
|20.7 |
|1170 |
|7.9 |
| |
|Republic of Korea |
|740 |
|31.0 |
|1122 |
|8.1 |
| |
|Russia |
|330 |
|15.9 |
|238 |
|21.0 |
| |
|India |
|315 |
|31.2 |
|203 |
|38.7 |
| |
|Taiwan, China |
|259 |
|10.3 |
|1033 |
|2.3 |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
2.3 China marine industry
This section covers the use and development of the various sea-related industries, including shipbuilding, port, pleasure boat, sea communications and transportation, offshore oil and gas, sea-related chemicals and sea fisheries, etc.
China has seen rapid development of its marine industry over past few years. China has more than 3 million square kilometres of sea areas, with more than 1,400 harbours and 210,000 cargo ships. According to the “National Marine Economy Development Program” issued by the state council, the value of increase of sea-related industries constituted approximately 4% of GDP by 2005; and the aggregate marine industries will gradually become one of the pillar industries of China’s economy.
90% of world trade is carried by sea, and both EU and China are major players in maritime affairs. EU shipping companies control more than 40% of the world fleet and China is the EU's second largest trading partner.
In 2007, the output value of the global marine industry came to 1.4 trillion USD, and it is expected to hit 1.5 trillion USD in 2010 and 3 trillion USD in 2020. Major growing fields include marine oil and gas, marine fishery, seabed cable, marine safety, marine biology, marine transport means, marine information technology, marine entertainment, marine service and advanced marine energy. Marine oil and gas take up the largest share in the total output value, followed by marine transportation.
According to Xinhua news agency, (Updated: 2009-07-20 09:09), China's gross ocean product (GOP) increased by 11 percent year on year to hit 2.97 trillion yuan in 2008, accounting for 9.87 percent of the country's GDP, and topped 1.386 trillion yuan ($202.96 billion) in the first half of 2009, according to an initial assessment by the State Oceanic Administration (SOA). The figure represented an increase of 6.9 percent over the same period last year, accounting for 9.91 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). The country's GOP represented a further growth in the first half despite the world financial crisis, and will become one of the new economic engines in the future,
China's marine industry faces major opportunities, and there is also great growth potential. To grab a bigger share in the global market, Chinese marine enterprises must be bold to go international.
Shipbuilding
Since 1999, the output of China's shipbuilding industry has been ranked number three in the world. According to the statistics from the China Association of the National Shipbuilding Industry (CANSI), China's shipbuilding output exceeded 12 million deadweight tonnage (DWT) in 2005, accounting for 18 percent of world’s total. The output is expected to reach a historical high of 14 million DWT in 2006. Chinese shipyards filled about 20 percent of global orders for ships measured by cargo capacity. Shanghai Waigaoqiao Shipbuilding Co, the country's top shipbuilder, churned out 3.11 million DWT of ships in 2006, making it the world's eighth-largest shipyard.
According to the government’s National Medium and Long-Term Plan of the Shipbuilding Industry, issued in August 2006, China’s shipbuilding industry is expected to hit capacity of 17million DWT by 2010 and would become the No. 1 shipbuilding power in the world by 2015.
The central government’s 11th five-year plan (2005 to 2010) pointed out that the key to strengthening the shipping industry lies in design capability, marine equipment supply, large-scale shipbuilding construction, and optimizing the three main ship types: bulk-carriers, oil tankers, and container vessels. Emphasis will be put on hi-tech ships, new ship designs and ocean engineering equipment, which have additional added value.
According to the shipbuilding industry report issued by the state council, China is embarking on major efforts to increase shipbuilding capacity. The country plans to build three major shipbuilding bases in the Bohai Rim, East China Sea and South China Sea. The China State Shipbuilding Corporation (CSSC), the country's leading shipyard began construction on the Changxing Shipbuilding Base on the Shanghai coast in 2003. When completed in 2015, the Changxing base will be the largest shipyard in the world with annual shipbuilding capacity reaching eight million tons. Additionally, CSSC plans to build China’s largest yacht building base in the Fengxian district of Shanghai.
China urgently needs hi-technology, machinery and management for the shipbuilding industry. The best prospects for shipbuilding are raw materials, coating equipment and coating materials, CAD (Computer aided design) software and associated technology for ship design and construction, equipment maintenance, high-tech equipment such as GPS, navigation and on board computer systems, cutting and welding technology and related equipment.
Pleasure Boats
With the rapid growth of the economy, China's recreational marine market is forecast to expand sharply in the coming years. Based on the confidence that pleasure boats will become a part of life style in the country’s expanding wealthy and the middle-class, provincial governments, property developers and boat builders are all investing heavily in this industry. Business experts estimated that the market would pick up speed after 2005, and the overall market size would reach USD10billion over the next decade, which presents significant opportunities for the exports of U.S. pleasure boats, accessories, marina planning and construction materials.
Port and Sea-Transportation
China is allocating a massive amount of money to the port and waterway construction to meet the significant growth of freight volume. Since 2004, China has stepped up the infrastructure construction of ports. China's port throughput is increasing at exponential rates, reflecting a booming foreign trade. According to the Ministry of Communications (MOC), freight turnover at major coastal ports rose 19% in 2005 to 2.9 billion tons. Container traffic at Chinese ports also increased 23% to 75.6 million Twenty-foot Equivalent Units (TEUs). Double-digit growth continued in 2006 and was projected to expand to 130m TEUs by 2010. The cargo turnover of Shanghai port exceeded 500 million tons in 2006, making it the world's busiest port for the second consecutive year. Eight ports in mainland China, namely Shanghai, Shenzhen, Qingdao, Tianjin, Guangzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo and Dalian, are included among the 30 top container harbors in the world.
To facilitate global trade, most ports in China are putting emphasis on expanding the capacity and upgrading the port facilities as well as the modernization of operations. The products and technologies in high demand are Vessel Traffic Management Information System, laser-docking systems, terminal tractors, dredging equipments and security equipment for the ports and vessels to abide by the International Ship and Port Security Code (ISPS).
China is building more deep-water berths to handle the larger fifth and sixth generation container vessels. The largest project is the construction of Yangshan deep-water port, approximately 20 miles offshore from Shanghai and linked to the mainland by a 32.5-kilometre causeway bridge. The first phase was completed and put into operation at the end of 2005, including 5 new berths and a capacity of 2 million TEUs per year. A second phase opened in December 2006, adding four berths on a 1.4-kilometer waterfront with a designed handling capacity of 2.1 million TEUs annually. The original plan is to complete 50 berths by 2020, which will cost over USD10billion. The master plan also includes a logistics park and new harbor city on the mainland.
Marine Fishing
China is the world’s top fishing nation and has vast resources available in her own waters. Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea span from sub-tropical to temperate zones with a total sea waters of 1.03 million square nautical miles, of which 431,000 square nautical miles are continental shelves (within 200 meters deep). The total fishing ground area is about 818,000 square nautical miles (see Table 3).
|Table 3 Areas of marine fishing grounds ( 10,000 square nautical miles) |
|Sea region |Area |Continental shelf |Fishing ground |
|Bohai Sea |2.4 |2.4 |2.4 |
|The Yellow Sea |12.7 |12.7 |10.3 |
|The East China Sea |25.2 |15.1 |16.0 |
|The South China Sea |63.0 |12.9 |53.1 |
|Total |103.3 |43.1 |81.8 |
There are about 3000 marine species in the China seas, offering more than 150 commercial species.
2.4 China’s Navy
The China People's Liberation Army (PLA) Navy is responsible for safeguarding China’s maritime security and maintaining the sovereignty of its territorial seas along with its maritime rights and interests. In recent years, China’s Navy has become a powerful Navy.
According to Xinhua 2009-04-24 10:06:50, China concluded a four-day celebration for the 60th anniversary of the founding of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) Navy Thursday, with an unprecedented parade of PLA Navy warships and an international fleet review.
The PLA Navy parade, the fourth staged in China since 1949, but the first on such a large and international scale, displayed 25 of the PLA Navy's vessels, including two nuclear-powered submarines, and 31 naval aircraft.
The parade was followed by an international fleet review which saw the participation of 21 foreign vessels from 14 countries, including the United States's destroyer USS Fitzgerald and the Russian cruiser CG-011 Varyag.
Amid the rhythms of "March of the Review," a Chinese melody usually played for formal occasions, the foreign vessels lined up in a row in the order of combatant ships, landing craft, auxiliary ships and a sailing ship for training. All the foreign ships flew their flags at full-staff.
Chinese President Hu Jintao reviewed the Chinese-made warships and their foreign counterparts from onboard the PLA Navy destroyer Shijiazhuang in waters off the port city Qingdao.
More than 200 military officers from foreign embassies in China, reporters and Chinese people from various social circles observed the fleet review on the viewing ship Zhenghe. The ship was named after a Chinese maritime explorer who sailed about 600 years ago.
According to Rear Admiral Zhang Shiying, deputy commander of the PLA Navy's Beihai (North Sea) Fleet, all the Chinese vessels and aircraft paraded were independently designed and made by China, and represented the latest stage of PLA Navy equipment. All the submarines and aircraft, and the majority of the warships included in Thursday's parade came from the Qingdao-based Beihai Fleet. "The goal is to showcase the development of the PLA Navy over the past six decades," Zhang said.
PLA Navy Commander Admiral Wu Shengli also said the celebration was aimed to demonstrate China's determination and capability to maintain a peaceful, harmonious ocean together with other nations. "The PLA Navy is willing to take the international fleet review as an opportunity to enhance cooperation and exchange with our foreign counterparts to better protect maritime safety," he said.
Thursday afternoon's PLA Navy parade also featured the maiden show of two Chinese nuclear submarines, the Long March 6 and the Long March 3. It was the first-ever publicappearance of the PLA Navy's nuclear submarines.
"It has been the first time to see a Chinese nuclear submarine so close to me and many other advanced weaponry in the naval review," said Colonel Patrick Sice, Defense Attache with Embassy of the Republic of France to China, onboard the viewing ship Zhenghe.
"To invite so many countries to the review shows that China would open more to foreign countries and in the future more willing to cooperate deeper in the Gulf of Aden and other regions."
"China is emerging as a global power and there is nothing wrong with China's modernization of its navy and other armed forces. But more power means more responsibility and transparency. Otherwise you will lose confidence from the others," he said.
On Thursday morning, China asserted once again that the country's military build-up was purely defense-oriented.
In a meeting with heads of 29 foreign navy delegations gathered in Qingdao to attend the PLA Navy celebration Thursday morning, Chinese President Hu Jintao pledged that China's armed forces, including the PLA Navy, would never be a threat to other nations.
China would always be an important force in safeguarding world peace and development, he said.
"For now and in the future, China would never seek hegemony, nor would it turn to military expansion or arms races with other nations," he said.
The PLA Navy will be more open and practical in international maritime security cooperation in the future and unremittingly work towards the goal of building an harmonious ocean, Hu said.
Hu's words were lauded by Lt. Commander Adnan of the Pakistan Navy, who said China's navy was emerging among the world top naval forces.
The PLA Navy is an indispensable force to maintain world peace, he said.
China's navy still has far to go ( Li Jie , China Daily | Tue, 08/18/2009 12:58 PM | )
A Chinese flotilla left for the Gulf of Aden and the waters off the Somali Coast in mid-July to escort merchant vessels in the pirate-ridden waters. This is the third flotilla China has dispatched to the region since the end of last year.
The move, along with the two previous ones which took place on Dec 26 last year and April 2 this year, is an explicit indication that China's naval overseas operations are no longer limited as it was, and that more and more Chinese fleets are capable of sending an array of sophisticated warships abroad.
As a follow-up naval move to the previous two, the latest expedition will not only help protect the commercial vessels, but also enable more Chinese naval servicemen to gather more knowledge about maritime operations far from the country's coastal waters.
This should greatly temper their resolve in extreme conditions and thus boost their capability and skills in terms of organization, logistics and armaments.
Since their first arrival at the Gulf of Aden late last year, Chinese warships have escorted hundreds of domestic and foreign vessels and protected merchant ships from the Chinese mainland, Taiwan, Hong Kong and other countries and regions from pirate attacks.
Their responsive action against fast-moving pirates and their high efficiency have helped maintain an unblocked sea transportation route in treacherous waters far from China's coast.
At the same time, the effective actions by the Chinese navy have fully displayed and enhanced China's image as a responsible power, and greatly boosted the country's naval influence among foreign forces.
On a patrol operation in a water area side by side with navies from the European Union, the NATO, Russia, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea and other countries, the Chinese naval fleet gained rare opportunities to learn advanced maritime experiences from their foreign counterparts.
The whole escort mission in the waters has also helped China's navy to innovate and develop a new mindset to conduct exchanges and cooperation with foreign navies.
For example, in past escorting actions, Chinese naval servicemen have conducted contacts and communications in unprecedented frequency with other forces cruising this area.
This has helped the country's navy, which has long been deployed along its own coast, gradually get used to using a variety of modern ways and means to communicate with foreign fleets, creating a new type of cooperation model and channel.
Despite accumulating experience of escort missions overseas, China's navy has still to work hard to further improve its experience in this aspect. Great effort is needed to increase the country's hardware equipment quantity and quality.
Experience indicates that owning a fleet of sophisticated and well-performing large- and medium-sized warships suitable for long-distance voyage is the key to a successful overseas escort mission.
Without a sufficient number of vessels, it would be absolutely impossible for China to dispatch a naval formation to the distant Gulf of Aden while maintaining its own daily drills, war readiness and necessary experiments around the country's coastal areas.
Given that helicopters enjoy good mobility and overpowering advantages over warships in fighting small-scale and fast-moving pirates, foreign naval formations are usually equipped with some large- and medium-sized vessels carrying a good number of helicopters.
This greatly benefits the escorting missions under rapidly changing and complicated maritime conditions. Compared with their foreign counterparts, the Chinese naval fleet patrolling the Gulf of Aden, however, is equipped with only two helicopters.
Past anti-piracy experience in the Gulf area also indicates that China's navy should make bigger efforts to further shorten its material and armament supply cycle to guarantee its success, and, if necessary, set up some coastal refuel and maintenance stations. Good-quality and fresh food supplies constitute an indispensable component for a country's naval servicemen to keep up robust and enduring fighting capability.
Any naval expedition should carry a sufficient stock of staple and non-staple foodstuff, but fresh vegetables and fruits, whose preservation cycles are usually within three weeks, are still the things that are desperately needed by naval soldiers on long voyages. It is not unusual for seafarers to depend on medicines for making up with their insufficiency of vitamins.
Also, in a remote water area fraught with complicated situations and atrocious weather conditions, any equipment breakdown will prove a terrible challenge to a country's naval forces, given that they have no necessary maintenance equipment at hand.
Under these circumstances, some necessary maintenance and supply stations should be set up as soon as possible to boost the capability of China's navy while away from the motherland.
Besides, the country's naval servicemen should further accumulate and improve their anti-piracy and escorting experience and strengthen their legal and other knowledge in this regard.
Some measures should also be taken to help naval servicemen stay in good physical and psychological shape.
In addition, optimizing the country's naval organization mechanism, improving its command capability, increasing its cooperation with other countries and setting up advanced logistics system are necessary to help China's naval missions achieve greater successes.
2.5 China’s marine environment
(According to Xinhua News Agency January 17, 2009)
About 83 percent of China's sea areas were polluted to some extent, according to a report released Friday by the State Oceanic Administration (SOA).
The polluted areas, up from 78 percent the year before, were affected by eutrophication, a process in which water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive plant growth such as algae and nuisance plants weeds.
It also indicated other problems, including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish and other animal populations.
Li Haiqing, a senior official with the SOA said the administration had called on all oceanic departments to strengthen monitoring and prevention of "red tides" and other algae blooms.
Pollutants were blamed for the cause of the red tides in which large amounts of algae kill sea life. These algae vary in colour from green to brown, but are mostly red.
China saw 68 cases of red tides last year, fewer than the 82 cases in 2007. However, they contaminated a total of 13,738 square km of sea area, up 2,128 square km from the previous year.
Last June, algae invaded the eastern coastal city of Qingdao, which hosted sailing events during the 2008 Olympics, blocking proposed sailing routes and affecting preparations for the Games.
For a month, the city government mobilized soldiers and volunteers to clear more than 1 million tons of algae, and built barriers and fences to keep it out of the sailing venue. The algae was completely cleared on Aug. 1.
While some experts said it was a result of climate change and heavy rain, environmentalists believed the algae blooms were largely due to sewage and agricultural pollutant run-off.
According to the report, marine disasters resulted in 152 people dead or missing in China last year, with direct economic losses of 20.61 billion yuan (3.03 billion US dollars). The figure in 2007 was 8.84 billion yuan.
3. The gaps for in-situ observing systems between China and Europe
3.1 Overview of the in-situ observing system in China
China has already established various in-situ observation platforms, including the marine observation station, buoy, survey ship, etc.
(1) Marine observation station
At present, China has set up more than 130 marine observation stations along the coast(part at bayou), some of them are in the possession of the Water Conservancy Bureau, the Transportation and the Geological Department, most of these observation stations are tide level stations. The stations which observe the wave, temperature, salinity, meteorology and other elements, about 60, are mainly in the possession of the SOA. Since the SOA has been set up, observation station network construction rapidly developed. At present, it already had has had 57 marine stations and 11 central marine stations, carrying out extensive observation and monitoring aim at the tide, wave, temperature, salinity, sea ice, weather and pollution, and other items, also had established the data communication network with the aid of short wave, and the ultra short wave radio. marine stations connected with area forecast station and satellite communication network of forecast center, constituted a complete sea station data transmission system. In the means of observation, it has constructed the Xiaomaidao, Lvsi, Nansha three points of automatic observation system, promoted the use of acoustic and gravity-wave meter in the Laohutan, Zhifu Island, Daji Hill and so on 12 stations, stepped out the service first step of service. Also it has established the BaYuQuan radar staion to measure the ice, and has provided the northern area ice detector in Bohai Sea. It has also established Xisha, Qinglan, Naozhou and so on 9 tidal observation tide gauge wells. The laboratories in 11 stations provided with the some part pollution monitoring facilities. Through construction in recent years, the station observation system has already begun to take shape.
(2) Marine buoy
The main types of Chinese marine buoy are marine data buoys, special marine buoys, measuring current dive buoys and drifting buoy. And the marine data buoy is the development key, so far altogether China has developed the large-scale, medium and small-scale 14 sets of marine data buoy since 1965, and has built the corresponding shore receiving station separately in the South China Sea, East China Sea and North China Sea. China Argo Project has deployed 46 floats in the Western Pacific and Eastern Indian Marines. Now there are 20 floats still active. The main types of the Chinese marine buoy are as follows:
• H23-marine hydro- meteorology telemetering buoy. The buoy is boat-shaped with length of 3 m, width of 1.9 m, height of 0.9 m.
• Marine data buoys of I-type. I-marine data buoy is disc-shaped made by the steeliness, with diameter 10 m, height 2.6 m, underwater depth 1.4 m, tonnage 50 t, free hauling velocity 4~5 kn.
• “Nanfu 1” marine data buoy. It is disc-shaped made by the steeliness, diameter 6 m, height 1.4 m, tonnage 15.5 t, single-anchor mooring, working depth of 80 m.
• “Kefu 2” marine hydrology meteorology remote control telemetering buoy. The hauling velocity of this buoy is 9 kn, with diameter 5 m, height 1.8 m, sea gauge 1.1 m, tonnage 14 t, single-anchor mooring, operating depth 200 m
• Ⅱ-marine data buoy. The research work of Ⅱ-marine data buoy presided over by the State Oceanic Administration. Ⅱ-marine data buoy is disc-shaped made by the steeliness, with diameter 10 m, height 2.2 m, sea gauge 0.85 m, tonnage 52t.
• Minitype marine data buoy. The structure of buoy is cirque-shaped dobber and keel below, diameter 2.9 m, depth 0.88 m, sea gauge 0.548 m, tonnage 3.327t.
• Deep marine data buoy. It is disc-shaped made by he steeliness, with diameter 10 m, height 2.12 m, tonnage 54 t. single-anchor mooring, operating depth 80 m;
• Drifting Buoy. The China Argo Ocean Observing Network Experiment was implemented on January 2002. China Argo Project has deployed 46 floats in the Western Pacific and Eastern Indian Marines. Now there are 20 floats still active.
Chinese marine data buoy development and the buoy network construction obtains the national attention and support. Started from 1965 to the period of 1986 to 1990, it totally developed 11 set buoys, introduced 6 set, established 3 shortwave reception shore station, two ARGOS system user ground receiving stations, transformed two buoy work ship, marine buoys basically meet the needs of China's networking needs. During the period of 1990 to 1995, it focused on the technological transformation of the buoy system, strengthened management, and accumulated experience. Normal work's 4 sets of buoys of this period maintain the definite 3 position long-term continuous working. During the period of 1995 to 2000, the effective buoy quantity reaches 14 set, guaranteed the definite 6~8 position can have the buoy to carry on the surveillance normally continuously.
(3) Survey ship
China has already established a large-scale, full range survey ship team, to meet the basic needs of the survey, including multi-purpose survey ship, professional survey ship and special survey ship.
In 1965, China started to design and construct the first unlimited navigation area marine comprehensive survey ship “Shijian”. In the 1960s, it has built China first marine survey practice ship “Dongfanghong”. In the 1970s, various types of survey ship which is newly built and refit by the State Bureau of Marineic Administration sum to 51. From the end of 70s to the early 80s, China has additionally constructed two comprehensive marine survey ships “Xiangyanghong 14” and “Xiangyanghong 16”, accessorial constructed 5 offshore survey ships: “Haidiao 105” to “Haidiao 107” and “Haidiao 465”, “Haidiao 406”. To the middle 80s, all types of ships speciallyespecially for development of marine oil and gas geophysical exploration, geological exploration and geological engineering core-drilling have reached to 20. In the late 80s, with rapid development of China marine technology, marine survey ship unceasingly consummation and enhancement according to investigation duty change and advance in technology. In order to meet the needs of Antarctic Survey, China State Bureau of Oceanic Administration bought up an ice strengthen transport ship from Finland, named “Jidi” scientific research ship, then put it in Antarctic Survey work. In 1993, the State Bureau of Oceanic Administration has purchased the polar inspection and transportation ship “Xuelong”. The geology and mining department has introduced many advanced equipments from abroad in the late 80s. In order to strengthen the marine environment pollution monitor, China State Bureau of Marineic Administration has also designed and constructed “China Haijian 72” at the late 80s. Since then, it also has made two similar marine survey ships “China Haijian 18” and “China Haijian 49”.
China has carried out the Pacific Marine manganese nodule investigation, the initial period is the use of general comprehensive marine survey ship, the State Bureau of Marineic Administration has purchased the open sea synthesis research ship from Russia in 1995, and refitted the marine mineral resource survey ship “Dayang”. It putting to use causes China's marine mineral resource investigation ability greatly improved. Also, China has chosen 120 merchants ships to equip the automatic observation equipment, carried on the voluntary ship measuring and reporting work. And it has equipped the maritime satellite communication facility on mainly 30 voluntary ships which have the high rate of navigation, good performance and navigated in the domestic service. It has built three maritime satellite receiving stations in Qingdao, Shanghai and Guangzhou, carried out the satellite communication for observation data. Other voluntary ships still transmit data from corresponding department on the ship to the coastal station. Three sea area's shipping forecast management centers are responsible for the collection, processing, the archive and the correspondence work of the non-real-time voluntary ship measuring and reporting data. At present, China only have 35 voluntary ships which take part in shipping assistant measuring and reporting work, South China Sea have 9,East China Sea have 15, North China Sea have 11, mainly distributes in some fixed line merchant ships.
3.2 Overview of the in-situ observing system in Europe
Monitoring of the marine environment is a duty of the individual countries in Europe. The data are then reported to European or international organizations. These are e.g. the European Environmental Agency in Copenhagen (eea.europa.eu), ICES (ices.dk) or for questions of fish stocks and fishery but also marine pollutants problems, OSPAR commission () for the North Sea and North East Atlantic ocean, HELCOM (helcom.fi) for the Baltic Sea
Beside these mandantory observing programs, for which in most countries the official marine environmental agencies are responsible, there a number of national and European research programs, which operate in situ observing infrastructure and thus contribute to an European marine observing network. This includes regular observing cruises using research vessels, which are partly equipped with towed undulating systems to measure continuously the vertical structure along transects, ships of opportunity, which are equipped with automatic measurements systems (FerryBoxes). Furthermore moored stations and buoys are deployed, and platforms of opportunity (oil and gas production rigs, platforms of offshore windenery parks are used. Autonomous systems such as floats, gliders, rowis, aircrafts to monitor oil pollution and for counting birds and sea mammals complement the system. In the case that these observing programs are funded by the European community, inter-calibration, joint protocols, harmonization and the data access is regulated. These programs are now integrated into the European program GMES, Global Monitoring of Environment and Security. MARCOAST and since 2009 MyOcean are part of GMES. On the national level GMES supporting programs have been initiated, e.g. in Germany DeMarine, which is funded by the German Ministry for Research and Technology.
Due to the European funding system on one side and the duty to deleiver data with respect to the European Water Framework Directive, it is ensured that also countries in Europe, which are not so much advanced in this field, develop the necessary capacity.
By these measures In-situ data access and harmonization have gradually improved in recent years in Europe, but further work is still needed to integrate the many diverse data streams in Europe from global to regional scales, and to make the data accessible both in real time and delayed mode with adequate quality control building on common procedures and standards. The in-situ data availability for the North Atlantic to the Arctic Ocean, including the European Seas has been inhomogeneous, fragmented and often sparse, in particular regarding multidisciplinary coastal data. The data processing have moreover been distributed in several international and national data centres, with varying practise for data access, and often not been designed and operated to meet the near real time demands of operational forecasting systems. For the countries bordering the European more than 600 scientific data collecting laboratories from governmental organizations and private industry are existing. They collect data by using various sensors on board of research vessels, submarines, fixed and drifting platforms, airplanes and satellites, to measure physical, geophysical, geological, biological and chemical parameters, biological species etc.
The plan for an overarching Pan-European in-situ data centre capitalize on national and international providers of global as well as regional in-situ data. A fundamental role of the in-situ data centre is to assemble and merge high quality data sets, and to provide the “best” in-situ products and information for research, model validation and data assimilation both in real-time and delayed mode. This implies a clear definition of dissemination routines, quality control procedures and validation processes with error characterisation as well as processing capabilities for re-analysis purposes. It also implies a push to help and stimulate institutions to speed up their data flow for operational application. Through consistent and integrated handling of regional data collection in Europe in-situ data centre can also contribute to the design of the in-situ observing systems.
All in-situ data will be available through a unique distribution portal following common interfaces and is also offering discovery, viewing and downloading services.
However it is also necessary to acknowledge the originator of high quality data by a data publication system, so that data authors get the same level of credit as users of the data, who produce scientific paper from these data. By such a publication system data originator would be much less reluctant to submit their data to public data centres.
• Global and North Atlantic.
In France IFREMER and CNRS have developed, as part of the Coriolis service () and the MERSEA projects, prototypes of statistical methods to check the consistency of in-situ data sets by comparing given measurements with its neighbours. These prototypes shall also be extended to analyse systematically differences between various platforms (e.g. XBT versus Argo, moorings versus Argo, Argo versus Argo) at different spatial and temporal scales. This aims to identify and correct large scale biases for a specific platform or dataset. Bio-geochemical data are usually acquired by a range of different platforms including moorings, gliders, floats, CTD and Ferrybox for applications in both real time and delayed mode. However, these data usually undergo rigorous processing and delayed mode quality control, specific to each laboratory and data type, and there is a clear need to advance a common QC procedures for near real time application. Capitalizing on the Coriolis data service quality-controlled and validated in-situ data in real-time and delayed modes will be provided including T-S profiles and time series from profiling Argo floats, XBT's, thermo-salinographs, drifting and moored buoys, ferrybox data and bio-geochemical parameters (nutrients, oxygen, chlorophyll fluorescence, solar radiation, water-leaving radiance. The service will act as a gateway to global ARGO data. Data transmitted by floats are processed, quality controlled and distributed on GTS and Internet with minimum delay of 24 hours.
• Arctic Centre.
IMR () will set up the Arctic in-situ portal for hydrographic data (temperature and salinity) in real time mode. It is compliant with the goals of Arctic ROOS (). IMR will also collect biochemical data (oxygen, fluorescence/chlorophyll and nutrients) measured from ships and together with the hydrographic data make available quality controlled data sets in delayed mode that will be distributed on a regular basis. Data from other data providers doing ship measurements in the Arctic area can also become available in delayed mode.
• Baltic Sea and North-Western European Shelf Centre.
The Baltic and NWS centre will be a federation of four centres, specialised by variables that will be gathered from the institutes surrounding the Baltic and NWS area. Quality controlled and validated data (currents, temperature, salinity, nutrients and chlorophyll) will be made available by FTP and OpenDap in near real time and delayed mode.
A new integrated observing system is for the North Sea (COSYNA, Coastal Observing System for Norhtern and Arctic Seas) under development under the leadership of the GKSS Research Centre in Germany. It includes Ferry Boxes, moored systems, dedicated research cruises and land based radar systems. In combination with remote sensing it will serve a modeled base data sssimilation. Data are available vi web-based services (cosyna.de).
• South Western European Shelf Centre.
An in-situ portal will offer quality controlled and validated hydrological data and fixed point data (water level and biochemical data) for near real time and delayed mode access..
• Mediterranean Sea Centre.
The Mediterranean in-situ data architecture is based on four data sub-systems including XBTs, Argo profiling floats, moorings and gliders. A centralized data portal at HCMR () in Greece provides consistent methods for data transfer (FTP, OpenDap) in near real time and delayed mode. In addition quality controlled biochemical data acquired from multi-disciplinary mooring network will also be made available in near real time and delayed mode.
• Black Sea Centre.
For the Black Sea the IO-BAS will specify, develop the Black Sea centre and the Black Sea in-situ portal in cooperation and consistency with the other global and regional in-situ data centre. It will implement standard procedures for quality control and validation, and contribute to the in-situ services in the area based on integration of hydrographic and biochemical data from data providers surrounding the Black Sea (e.g. Russia, Romania, Ukraine, Turkey and Georgia). Both near real time and delayed mode products will be made available through FTP and OpenDap.
The different centres will provide the following services: Data integration, Quality control, Data access and dissemination, User desk, and Monitoring of performances
3.3 The gaps for the in-situ observing systems between China and Europe
Marine observation stations spread all over China's coastline, islands and the governed sea area, south to the Nansha IslandsYong shu reef, north to the mouth of Yalu River, west to the Yongxing Island of the Xisha Islands. It has a total number of more than 100 observation stations, including national stations, local stations and professional stations. For the Europe observation stations, the parameters measured are Chlorophyll-a, oxygen, temperature, sea pressure, salinity, nitrate, PAR, dissolved Carbon Dioxide, POC, wave height, current profile, turbidity. While in China the measured parameters lack dissolved Carbon Dioxide, nitrate, PAR, Chlorophyll-a. The number of the stations in China is more than that in Europe, the technique also need to improve, adding the new measurement parameters.
|Content |China |Europe |
|Quantity |>130 |>11 |
|Location |China coastline |North Atlantic , Arctic ocean and |
| | |Mediterranean sea |
| |[pic] |[pic] |
| Measurement |salinity Temperature |Chlorophyll-a oxygen |
|Parameters |Wind speed Wind direction Air pressure |Temperature Sea pressure |
| |Humidity |Salinity Nitrate |
| |Marine wave Tide Precipitation rain fall|PAR Dissolved Carbon Dioxide |
| | |POC Wave height |
| | |Current profile Turbidity |
In China, buoy technology has obtained rapid development in recent years, new sensor's development is helpful to the people from the different angle understanding sea interior change and the driving mechanism, or ocean and atmospheric material interchange and so on.The new communication system, like the iridium satellite and the use of Argos-3, may realize transmits the more observation data in a short time, as well as buoy observed parameter changed at any moment and so on.
The number of the Argos deployed by Chinese Argo plan has reached 68, and there are now 35 buoys still working. Most of them were deployed in the northwest of Pacific Ocean. There are 11 mooring buoys which were deployed in china near shore from 2007, with the observation of marine meteorology and hydrology.
In Europe, about 69 Argos were deployed in the Nordic Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Southern Ocean under the financial support of MERSEA.
The detail buoys information in China and Europe are showed in below two tables.
|Buoys |China |Europe |
|Total number |11 from 2007 |13 |
|Observed |( For “Kefu 2” marine hydrology meteorology remote|Combined Sea Height |
|parameters |control telemetering buoy) |Dominant Period |
| |Average wind speed, |Wind Speed |
| |Maximum wind speed |Wind Gust |
| |Wind direction |Wind Direction |
| |Air temperature |Pressure |
| |Air pressure |Air Temperature |
| |Relative humidity |Water Temperature |
| |Water temperature | |
| |Salinity | |
| |Wave height | |
| |Wave cycle | |
| |Current speed | |
| |Current direction | |
|Locations |Nearshore Buoys |Offshore and Near shore buoys |
| |[pic] |[pic] |
|Argos |China |Europe |
|Total number |68 (35 in active) |About 69 |
|Observed parameters |Wind speed |Wind speed |
| |Wind direction |Wind direction |
| |Atmospheric temperature |Atmospheric temperature |
| |Pressure |Pressure |
| |Water temperature |Water temperature |
| |Temperature and salinity profiles |Temperature and salinity profiles |
|Locations |the northwest Pacific Ocean |the Nordic Sea |
| | |the Atlantic Ocean |
| | |the Southern Ocean |
The number of Chinese survey ship (about 160) and tonnage (about 15 million tons) has reached the marine survey needs. Compared with Europe, Chinese marine survey ship is very similar on the number and tonnage. In the technical performance, the ship's speed, the sea constant, the resistance, the laboratory area has achieved the level which the internationally survey ship approaches. Generally speaking the commonly speed of ship is 13-14kn (Maximum 18 knots). A comprehensive survey of subjects would cause too much waste of the sea voyage, research institutes and universities can be configured to a comprehensive survey ship, the professional department should be in accordance with professional requirements and optimal. Chinese ocean survey ship has experienced 20-30 years of development at present; it faces "renewal" stage (upgrade of ships).
|Content |China |Europe |
|Quantity |160 |>18 |
| tonnage |Comprehensive 3000-4000 tons |similar |
| |Professional 1000-2000 tons | |
| |Total 15,000,000 tons | |
|age |20~30 years |New |
|Automation |Face upgrade |Advanced |
| speed |13~14knots (maximum 18knots ) |13~14knots |
In conclusion,
(1) The limited capacity of ocean monitoring and forecasting
Ocean forecasts are provided on a regular basis by a dozen of operational oceanography centers in the world; forecasts are built through routine assimilation of real-time space observation and in situ data into numerical models. Some of them describe the global ocean as a whole, others are regional. Europe has this double capacity; however, China only has the regional capacity.
(2) The limitation of the existing in-situ observation system
Although China has already established various in-situ observation platforms, including the marine observation station, buoys and survey ships, China has not yet formed a rational layout and advanced in-situ observation system. Many of the marine observation stations still use individual and not standardized scales and readings, and the observation data is different from person to person. Particularly, bad weather makes observation work difficult and the continuity is bad. Therefore, the marine station monitoring methods are already quite obsolete, moreover the fact that the tide observation facilities require maintenance, has affected the observation quality and observer’s security seriously.
(3) Lacking of the marine observation station and buoy
Comparing to the large sea area of China, the existing number of marine observation stations and buoys is too small. Hitherto, China has only deployed 46 floats in the Western Pacific and Eastern Indian Marines. So far there are only 44 tide observation stations and 38 wave measuring points. In particular, the number of tide gauge stations is so small that it is impossible to gain enough material to meet the requirements for marine disaster forecasting, shipping, aquaculture, engineering, management and the marine environmental protection programme.
(4) China has not carried out the relevant work of Gliders at present.
Through the MERSEA plan as well as national research programs, Europe started to deploy Glider in Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic partial seas including the North Sea, and received a lot of profile data. The glider data of the MERSEA project will be utlized for the assessment report.
[pic]
Glider trajectory of the PAP-1 and CIS-1 experiments
In this report, we suggested that:
1, Under international cooperation's frame, Europe community should carry out Glider cooperation with China.
2, The Institute of Oceanography and the University of China should develop gliders as soon as possible. The Chinese marine instrument development units have the ability to develop and manufacture gliders.
3, The Chinese ARGO plan has received tens of millions Yuan of funding from the Ministry of Science and Technology of China, and obtained already a large amount of data, It has organized a number of seminars on the China ARGO programme. The Ocean community of China should suggest to the Ministry of Science and Technology to support the glider plan of China, and carry out the cooperation with the international or European (Mersea) glider programme within five years
4. The gaps for satellite ocean observing systems between China and Europe
4.1 Overview of the satellite ocean observing systems in China
There are 7 satellite series with the onboard sensor capable for marine environmental monitoring and application. The meteorological satellites (FY-n), oceanic satellites (HY-n), resource satellites (CBERS, ZY-n) and environment satellites (HJ-n) are jointly implemented by China National Space Administration (CNSA) and related application sectors which are China Meteorological Administration (CMA), State Oceanic Administration (SOA), Ministry of Land and Resources (MLR) and Ministry of Civil Affairs (MCA) / Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) respectively. Shenzhou spacecrafts (SZ-n) and Chinese Remote Sensing satellites (CRS-n or YG-n) are implemented by CNSA. Disaster Monitoring Constellation / BeiJing-1 micro-satellite (DMC / BJ-1 micro-satellite) are implemented by Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST).
(1) FY-n is the meteorological satellite series, including polar-orbiting and geostationary meteorological satellites, whose serial numbers n are odd and even ones respectively. FY-1A and FY-1B were experimental satellites carrying 5-channel Multichannel Visible Infrared Scanning Radiometers (MVISR-1) similar to channels of NOAA/AVHRR, which were launched in 1988 and 1990, respectively. FY-1C and FY-1D are operational satellites carrying 10-channel Multichannel Visible Infrared Scanning Radiometers (MVISR-2), which were launched in 1999 and 2002, respectively. FY-2 series is the geostationary satellite. FY-2A and FY-2B are the Chinese first generation geostationary meteorology satellite with the 3-channel Visible and Near-infrared Spin Scanner Radiometer (VISSR) onboard, which were launched in 1997 and 2000, respectively. FY-2C, FY-2D and FY-2E are operational satellites with similar sensors but with more bands and a high spatial resolution, which were launched in 2004, 2006 and 2008, respectively. So far, FY-2D and FY-2E are still in operation. FY-3 series is Chinese second generation of polar orbiting meteorology satellites. FY-3A is the first integrated satellite with 11 sensors onboard, which was launched in 2008. FY-3B will be launched in 2010 which are on the experimental phase. The FY-3C/D/E… (on operational phase) are planed. A total of 9 satellites will be launched every 2 years from 2013, which will form the AM/PM satellites with time slots coordinated through WMO. Generally, FY-3 is similar to the American National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) and the European Meteorological Operational satellite programme (MetOp). FY-4 series satellite as Chinese second generation of geostationary meteorological satellites is at the pre-phase stage and scheduled to launch after 2012. It is proposed to have two separate series, the optics and microwave remote sensing series. In general, FY-4 series is similar to American GOES-R satellite and European Meteosat (MTG) satellite.
(2) HY-n is the polar-orbiting ocean satellite series, including three sub-series of ocean color satellites (HY-1), ocean dynamic environment satellites (HY-2), and ocean watch and monitoring satellites (HY-3). HY-1A and HY-1B were experimental satellites carrying the Chinese Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner (COCTS) and the Coastal Zone Imager (CZI), which were launched in 2002 and 2007, respectively. COCTS is a 10-channel visible and infrared radiometer similar to ADEOS-I/OCTS, and CZI is a 4-channel CCD camera. HY-1A was failed in April 2004, and HY-1B is still operational running. HY-1C/1D, HY-1E/1F and HY-1G/1H are the follow-on operational ocean color satellites to form the AM and PM satellites constellation. HY-2A is an experimental satellite carrying a Ku-band microwave radiometer, similar to QuikSCAT, Topex/Poseidon and EOS-Aqua/AMSR-E, respectively. HY-3 will carry a C-band SAR with 10 m spatial resolution, an X-band SAR with 1 m spatial resolution and an 8-channel CCD imager with 3m spatial resolution similar to Envisat/ASAR and TerraSAR-X. On the whole, HY-1, HY-2 and HY-3 series will all go into operation around 2015, and their performance will be equivalent to that of current international operational ocean observing satellites.
(3) HJ-n is the polar-orbiting small satellite constellation for environment and disaster monitoring, which consist of ‘2+1’ constellation and ‘4+4’ constellation, called HJ-1 and HJ-2, respectively. HJ-1A and HJ-1B were launched simultaneously in 2008. HJ-1A carries a multi-spectral camera (CCD) and a Hyper Spectral Imager (HSI) with a spectral resolution of 5nm. HJ-1B carries a multi-spectral camera (CCD) and a multi-spectral Infrared Camera (IR). The HSI is similar to ISS-JEM/HICO. HJ-1C will carry an S-band SAR with spatial resolution of 5m and 20m similar to the Russian Almaz/SAR. HJ-1 constellation will be very useful for ocean color, ocean dynamic environment and ocean watch and monitoring, and especially the HSI and SAR-S fill the gap of HY-n. HJ-2 constellation will consist of four optical small satellites and four SAR small satellites.
(4) ZY-n is the polar-orbiting resource satellite series. China-Brazil Earth-Resources Satellite (CBERS)-1, 2, 2B, 3, and 4 belong to the ZY-1 sub-series. The CBERS-1, 2, 2B satellites carry the 5-channel CCD camera, Infrared Multi-Spectral Scanner (IRMSS), Wide Field Imager (WFI) and high resolution camera (HR), which were launched in 1999, 2003 and 2007, respectively. The CBERS-2B/CCD & HR with spatial resolution of 20m and 2m, respectively, can be used to monitor the coastal ocean. CBERS-3, 4 satellites will carry the improved CCD, IRMSS, WFI and Panchromatic and Multi-spectral camera (PAN-MUX). The performance of CBERS is similar to that of Landsat 7/ETM+ and SPOT 5. ZY-2 satellites are funded and developed by China, and carry high resolution optical sensors (improved HR, PAN-MUX). The performance of ZY-2 is similar to that of QuickBird and IKONOS. The ZY-2A, 2B and 2C satellites were launched in 2000, 2002 and 2004, respectively. The operation time of ZY-2A, ZY-2B and ZY-2C greatly exceed their two-year design life, so ZY-2A, ZY-2B and ZY-2C could form an earth observing network.
(5)CRS-n is a high spatial resolution satellite series, also called YG-n, which carry the high spatial resolution SAR and optical sensors. CRS-1 is the first SAR satellite in China and carries an L-band SAR with a resolution of 5 m. CRS-2 carries optical sensors. CRS-3 carries an L-band SAR with a resolution of 5 m. The launch time of these three satellites is close. CRS-n is very useful for ocean dynamic environment and ocean monitoring.
(6) SZ-n is the Chinese manned spacecraft series, with the orbital module carrying the experimental observation of the sensors for space and earth environment monitoring. The earth observing sensors included a medium resolution spectral imager, a multi-mode microwave remote sensor, a solar constant monitor, a solar ultraviolet spectral monitor, an atmospheric ozone sounder, an earth radiation budget sensor and so on, which are the payloads of FY-3A and HY-2A.
(7) DMC/BJ-1 (Disaster Monitoring Constellation / Beijing -1) is a 166kg small satellite. The BJ-1 small satellite, also called DMC+4, carries the multi-spectral and panchromatic CCD imagers with the spatial resolution of 32 m and 4 m, respectively, which can also be used for coastal zone monitoring.
All above satellite and spacecraft series are capable of ocean observation, and therefore comprise the Chinese satellite ocean observing system, carrying ocean color sensors, infrared and microwave radiometers, microwave altimeters, microwave scatterometers, microwave SARs and high spatial resolution optical sensors, respectively.
• For the Chinese satellite missions carrying ocean color sensors. Among seven satellite and spacecraft series, FY-n, HY-n, SZ-n and HJ-n carry ocean color sensors. Thus quasi-simultaneous observation could be achieved with two medium resolution spectral imagers (HY-1B/COCTS, FY-3A/MERSI) and a hyper-spectral imager (HJ-1A/HSI).
• For the Chinese satellite missions carrying infrared and microwave radiometers. Among seven satellite and spacecraft series, FY-n and HY-n carry infrared and microwave radiometers which could be used to retrieve Sea Surface Temperature (SST). FY-1D/MVISR-2 and FY-3A/VIRR have three infrared channels, similar to NOAA/AVHRR. HY-1B/COCTS have two infrared channels. FY-3A/MWRI and HY-2A/RAD are 5-channel microwave radiometers. The quasi-simultaneous SST observation could be achieved by FY-1D, FY-3A and HY-1B. Moreover, all-weather and all day/night high resolution SST data could be obtained together with FY-3A/MWRI and HY-2A/RAD. These could contribute to the GHRSST project. In addition, Chinese geostationary satellites (FY-2C, 2D, 2E/VISSR-2, FY-4/MCSI, GEO-MWRI) could provide high temporal resolution average cloud-free SST.
• Among seven satellite and spacecraft series, only HY-n carries a microwave altimeter (ALT). HY-2A, the first satellite carrying the ALT in China, will be launched in 2009. The dual-frequency (Ku, C) altimeter is similar to Topex/Poseidon.
• Among seven satellite and spacecraft series, only the HY-n carries a microwave scatterometer (SCAT). HY-2A, the first satellite carrying a scatterometer (SCAT) in China, will be launched in 2009. The SCAT will operate at Ku frequency similar to QuikSCAT.
• Among seven satellite and spacecraft series, CRS-n, HJ-n and HY-n carry microwave SARs. CRS-1/SAR (L), the first SAR satellite in China, was launched on 27 April 2006, and its sister satellite CRS-3/SAR (L) was launched on 12 November 2007. HJ-1C/SAR (S) will be launched in 2009. HY-3A 3B/SAR (X, C) will be launched after 2012. If these SAR satellites could operate over design life, then multi-frequency SARs will be in orbit concurrently.
• For the Chinese satellite missions carrying high spatial resolution optical sensors. Among seven satellite and spacecraft series, HY-n, ZY-n, HJ-n and DMC/BJ-1 carry optical sensors with spatial resolution better than 30 m as follows, which could be used for qualitative observation and monitoring of coastal zone and analysis of coastal SAR images.
4.2 Overview of the satellite ocean observing systems in Europe
The European Spaceborne Earth Observing System consists of ESA satellites, meteorological satellites of EUMETSAT and national satellites.
ESA is following 2 lines: (1) the Explorer mission, which are experimental satellites with new technology (examples are CRYOSAT for ice research and SMOS for measuring ocean salinity and soil moisture) and (2) the SENTINEL satellites for the GMES program, which are operational satellites and which are based on already proven technology.
The operational meteorological satellites including METEOSAT are operated by EUMETSAT.
(1) ESA satellites
The European Remote Sensing satellites ERS-1 and ERS-2 have been launched in 1991 and 1995, respectively. The Envisat satellite was launched in 2002, and the METOP satellite was launched in 2006. The sensors onboard the satellites which are used for ocean observations are the following:
• On ERS-1 and ERS-2: An Active Microwave Instrument (AMI) comprising a C-band scatterometer and a C-band SAR, an altimeter, and an Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSAR).
• On Envisat: The Advanced C-band SAR (ASAR), the altimeter (RA-2), the Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer (AATSR), and the Medium Resolution, Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS).
• On METOP: The Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT).
METOP is Europe's first polar-orbiting satellite dedicated to operational meteorology. It represents the European contribution to a co-operative venture with the United States providing data to monitor climate and improve weather forecasting. The METOP series consists of a total of three satellites, which are designed to provide meteorological operational data from polar orbit until 2020. METOP carries an Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) for measuring wind speed and direction over the ocean. It is an enhanced follow-on instrument to the scatterometers flown on ESA's ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites. It has six antennas which allows for simultaneous coverage of two swaths on either side of the satellite ground track, providing twice the information of the earlier instruments on ERS-1 and ERS-2. Sea surface wind speed is used, among others, as input in wave forecast models. If the Quikscat mission should come to an end (Quikscat was launched already in 1999), METOP can fill the gap. Thus continuity of global sea surface wind measurements is provided by the three METOP satellites until 2020. Sentinal series: Starting in 2011, Europe plans to start a series of earth observation satellites called the “Sentinal series”. The Sentinel satellites will be part of the European project “Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)”. GMES is a joint initiative of ESA and the European Union “to respond to the need to establish a European capacity for Global Monitoring of Environment and Security to support the public policy maker’s need for global access to reliable, accurate and up-to-date information on issues of environment and security”, It will be the European contribution to the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS). Five different types of satellites are planned in the Sentinel series, called Sentinel 1-5. Each type consists of several satellites. The Sentinel satellites are designed to provide continuity of the ERS, ENVISAT, SPOT missions, Sentinel 1 and Sentinel 3 will be used for ocean monitoring.
• Sentinal 1 will carry the European Radar Observatory, which is a C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (same frequency as Radarsat 2) and has an Interferometric Wide Swath mode. It measures sea surface winds, currents and waves, and will be used in oil spill information services and ship detection services for fisheries and security. Three Sentinel 1 satellites will be launched (in 2011, 2012, and 2013) so that coastal zones and the main shipping routes are covered on a daily basis.
• Sentinel 3 carries an advanced radar altimeter and two multi-channel optical radiometers (VIS, IR) for measuring ocean colour and sea surface temperature. The Ocean and Land Colour Instrument (OLCI) has a strong heritage from MERIS instrument on Envisat, the Sea and Land Surface Temperature Radiometer (SLSTR), a strong heritage from AATSR instrument on Envisat, and the SAR Radar Altimeter (SRAL) a strong heritage from Cryosat (an ESA satellite to be launched in 2009). The first of the Sentinel 3 satellites will be launched in 2013.
(2) National satellites
An example of a national Earth Observing satellite system is the French SPOT satellite series. However, it has only limited application for monitoring the ocean, but can be used for coastal zone studies. In 2007 three national European satellites were launched which have great potential for ocean monitoring: the German satellite TerraSAR-X (on 15 June 2007) and two Italian/French COSMO-SkyMed satellites (on 8 June and 9 December 2007). Both carry high-resolution X-band SARs. The parameters of TerraSAR-X can be found in Table 17 of the next section. The parameters of the SAR onboard COSMO-SkyMed are quite similar. Like TerraSAR-X, also COSMO-SkyMed SAR has also spotlight mode with a resolution of 1 m. COSMO-SkyMed (Constellation of Small Satellites for Mediterranean basin Observation) consists of a constellation of 4 Synthetic Aperture Radar satellites for primarily military surveillance. But products will be made available also to civilian users.
4.3 The gaps for the satellite ocean observing systems between China and Europe
1 The technical performance of Chinese satellites and sensors are roughly similar to the satellites and sensors launched in this century by NASA, ESA etc. For examples:
• FY-3A / MERSI was launched in 2008, the performance of which is similar to Terra / MODIS and Auqa / MODIS which was launched in 1999 and 2002 respectively. Hy-1B / COCTS was launched in 2007, the performance of which is similar to SeaWiFS which was launched in 1997. Quantization and radiometric accuracy of MERSI and COCTS are lower than MODIS and SeaWiFS (See Table 1).
• There are only three microwave sensors of 19 Chinese on-orbit sensors for ocean. (See Table 2) No ocean data products are available up to now. Merely L1 data can be obtained. Both Envisat and Sentinel satellites are equipped with SAR and altimeter. MetOp satellite is equipped with scatrometer. Terra-SAR X was developed by Germany.
2. Among 19 on-orbit sensors, only the service for products of ocean color parameters and SST are available. Only L1 data of microwave sensor and hyperspectral sensor can be achieved (Table-3).
3. Only retrieval algorithms for SST and parameters of ocean color data are available among the ocean data products of the on-orbit Chinese space-borne system, they are just primary results, not strictly in the sense of operational retrieval algorithm. Operational retrieval algorithms for European satellites were developed with sensors at the same time. Take ocean color as an example, for atmospheric correction, no aerosol models for the China seas and Case II water is added. For Bio-optical algorithm, Both HY-1B / COCTS and FY-3A / MERSI make use of the method developed for SeaWiFS and MODIS in ocean. There is a lack of wind and sufficient validation experiments for the statistical inversion models in coastal water. For radiometric calibration, both COCTS and MERSI reply on the cross-calibration of radiation of SeaWiFS and MODIS
4 Up to now, no Chinese satellite data products is used to assimilate into ocean models. For monitoring service systems using ocean color data, Chinese ocean color data products, for example HY-1B / COCTS and FY-3A / MERSI play a ‘supporting role’ of MODIS data products actually. Reasons are given below:
• MODIS data can be downloaded easily, no limit to the quantity of data, SeaDAS software can be used.
• FY-3A / MERSI limit to the quantity of data, only image displaying software provided
• HY-1B / COCTS manual work for data download and order.
• Strictly speaking, no operational retrieval algorithms for MERSI & COCTS
The tasks of top priority are:
• synchronize validation experiments
• ocean color database for China seas
• the operational retrieval algorithms for China seas.
5 Satellite SST is the earliest product providing to users among all the data products of China spaceborne ocean observing system. However, data quality of products of Satellite SST is not satisfied. The FY and HY have been designed with capability providing SST observation from space. FY-2C, 2D, 2E are currently on orbit. FY-2E was launched in December 2008, replacing FY-2C which has exceeded its duty time. The FY-2D infrared split window channels IR1 and IR2 for the observation of SST are analyzed and compared with simultaneous brightness temperature data fromMTSAT-1R. The results show poor calibration of FY-2D IR1 and IR2 channels, which are not capable of retrieving valid SST products. For HY series satellite, the HY-1B is on-orbit. The FY-2E IR1 and IR2 performance will be analyzed. The HY-1B COCTS SST products are compared with AVHRR and MODIS SST products. The results show negative bias around 1K for COCTS SST. The FY-3A, a new generation polar orbiting meteorological satellite, was launched in 2008. The Visible and InfraRed Radiometer (VIRR) on board FY-3A has infrared split window channels as well as a mid-infrared channel for SST retrieval. The SST products derived from FY-3A are under investigation.
Table1 Comparison of ocean color sensors
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Table 2 Chinese on-orbit sensors for ocean
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Table 3 Summary of Data Products of six sensors for Ocean Observing System
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1) The short life of the satellite
Taking the ocean color satellite for example, the design life time of the Chinese ocean color satellites HY-1A and HY-1B were 2 years and 3 years, respectively. However, the design life time of the Envisat/MERIS, SeaStar/SeaWiFS and EOS/MODIS were all more than 5 years, and the actually in-orbit operational time may more than 10 years. Therefore, the life time should be prolonged for the Chinese satellite.
2) Lacking of the on-orbit calibration system
On-orbit calibration system is very important for the quantitative using of the satellite data. However, up to now, few of the sensors onboard the Chinese satellites have the on-orbit calibration system.
3) Incapability of the global monitoring
Most of the satellites of ESA, NASA and NOAA have the global detecting capacity, which is very important for the global monitoring for environment and security. However, few of the Chinese oceanic satellites have the capacity of global monitoring. Taking HY-1B for example. It has the ability to detecting the global ocean color information, but because of the limitation of the oversea data storage memory (250 MB), HY-1B can only achieve 5 orbits data maximum in one day.
5. The gaps for the data integration and information management between China and Europe
5.1 Overview of the data integration and information management in China
(1) Data sharing
Based on different data resources, oceanic data in China is largely divided into five categories: Data from meteorological satellites, data from oceanic satellites, data from Argo buoys, data from in situ marine observation stations and data from research vessel observations.
• Data from meteorological satellites (FY-1 and FY-2). Real-time data from FY-2 is public data. Users can download freely directly from the website of the meteorological satellites FY-1 and after registration. While, marine data from meteorological satellites (FY-1 and FY-2) are internal data. Users who want to get those data should firstly get permission from data management departments.
• Data from oceanic satellite HY-1 are free besides costs for making products.
• Argo data: China is a part of the global Argo program. Argo data are shared for free. In order to distribute Argo data effectively, the China Argo Data Center and China Real-time Data Center established websites ( and ). The former provides access to the global Argo profiles data, meta data, trajectory data and deployment information from the Argo Continuously Managed Database. The users are able to access the data conveniently from the website including netCDF raw data, near real-time data, meta data, trajectory data, delayed-mode data, and can download Argo data via FTP. China Real-time Data Center’s website shows the status of Chinese floats including TS profiles and trajectories. The global Argo data are available to users via FTP.
• Data from in situ marine observation stations. Generally speaking, forecast data, statistical data and scientific maps of history such as sea surface temperature forecast in South China Sea, global grid sea surface temperature monthly anomaly, Sea surface pressure and anomaly of north hemisphere, typhoon maps in South China Sea, Investigation maps in Southern Sea, etc., in global or large areas are free sharing data. Original observation data from marine observation stations such as meteorological observation data, sea surface temperature, salinity, luminance of sea and tide data are limited sharing data.
• Data from oceanic research vessels: In order to promote communication and cooperation in the field of oceanic research and between different scientific fields, and for making data the exchange effective, sharing voyage investigation has been implemented in different institutions.
Main oceanic investigations are held by South China Sea Institute of Oceanography of CAS (SCSIO), and Institute of Oceanography of CAS (IOCAS). SCSIO has a comprehensive ocean research vessel named SHIYAN-III. The institution has used it for oceanic investigation since the year of 2004. Similar to SCSIO, IOCAS has a comprehensive ocean research vessel too, which is called KEXUE-III. IOCAS has been doing oceanic investigation since year of 2006. And, investigations of this year (2009) are being prepared now. There are two ways to share data from oceanic research vessels, which are sharing cruise and free data sharing.
• Sharing cruise means scientific workers can take part in oceanic investigations and become member of the investigation teams for free.
• Free sharing data (data of sharing cruises). SCSIO has set up a special data management team to manage observing data and samples from navigation sharing. The special data management team is in charge of data collection and makes information and data sharing through the network or database, and also publish them at regular time. According to different scientific fields, each research team should submit data to SCSIO within one to two years after the cruise to share information and data. According to different scientific fields, each team should submit observing data of navigation sharing to the Department of Research and Technology of IOCAS to share information and data.
(2) Data management
There are several main bodies of Chinese oceanographic institutions in charge of observing, transmitting, and managing marine data, including Chinese Academy of Science (CAS), State Oceanic Administration (SOA), China Meteorological Administration (CMA), universities under Ministry of Education (MOE), and military agencies like the Navy Marine Meteorological Center. Data from military agencies and universities are more specialized in defense and research purposes.
• Meteorological remote sensing data.
In order to manage data from meteorological satellites effectively, the ground system of the satellite, which is being designed, constructed and operated by the China Meteorological Administration, is in charge of management of data from meteorological satellites. The ground segment of FY-1 satellite comprises three ground stations, which are located at Beijing, Guangzhou, and Urumchi, and a Data Processing Center (DPC) at Beijing. The data received at the three ground stations are transmitted to the DPC via ground communication network in real time. After data processing in DPC, the generated products are distributed to users via the \9210" System and ground network.
• Oceanic remote sensing data.
To manage the ocean remote sensing data from HY-1, oceanic satellite ground application systems has been built in China. For example, the Marine Satellite Data Application System（MSDAS）in SIO/SOA is composed of a satellite receiving ground station and a data processing and distribution system. This system is able to accomplish real-time receiving and automatically synchronous processing of multi-satellite data, such as EOS/MODIS, NOAA/AVHRR, FY-1/MVISR, and HY-1/COCTS, and then generates L0, L1, L2, L3 and L4 remote sensing products which include sixteen kinds of marine environmental mapping that have been achieved since 1989, such as sea surface temperature, chlorophyll, suspended sediment, yellow material, diffusing attenuation coefficient of 490 nm, Secchi disk depth, vegetation index and optical thickness and so on. A distribution platform named WebGIS sub-system has been developed for querying and browsing of oceanic remote sensing data. This sub-system is based on large database system: Oracle. We took relation database as the core to store spatial data with related attribution data. To realize automatically warehousing of remote sensing data and management of the system, the C/S structure is applied. And B/S structure is used to release and share ocean information. Simply using standard browsers (such as IE6.0), users can visit the public service provided by the system including quasi-real-time oceanic remote sensing data of different dimensional and temporal characteristic.
Particularly, the distribution processing of HY-1 data is given out as following: firstly, users submit data order to business department of National Satellite Marine Application Center. Then, the business department distributes tasks to departments in charge of kinds of business in National Satellite Marine Application Center. After tasks are finished, these departments will transfer results back to the business department. And then, data will be sent back to users.
• Argo data
In order to extend the influence of China Argo Project, to link up the International Argo Project Organization and Countries, and to promote the Argo data for public share, , China Argo Real-Time Data Center Website was set up in Hangzhou, China on April 5, 2002. In pace with the China Argo Project steady developing and the China Argo Data were founded. China Argo Data Real-Time Center has conducted the tasks of Argo floats deploying, real-time data receiving and processing, data quality control methods/ways research and developing, and fast delivering the data to Argo-related institutions/users and agencies.
• Data from field and vessels observation
Due to the large numbers of marine stations spreading across China Sea and the huge amount of information, which can be gained every day, many data agencies are needed for data transmission and distribution. At present, main agencies in China dealing with these things are the National Marine and Environmental Forecast Center, the National Marine Information Center, the National Marine & Environmental Surveillance Center, the Regional Marine Information Center, and the National Marine Data & Information Service. Among all of these agencies, the National Marine Data & Information Service (NMDIS), which is aiming at managing data from field and vessels observation, is responsible for the final storage of data and, thus, is more important than the others. NMDIS is a national facility under the State Oceanic Administration (SOA), and maintains and develops the national marine database, which is a collection of marine data sets originating mainly from China marine observation establishments. Besides, as a national coordinator, NMDIS hosts the World Data Center for Oceanography (Tianjin, China), China Argo Data Center, China Delayed Mode Database for NEAR-GOOS.
There are many ways to distribute data. Generally, they are can be divide into two ways, which are offline sharing and online sharing. Offline sharing means sharing data through DVD and tapes etc.. Online sharing works via online platforms to share data via the internet. So far, there are four platforms in China, which are Marine Information & Data Sharing Center, marine data sharing platform in northern sea, marine data sharing platform in Qingdao and marine data sharing platform in southern sea. Up to now, thirteen marine scientific database systems and metadata systems have been built by the Marine Information & Data Sharing Center. The Marine Information & Data Sharing Center is operational now. So service can be supplied now operationally. The Marine data sharing platform in Qingdao has just been completed. Users can visit the website at for further information. Besides, marine data sharing platform in southern sea can be visited online too through the website at .
5.2 Overview of the data integration and information management in Europe
The GMES European program provides today a clear framework for the development of operational oceanography in Europe, with priorities and guidelines for the teams involved. Priorities are related to fast-track implementation of the more mature services for the benefit of downstream users, whereas guidelines focus on interoperability and system modularity to ensure a progressive and sustainable development of the overall GMES system infrastructure.
Different data bases with a longer history have been maintained by various national and international agencies in Europe. One is e.g. the data base at ICES (the International Councel for the Exploration of the Sea), which is supported by corresoponding national data bases. The European Integrated System for Ocean Monitoring and Forecasting as organized in the framework of European Community GMES projects, such as MERSEA, ECOOP or upcoming MyOcean, led to a first system definition for an integrated European capacity for ocean monitoring and forecasting compliant with existing organizations and international & European standards, efficient for an innovative and operational service, and easy to implement under the GMES schedule. The “system of systems” approach which was used as a guideline to build this European capacity requires a particular focus on information management and shared protocols and policies in order to hide the underlying distribution and heterogeneity of the interconnected systems and partners.
The MERSEA Integrated System is composed of different components, developed and operated in different places, but inter-connected to form an integrated capacity: the MERSEA Integrated System is itself a Pan-European “system of systems”. Eight major components have been identified for MERSEA system. Three components manage the observation data for remote sensing, in-situ and forcing fields raw data that they quality control and assemble into an integrated dataset. The system is also composed of five for model data (Global, North-East Atlantic, Mediterranean, Artic and Baltic). These five components take the observation datasets as input and assimilate them in order to provide ocean state and forecast.
The targeted marine applications gather a wide range of users that require different oceanic products from MERSEA. But, regarding their technical interface with the MERSEA Integrated System (i.e. the way these users are using the System), they can be classified into a small number of “uses” categories needed to define “how” the MERSEA Integrated System is used. Uses of the MERSEA Integrated System have thus been classified into 5 categories, each category grouping users sharing similar needs:
Category 1: “Privileged users”: they need exchanging data and/or products and/or services on a routine mode. This is mainly done via computer-to-computer link, with no human intervention and the guarantee of high level availability & quality of service.
Category 2: “Standard users”: they, on request, access products routinely produced by MERSEA integrated system (standard products); they need tools to search among registered (qualified) products and easily identified/find needed products, to select/ extract/ access useful (limited) information.
Category 3: “Public users”: General Public with aim for education and public outreach. They want ‘front/demonstration’ window for operational oceanography.
Category 4: “Specific users”: these users (e.g. research labs) request specific products, i.e. Products which are not available online or though registered distribution mean, or not routinely produced and qualified;. They can be served via human intervention. We just mention here this “specific use” category, but they have not been considered in MERSEA Integrated System implementation.
Category 5: “Operations” (system management): All users involved in the MERSEA system monitoring and supervision. They need monitoring functions and results, serve general information and provide visibility on existing systems.
The MERSEA overall service provides a high resolution 4D depiction of ocean state on global ocean and major European seas, on an operational basis, including full expertise and assessment indices. Even though no strong common data policy has been agreed among data providers, a few security and data access rules have been agreed: 1) Metadata and images provided in the MERSEA framework are free. 2) Data access may be restricted.
In order to build, from the distributed data centres (observation data centres or monitoring and forecasting centres), a federated system of systems, a few low level standards have been agreed between partners. These implementations of standards provide low-level homogeneous interfaces for the overall system. These standards deal with: metadata, local data repositories (data files), download interface and viewing interface.
5.3 The gaps for the data integration and information management between China and Europe
1) Low level of the data integration
As mention above, there are several main bodies of Chinese oceanographic institutions in charge of observing, transmitting, and managing marine data, including Chinese Academy of Science (CAS), State Oceanic Administration (SOA), China Meteorological Administration (CMA), universities under Ministry of Education (MOE), and military agencies. The in-situ data availability for the China Sea has been inhomogeneous, fragmented and often sparse, in particular regarding multidisciplinary coastal data. The data processing have moreover been distributed in several national data centres, with varying practise for data access, and often not been designed and operated to meet the near real time demands of operational forecasting systems.Although there are some data integration plans or programs in China, but the integrated systems are always limited in the same body or the same cruises, which lacks the high level of data integration to gather through the different bodies of Chinese oceanographic institutions. Currently there is no marine data and information system, which can include data from all observing stations in the form of a system of systems in China. Even though the marine scientific sharing platforms under NMDIS can provide much data and information, it is still under construction and most of the remote sensing data are still not included.
2) Lacking the international links and the unified data format
International links are very important for the successful data integration program. At present, different departments in China have their ocean data integration standards but only a few of them consider the international links and compliant with international standards. As far as marine data and information are concerned, there is no unified format for both data and metadata from all different sources in China. It is necessary to define a unified data and metadata format which can be applied to all data from various sources. Moreover, there is no common data transfer protocol for all data facilities. That also needs to be defined clearly and quickly.
3) Low efficiency of the information service
There are many ways to distribute data in China, online and via data media (e.g. DVD). However, in most cases, data distribution is still through manual processing in China. Furthermore, because of the lacking consideration of the services for the benefit of downstream users, many online data sharing systems are inconvenient for users to access. The marine data and information provided by different platforms are overlapped with each other to some degree. In other words, data redundancy exists under many circumstances. More efforts should be made to ensure that marine data and information can be managed more efficiently and also more cost effectively.
4) The quite limited data sharing
Because of the security, copyright and data policy reasons, the data sharing in China is quite limited. Although the meteorological and oceanic satellite remote sensing data, and the Argo buoys data are almost free, but the data from in situ marine observation stations and data from research vessel observations are still difficult to get.
(5) The low level of the data assimilation into model
A majority of oceanic and atmospheric models in China use station and ship data as input. Satellite data from altimeters, scatterometers and radiometers as well as buoy data from ARGO are also assimilated into numerical models but with less than 30%, and all assimilated satellite data are from abroad. Chinese remote sensing data are rarely used at present time.
6. Comparing between the current status on the Ocean and coastal information products and services in China and Europe
6.1 Overview of Status on the ocean and coastal information products and services in China
Due to its administrative responsibility, the State Ocean Administration of China (SOA) and its subordinates is officially in charge of the ocean and coastal management and information services. In August 2008, the State Council re-determines the functions, the organizations, posts and the staff size of SOA. A new department is added, which is based on the original organs of the headquarters of SOA, namely “Department of marine forecasting and disaster reducing”, with the new responsibility of supervising the operational running of marine economy, assessment and information dissemination. The work to address climate change and energy conservation & pollutant discharge reduction is also specially highlighted in the new responsibility of SOA. SOA has been strengthening and enlarging the rights and responsibilities in comprehensively coordinating the marine affairs, which is a new milestone in the development of China marine cause.
Under the administrative system and function, the marine information dissemination and service is in charged by the national marine centers, and the SOA branches in three sea areas (Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea, East China Sea and Southern Yellow Sea, and the South China Sea). In the recent years, the coastal provinces have founded their own local organization to serve the public, government and industries for marine and fishery management.
• National Marine Environmental Forecasting Center (NMEFC) is specially engaged in marine environmental forecast and related advisory services and scientific research. It is also the sole state-authorized institution at nation-level to issue marine environmental forecast products for public use.
• The National Marine Data and Information Service (NMDIS) is responsible for the centralized management of national marine information resources, the provision of technical support and information service for national marine economic development, sea area management and marine environmental protection, and the operational guidance and coordination for national marine information work.
• SOA is represented by three branches in local China Sea to perform the ocean administrative management, regional marine environment observation and monitoring. They have their own regional operational centers to serve the public and local government. North China Sea Branch of SOA (NCSB) is responsible for Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea, East China Sea Branch (ECSB) for East China Sea and the Southern Yellow Sea, and South China Sea Branch (SCSB) for the South China Sea.
• The Polar Research Institute of China (PRIC) is Chinese research center in the field of comprehensive studies of the polar region and the polar information center of China. It is responsible for the Chinese Polar Science Database, the polar information network, National Polar Archives of China, Polar Library, sample database and science journals, Polar Popular Museum, etc.
The major ocean and coastal information products and services in China include the ocean wave forecast, sea surface temperature forecast, sea ice forecast, storm surge forecast, harmful algal bloom forecast, tide and tidal current prediction, marine meteorological forecast, seashore and Routing forecast, El Nino forecast, and Tsunami forecast. The forecast products are directly broadcast by CCTV (China Central Television), CCBS (Chinese Central Broadcasting Station) and other news media. Also, the information can be transmitted to its users through fax, telex, long-distance computer terminal, public post and telecommunication network, etc..
The marine environmental forecasting includes
• Seashore and Routing Forecast. The forecast group provides three days forecasting products of marine environmental elements for beach and human health safety both on TV and internet. Products include sea temperature, air temperature, water quality, swimming comfort degree, water health index, best swimming time, sea wave etc…
• Sea Surface temperature. The operational forecasting products are based on statistics and numerical models. The main numerical models include improved POM, HYCOM and FVCOM configurations. Forecasting areas covers Pacific, Northwest Pacific and China Seas.
• Ocean wave forecast. Sea wave real-time analysis and short-term forecasting service covers the china seas and the northwest Pacific (5°N~45°N, 100°E ~ 165°E). Numerical forecast includes wind wave, surge amplitude, period, main wave direction, intensity and motive directions by using WAM4 model and SWAN models. But, in the fields of the global ocean wave operational forecasting system, China is still at the preliminary stage.
• Tide and Tidal Current Prediction. NMDIS manages the tide data recorded from the tidal stations along Chinese coasts and is in charge of the tidal prediction and tidal current analysis. NMDIS is also responsible for publishing "Chinese Sea level Bulletin" every year. The State Oceanic Administration of China maintains the Chinese sea level monitoring station networks.
• Marine Meteorological Forecast. NMEFC has improved MM5 model and WRF model used for China seas and other adjoin regions. Wind, temperature, relative humidity and pressure etc. elements are provided by these models. They are forcing field inputs for sea wave, storm surge models, and the typhoon path forecast. In recent years, mid and long range forecasting methods for marine weather have been improved. The main products include disastrous marine weather and weather system, with a-ten day, monthly or annual (especially for typhoon) range.
• El Niño Forecast. El Niño group provides sea surface temperature and temperature anomaly for the NiNO3region in the Pacific from one to six month forecast. CGCM model (from Institute of Atmospheric Physics, CAS) and CCM3 (Community Climate Model from NCAR) are the main numerical climate forecasting systems.
The forecast for the disasters, including
• Storm Surge Forecast. NMEFC has autonomously established typhoon and extra-tropical storm surge model (CTS model and CES model) covering the whole China Sea and supplying the forecast services to the users. Evaluation of storm surge risk is also one of the main technical services. DEM, DLG data and SPOT satellite sensing data are used to plot high resolution risk evaluation map by GIS integrating technique and nested grid calculation.
• Harmful algal bloom forecast. The main objectives are to monitor environment element variability of China Seas, disseminating forecast of harmful algal bloom trend and trigger conditions and evaluative trend of current harmful algal bloom.
• Sea Ice forecast. Sea ice forecast of Northern Bohai Sea and Huanghai Sea is a part of disastrous ocean forecasting. The forecasting products are directly disseminated to users and some are also released through CCTV. Statistical products include weekly, 10days, monthly and annual sea ice maximum cover line, normal and maximum ice thickness. Numerical products are 1 to 5days ice thickness, density, ice velocity and daily ice cover line.
• Tsunami Forecast. The main responsibilities are to monitor ocean and local tsunamis and to send pre-warning along china seas. Analysis and evaluation of the tsunami risk and supports of the information distribution is a benefit for the human being and property security.
6.2 Overview of Status on the ocean and coastal information products and services in EU
In Europe, numerous efforts have been carried out at national and European levels to define and demonstrate a capacity to make available and deliver a generic services based on common ocean state variables necessary to meet the needs for environmental and security applications. Under several consecutive European projects, such as EuroGOOS, MERSEA, BOSS4GMES, and MyOcean, operational oceanography is structured over Europe in the frame of international programs such as the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) and Global Monitoring for the Environment and Security (GEMS).
As the oceanographic component of the Global Earth Observing System of Systems (GEOSS), GOOS is a system of programmes, each of which is working on different and complementary aspects of establishing an operational ocean observation capability for all of the world's nations. In 1995, the EuroGOOS Memorandum of Understanding was signed in Italy for the coordination of operational oceanography (). The service was developed with a European regional seas strategy and service were initially developed at the level of three regional seas, so-called MOON (Mediterranean Sea), BOOS (Baltic Sea) and NOOS (North West Shelf). This is nowadays the conceptual model followed by the overall GOOS program.
At the same time, a comprehensive effort to connect European regional seas to global ocean forecasting started with the advent of the MERSEA Integrated Project, funded by the FP6 GMES research and development program from April 2004 to March 2008. The GMES service, integrated and interoperable between regional seas and the global ocean, started also to be developed in a precursor GMES FP5 EU project, so-called MERSEA Strand-1 where four European regional seas (Arctic, Baltic, North Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean) started to develop and implement common quality control protocols for ocean products (). The strategic objective of MERSEA is to provide an integrated service of global and Regional Ocean monitoring and forecasting to intermediate users and policy makers in support of safe and efficient offshore activities, environmental management, security, and sustainable use of marine resources. The system is a key component of the Ocean and Marine services element of GMES.
BOSS4GMES is an integrated Research & Development project co-funded by the European Commission under FP6.The BOSS4GMES Consortium gathers members from all around Europe: 37 committed industrial, research and institutional partners from 11 Member States of the EU. The project started in December 2006 and operated for 30 months. Its major aim is to support GMES in becoming a sustainable and operational tool for the “public good” of all European Citizens. The project was established on three pillars: technology, economics, and communications. The BOSS4GMES project is a pioneer and is rather unique in the GMES world: 1) it enables players who have been previously working separately to share information and better serve the development of GMES; 2) it enables the development of synergies and enhanced coordination with other GMES projects co-financed by the European Commission or the European Space Agency; 3) The consortium integrates as partners, specialists in communication and PR; an important element at this stage in the development of GMES; 4) The project places special emphasis on organisational and long-term financial sustainability issues.
With the GMES program and its Marine Core Service (MCS) fast-track, the European community is consolidating all previous efforts in pre-operational ocean monitoring and forecasting capacity in Europe developed through precursor’s projects in FP6 MERSEA and BOSS4GMES. During years 2009-2011, MyOcean Project was funded, which will lead the setting up of this new European service, grown on past investments in research & development, system development and international collaborations. MyOcean is the implementation project of the GMES Marine Core Service, aiming at deploying the first concerted and integrated pan-European capacity for Ocean Monitoring and Forecasting.
MyOcean is focussed on the transition from demonstration to operations as a first priority, with the final review for a “ready-for-operations” label. The MCS fast-track is to build on already existing and well coordinated pan-European research and operational oceanography capabilities to deliver real operational service infrastructure described in the GMES Marine Core Services Implementation Plan. The MyOcean “system of systems” will be composed of a central service desk, and 12 production units - 5 Thematic Assembly Centers, handling space and in situ observations, and 7 Monitoring and Forecasting Centers, handling assimilative 3D modelling capacities - spread throughout Europe, but interconnected to form an integrated system thanks to information management components and global workflow operations monitoring. MyOcean is conducted by a consortium of 61 partners. It is structured around a core team of 12 core service operators, connected to key research and development players, linked to 26 key intermediate users ready to commit to service validation and promotion. It represents the whole maritime EU Member States and is connected to countries across the Atlantic and around the Mediterranean and Black seas.
For the service, MyOcean will provide the best information available on the Ocean for the large scale (worldwide coverage) and regional scales (European seas), based on the combination of space and in situ observations, and their assimilation into 3D simulation models: temperature, salinity, currents, ice extent, sea level, primary ecosystems. Maritime security, oil spill prevention, marine resources management, climate change, seasonal forecasting, coastal activities, ice sheet surveys, water quality and pollution … are some of the targeted applications. Services will be accessible through a single entry point – the service desk – that will guarantee the uniformity of the form, availability and quality of access to MCS services in each country and for each thematic. The MyOcean Service Desk is the unique front facing service interface to users of the MyOcean. It is the 24/7 MyOcean central service to users.
The major expected progress will be the engagement of downstream users, and long term adoption of MyOcean products and services. The MyOcean service will be also open and accessible to any GMES downstream service provider candidate to validate the MCS service. A strong involvement from key users will enable the qualification of the MyOcean products portfolio to ensure a complete readiness towards long-term operational oceanography services in European waters. Two key scientific challenges for MyOcean will be to broaden the scope of the operational production to include other components (such as biological properties), and to further improve the quality and reliability of ocean information in terms of scientific content. There is also an organisational challenge which will be the development and adoption by all partners of common practices, standards and quality management policies.
6.3 The gaps of the ocean and coastal information products and services between China and EU
From the above overview of the status on the ocean and coastal information products and services in China and EU, clear differences can be seen. Under the national framework, the system of the marine information services has the typically administrative feature. The national centers, branches of SOA, and local governments, all had their windows to release the ocean and coastal information products and services to the related users and public, although the types of services are various according to their administrative functions and techniques abilities. The marine information is mainly used for the domestic management and marine activities, like marine transportation, fishery, investigation and exploration, etc. And the forecasting model also focus on the China Sea and its adjacent area, some extend to the North Pacific Ocean. Less attention is paid to Global Ocean. Therefore, the marine observation and information service in China is only for domestic affairs. In recent years, China is also paying much attention to the global ocean and climate change, but it is in the initial stage, and the connection or the contribution to GOOS and GEMS is very small. Lots of effort should be done to integrate the China marine observation and information service system to GOOS and GEMS, in which the administrative communication and encouragement are the most critical requirements.
In ocean numerical model forecasting or simulation, the main gaps, which should be filled by China, could be summarized as follows. (1) The forcing field and data assimilation: wind fields with high quality and accuracy are needed to improve both ocean wave modeling and ocean numerical modeling. Assimilation of in situ data and satellite data into 4-D models should be improved. (2) Key physical processes should be studied and parameterized especially in coastal areas: further studies are needed in air-sea coupling processes including wind storm – wave – tide – current – ice interaction processes, and solar radiation and its scattering processes, and atmosphere – ocean coupling techniques. (3) Model products’ verification and validation: model verification and validation standard should be improved in ocean numerical modeling. (4) In situ data, satellite data and model forecasting data service should be improved in the future.
For the EU, which is composed by many countries, once the common signature is confirmed, capacity in national and European levels can be integrated to make available and deliver a generic services based on common ocean state variables necessary to meet the needs for environmental and security applications. Under several consecutive European projects, such as EuroGOOS, MERSEA, BOSS4GMES, and MyOcean, operational oceanography is structured over Europe in the frame of international programs such as GOOS and GEMS.
Therefore, the ocean and coastal information products and services in EU are in a higher level than that in China. But China is making great progress in integrated marine information service by setting up a large China “Digital Ocean” Program, which can make full advantages of the national marine resources. The program includes several important parts: ocean three-dimensional monitoring data and information collection and transmission, spatial data infrastructure, information resource exploration and usage, digital ocean application service system etc. On June 12, 2009, China launched a website called iOcean (.cn), the first digital marine service system open to the public in the country. With the iOcean, public can access to a wealth of marine knowledge, and enhance the marine geo-spatial concepts, understanding and perception of a colorful world of the ocean. However, the “digital sea” construction is a huge, complex, long-term and systematic project, and it still needs time and numerous efforts to catch up the information service system in EU and contribution to the GOOS and GEMS.
7. The gap for scientific research and education.
We compare China and Europe marine institutions.
China side
• Universities:
Ocean University of China
Xiamen University
ZhongShan (Sun Yat-sen) University
Dalian University Of Technology
Dalian Maritime University
Tongji University
University of Hainan
Naval University of Engineering
Hehai University
Shanghai Maritime University
Shanghai Fisheries University
East China Normal University
• Chinese Academy of Sciences:
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research for Sustainable Development， Chinese Academy of Sciences
Institute of Acoustic, Chinese Academy of Sciences
• State Oceanography Administration:
The First Institute of Oceanography, SOA
Second Institute of Oceanography, SOA
Third Institute of Oceanography, SOA
China Marine Monitoring Team
National marine environment monitor Centre
national marine environment forecaster center
National Satellite Ocean Application Service
Polar Research Institute of China
National Ocean Technology Center
China Institute for marine environment protection
China Institute for marine S & T information
China Institute for Marine Affair
• Ministry of Agriculture:
Yellow Sea China Sea Fishery Research Institute
East Sea China Sea Fishery Research Institute
South China Sea Fishery Research Institute (SCSFRI)
Europe side:
Belgium
• Laboratoire d'Océanologie, Université de Liège
• Unité d'Océanographie Chimique, Université de Liège
o Biogas Transfer in Estuaries - BIOGEST
• SALMON: Sea Air Land Modeling Operational Network, Université de Liège
• MAST - Marine Science and Technology, European Commision, Brussels
• Mediterranean Oceanic Data Base, Université de Liège
• MMarie, Application of High Performance Computing Techniques for the Modeling of Marine Ecosystems
Croatia
• Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Split
• Center for Marine Research of the Rudjer Boskovic Institute
• Zagreb Division
• Rovinj Division
Cyprus
• Cyprus Coastal Forecasting and Observing System
Denmark
• The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, ICES
o ICES Oceanographic products for PCs (FTP)
• Department of Ocean Engineering, Technical University of Denmark
Finland
• Finnish Institute of Marine Research
France
• IFREMER, Brest
o DSI: Information processing System Development
o LPO: Laboratorie de Physique des Oceans
o ORSTOM: ships of opportunity XBT network
o SISMER: Marine Scientific Information Systems
• Centre d'Oceanologie de Marseille, CNRS
• Institut Pierre Simon Laplace-Numerical Modelling Group, Paris
• Laboratoire de Biog閛chimie et Chimie Marines, Paris
• Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commision, UNESCO, Paris
o GOOS - Global Ocean Observing System
• Centre for Earth Observation - Coastal Zone, Sophia Antipolis
• European Boards for Marine and Polar Science, Strasbourg
• AVISO - TOPEX/POSEIDON W3 server, CLS, Toulouse
• Oceanologic Observatory of Villefranche-sur-Mer
Greece
• Institute of Marine Biology, Crete
• National Centre for Marine Research, Athens
Germany
• Fachbereich Geowissenschaften der Universität Bremen
• Tracer Oceanography, Universität Bremen
• The Alfred Wegener Institute, Bremerhaven
• GKSS Institute for Coastal Research
• Hydrographic Atlas of the Southern Ocean
• Near-Earth Navigation & Geodesy Section ESOC, ESA, Darmstadt
• European Geophysical Society (EGS)
• Bundesamt für Seeschiffahrt und Hydrographie - Federal Maritime and Hydrography Agency, Hamburg
• German Climate Computer Centre, Hamburg
• WOCE Hydrographic Program SAC (FTP)
• Institut für Meereskunde, University of Hamburg
• Institut für Meereskunde, Kiel
• Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Sea, Oldenburg University
• Institut für Ostseeforschung, Warnemünde
• Baltic Sea Resources
Iceland
• The Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories, Reykjavik
• Marine Research Institute, Reykjavik
Ireland
• The Martin Ryan Marine Science Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway
• The Irish Marine Institute, Dublin
Italy
• Marine Fisheries Research Institute (IRPEM) of the Italian National Research Council, Ancona
• The ESA/ESRIN Ionia Global AVHRR Data Set Browser, Frascati
• Robotlab, Genoa
• The Joint Research Centre, Ispra
• Live DMS Ocean Biological Model
• NATO SACLANT Undersea Research Centre
• Department of Oceanology and Environmental Geophysics, University of Trieste
Netherlands
• Space Research and Technology, Delft University of Technology
• Department of Oceanography, KNMI, De Bilt
• National Oceanographic Data Committee
• Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Texel
• Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht
Norway
• Institute of Marine Research, Bergen
• Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen
o Joint Global Ocean Flux Study - JGOFS
o ESOP-2 Thermohaline circulation in the Greenland Sea
• Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bergen
• Geophysical fluid dynamics, Mechanics Division, University of Oslo
• Oceanor, Trondheim
Poland
• Institute of Oceanography, University of Gdansk, Poland
• Institute of Oceanology PAS, Sopot, Poland
Portugal
• Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, University of the Azores
• Institute of Oceanography, University of Lisbon
Russia
• Institute of Numerical Mathematics, Russian Academy of Sciences
• P.P.Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow
Spain
• Institute of Marine Sciences, Barcelona
• AINCO-Interocean, Madrid
• Spanish Institute of Oceanography, Madrid
Sweden
• Göteborg University Marine Research Centre
• Analytical and Marine Chemistry, University of Göteborg
• Stockholm Marine Research Centre
• Meteorologiska Institutionen Stockholms Universitet (MISU)
• International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme - IGBP, Stockholm
• SMHI Oceanographical Laboratory
• Umee Marine Sciences Centre
• AB Hydroconsult, Uppsala
Ukraine
• Institute of Biology of the Southern Seas, National Academy of Sciences
• Marine Hydrophysical Institute, National Academy of Sciences
United Kingdom
• ALIPOR (Autonomous Lander and Intrumentation Packages for Oceanographic Research) Project, Aberdeen University
• S.O.A.E.F.D. Marine Laboratory, Aberdeen
• The School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor
• Plankton Reactivity In the Marine Environment (PRIME)
• Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory, Bidston
• BODC: The British Oceanographic Data Centre
• WOCE `delayed-mode' Sea Level DAC (FTP)
• Hadley Centre, Bracknell
• British Marine Life Study Society (England)
• British Marine Life Study Society (Scotland)
• British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge
• Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge
• The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science
• InterRidge, Durham
• U.K. Ocean Drilling Program, Durham
• Earthworks - job opportunities online, Cambridge
• Physical Oceanography, University of East Anglia, Norwich
• Stable Isotope Laboratory, University of East Anglia, Norwich
• Satellite Observing Systems, Godalming
• Ocean Systems Laboratory, Heriot Watt, Edinburgh
• Virtual Ecology, Earth Sciences and Engineering, Imperial College
• Ocean Circulation Modelling, Earth Sciences and Engineering, Imperial College
• Oceanography Laboratories, University of Liverpool
• Physical Oceanography
• Nature
• School of Marine science and Technology, Newcastle University
• Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory, Oban
• Marine Science BSc, University of the Highlands and Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory
• OSIL Environmental Instruments and Systems
• Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics, Oxford University
• Plymouth Marine Laboratory
• GLOBEC International Project Office
• National Marine Biological Library
• Institute of Marine Studies, University of Plymouth
• The Marine Biological Association, Plymouth
• Oceanography Group, Department of Meteorology, Reading University
• Along Track Scanning Radiometer, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
• North Atlantic Fisheries College, Shetland
• National Oceanography Centre, Southampton
• CLIVAR
• Inter-Agency Committee on Marine Science and Technology
• TT Designs, Southampton
• Fugro GEOS, Swindon
From above investigation, we can clearly see that Europe has more marine institutions than China. If we consider the total budget, scientific and technological level etc, China is relatively weak, the equipment used in marine development is backward and some areas are still in rough shape.
Nevertheless, China and Europe marine capacity building have obvious respective characteristics. For example:
Geographic characteristics
Europe side pays more attention to Arctic Ocean region, and China has more interests to watch Equator area, South China Sea and India ocean, because Asia Monsoon, west pacific ocean warm pool and the Tibet plateau are important factors to China’s and world climate. So two observing systems are multi-complement. Further cooperation between Europe and China marine monitoring will be very useful.
Research area difference
The Global monitoring on environment and security GMES is proposed by EU. European research area also has global characteristics. China pays more attention to the study of the inshore shelf oceanography. China has established a multidisciplinary oceanographic research system with regional characteristics.
Current Europe science priorities
(1). To understand the role of the ocean in the Earth system
This role manifests itself in long-term climate and short-term weather patterns as controlled by ocean circulation, which in turn responds to changes in global temperature, radiation budget and sea-level change. Oceans also interact with tectonic forces that gradually change the long-term ocean/land configuration or, short-term, cause environmental catastrophes.
Key examples and priority goals:
Ocean circulation: improved assessment and prediction systems.
The North Atlantic is a crucial regulator in the global climate system.
Tropical cyclones: better global forecasts.
Europe suffers indirectly in multiple ways from hurricanes and typhoons through
global effects
Tsunamis: a tsunami early-warning system for Europe
European coasts have been devastated in the past by tsunamis triggered by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater land slides.
Ocean observatories: networking and strategies for ocean-wide research. Local, regional and ocean observations are proven tools for these goals.
(2). To maintain the ocean’s ecosystem while continuing to exploit ocean resources
The aims are to achieve a balance between scientific, environmental, political and economical interests. An ongoing basic scientific theme is the assessment of biodiversity, as are the applied fields of fisheries development, innovative aquaculture, energy conversion, deep-sea mining, and fossil-fuel exploitation. Sustainable exploitation also needs to be based on a solid knowledge of ecosystem interaction, environmental compatibility, reliable estimates of resources, as well as prudent ocean governance.
Key examples and priorities:
Aquaculture and fisheries: a new ecosystem approach to aquaculture.
Declining global catches are irreversible; current aquaculture is facing grave Problems.
Resources from the sea: improved technical developments and assessment of environmental impacts.
Ocean energy derived from wind farms, tidal parks and gas hydrates could minimize greenhouse gas outputs.
(3). To evaluate and mitigate human impact on the marine environment
Myriad problems have arisen due to human activities in and around marine environments. Predicting scenarios, developing counter measures, capacity building and coastal zone management are means by which human impact can be better understood and counteracted.
Key examples and scientific priorities:
Acidity of the ocean: assessment of marine response to increased acidity.
Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide is causing irreversible effects.
Invasion of alien species and chemicals: new monitoring strategies and evaluation of environmental and ecological effects.
Globalization accelerates the spread of biological species and increases the production of synthetic chemicals.
Near-shore impacts: mitigating disturbance caused by change in morphotectonics and increasing sea level.
Conflicting activities place pressure on coastal zone use.
Temperate lagoons: implementation of the Water Framework Directive.
Over-fertilization and internal seafloor nutrient fluxes contribute to eutrophication.
Impact of artificial hormones, which are part of the waste water, on marine organisms.
(4). To explore the deep-sea frontier
Without doubt, curiosity-driven science is the motor for long-term progress of any society. The ocean is the last frontier on Earth, with its vast expanse, hostile environments, and inaccessibility. Innovative deep-sea technology paces progress in science as well as provides spin-offs for industrial use. Blue biotechnology, sensor development, and the construction of new research tools and platforms are but a few of the numerous initiatives promoting successful exploration of the deep-sea frontier.
Key examples and scientific priorities:
Deep biosphere: unravel survival and adaptation mechanisms and assess the effect on global environmental chemistry.
One-third of all living microbial organisms is found below the seafloor and constitute a wealth of new life forms.
Pharmaceuticals: screen organisms living under extreme conditions and test new enzymes and chemicals.
New life forms metabolize at extremely high or low temperatures, in the presence of poisonous gases and the absence of oxygen.
Marine environmental technology: network existing infrastructures and invest in new designs; under-ice research as a special challenge to Europe.
Innovative technology paces progress in science. High pressure, extreme temperatures, and the inaccessibility of the ocean environment requires special but costly technologies.
The priorities of China in the frontiers for ocean science including
← Coastal water circulation mechanism and the effects on China environment.
← Marine bio-geochemistry circulation process,
← Key problems about the formation and evaluation of marginal sea,
← Asia monsoon and its influence on climate and environment.
← Ocean disaster and safety of off-shore and coastal activities including shipping
← Geology and geography study and oil-gas resources formation in the bottom of sea,
← Discover the gas-hydrate and other non traditional resources,
← Important resources utilization and protection of the marine biological resources and water resources in coastal zone,
← Mechanism of red tide and other marine environmental pollution,
← Disease occurrence and disease resistance of the commercially important organism in mari-culture,
← Ecosystem dynamics and sustainable utilization of living resources in the China seas,
← Relation between structure and function of polysaccharides and new marine medicine,
← Mechanism of ocean disaster,
← Ocean information transition mechanism etc.
Some progress has been made in recent years in physical oceanography, biological oceanography, Marine geology and marine chemistry. These achievements have provided scientific directions and references for the promotion of offshore fishing and oil and gas exploitation, protection of the marine environment, and reduction and prevention of marine disasters.
China is also developing marine high technologies. The projects such as
← Select and cultivate technology of the good species in Mari-culture,
← High efficient and Sustainable utilization of the marine biological resources.
← Prediction for mineral deposits and Oil and Gas in the bottom area of sea,
← Three dimension observation technology and system design,
← Robots technology in deep sea etc.
The research priority difference directly reflects the gaps between Europe and China. To give a further boost to oceanographic technology, offshore development and marine environment protection, the Chinese government has worked out the Medium- and Long-Term Program for the Development of Oceanographic Science and Technology, the Oceanographic Technology Policy (Blue Paper) and a number of concrete development plans. The main tasks for oceanographic technology development in the future are: To strengthen research into basic oceanographic science; tackle the key technologies of marine resources exploitation and environmental protection; promote the application of oceanographic technologies to marine industries; improve marine resources development and service support for marine disaster prevention and reduction; improve marine environmental protection; and narrow the gap between China and the developed countries in oceanographic technology.
8. towards the future capacity building
We have analyzed the main gaps for marine monitoring capacity building between China and Europe. The most important now is toward the Future. Both Europe and China sides has some new proposals to improve our marine monitoring system and to enhance our capacity building. The cooperation between Europe and China is also very important. Therefore, the next year, in the third report of WP5, future capacity building will be identified and recommended in order to develop more harmonized global systems of marine monitoring and forecasting for use in P.R. of China and Europe. This, in turn, will contribute to a more harmonized implementation of GMES/GEOSS.
Reference:
1) D1.1: 1st Report on Existing In-situ Observing Systems. DRAGONESS_D1.1.doc, Project No. 030902, 2008.
2) D2.1: 1st Report on Chinese and European Spaceborne Ocean Observing Systems and Onboard Sensors (1988-2025), DRAGONESS_D2.1.doc, Project No. 030902, 2008.
3) D3.1: 1st Report on Review of level of data integration and information management. DRAGONESS_D3.1.doc, Project No. 030902, 2008.
4) D4.1: 1st Report on assessment of current status on the Ocean and coastal information products and services in China, DRAGONESS_D4.1.doc, Project No. 030902, 2008.
5) Pierre Bahurel. MyOcean, building up the European “Marine Core Service”. WINDOW ON GMES, 18-25,2007.
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