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Grape Species, Varieties & RootstocksNative North AmericaResistant to PhylloxeraProvides root system for Vinifera Provides root Vine species:any member of the genus vitis1- Vitis Vinifera -> European / 5 to 10,000 varieties / suitable for wine making2- Vitis Riparia3- Vitis Rupestris4- Vitis BerlandieriVine anatomyShoots:new growth a vine produces each year.contains nodes that each will give a leaf + flower or leaf + tendrilLeaves:responsible for photosynthesis by which plants use chlorophyll + energy from sunlight to convert water + CO2 in sugar glucose and oxygenThe glucose will1. Allow to vine to reinforce its structure2. Store the energy necessary for the plant’s living3. Concentrate in the fruit which makes it attractive to animals that will propagate their seedsTendrils:structure the vine uses to support itself by winding themselves tightly around trellis wires to keep the shoot rightFlowers+Berries: reproductive organs. Grouped in bunches called inflorescences.Flower pollinated berry grapeBudsembryonic shoots that form between leaf + shootbuds shoots + leaves + flowers + tendrils the year after1-year old wood: shoots woody old wood critical as vines will only produce fruit on shoots that grow from buds from the previous yearCane:1-year old wood pruned + left with 8-15 buds (long)Spur:1-year old wood pruned + left with 2-3 buds (short)Permanent wood: wood > 1 year old restricted by pruning. Made of trunk + arms of the vine (cordons)stores carbohydrates reserves during the winter that will then fuel shoots’ initial growth until leaves can support themRoots1. absorb water + nutrients from the soil2. Anchor the vine3. Store carbohydrates for winter survival4. Can help protect against phylloxeraOrigin of grape varieties2 grapevines are from the same grape variety if the ancestry of every plant follows a line of cuttings lead to the same single original parent plant. Different if 2 different seedlings found.Varieties cannot be reproduced by planting the pips (seeds) of a grape.Variations within species can come froma) sexual reproduction:flower pollinated -> seed plantedevery seedling is in theory a new variety although the child will bear similarities with parents. Execption: Morio Muskat (Sylvaner + Pinot Blanc)b) Mutations:if error in copying process of new bud. Usually differences are small. Exception: Pinot Blanc + Pinot Gris= mutated from Pinot NoirClones and clonal selectionFor consistency, identical copies can be done via:Cutting :section taken from healthy shoot before it has become woody and plantedLayering:bending a cane down and burying a section in the groundClonal selection:take cuttings from a selected plant that displays best characteristics and selling it for widespread use. The population grown from the cuttings are clones.Disadvantages: a) difficult to build long term vision b) homogeneity means any weakness is general (diseases) c) uniformisation of tasteCrossings and hybridsNEW varieties = difficult to create as1. Difficult. Many fail in yr12. Lengthy. Minimum 2-3 years for 1st fruit3. Costly. R&D InvestmentExamples: Pinotage (SA) / Dornfelder (GER): commercial success but not noble grapesMethods:Crossings:both parents are from V. Vinifera.Ex:Cab Sauvignon: Cab Franc + Sauvignon BlancThurgau: Riesling + Madeleine RoyalePinotage: pinot Noir + cinsaultHybrids:parents come from different speciesUse in the US where Vinifera was struggling to grow. Outlawed in EU in 50s.Now rarely used for winemaking but more for rootstocksPhylloxera and rootstocksPhylloxeravine pest that caused widespread destruction off EU vineyards in mid XIXth Cycle:lives underground + feeds from rootsBarely visible to naked eyeBacteria + fungi infect the roots and slowly kills the roots and the vineOnly cure: grafting American rootstocks (cross incl. Berlandieri better adapted to EU’s lime-rich soils) on to V Vinifera.Rootstocky hybrids great vs.phylloxeraNematodesDroughtSoil salinityV Vinifera vigour controlGrafting: technique used to join a hybrid rootstock to a V. Vinifera varietyBENCH graftingshort sections of 2 canes cut2 canes spliced together by machine + store in warm humid environment= callus formedHEAD graftingexisting vine cut back (only trunk remains) + bud of new variety grafted onto trunkIf successful fruit ready with next vintageKey grape varietiesW1 – ChardonnayW2 -Sauvignon BlancW3 – RieslingW4 - Pinot GrisW4 - Viognier W5 – MuscatB1 – Pinot NoirB2 – Cabernet SauvignonB3 – MerlotB4 – SyrahB5 - GrenacheB6 – SangioveseB7 – TempranilloThe Growing EnvironmentKey vine inputs:HEAT from soil and sunSUNLIGHT from sun and soilWATER from rainfall, irrigation, soil/bedrockNUTRIENTS from soil deposits, bed rock, humus, fertiliserClimate:annual weather patterns averaged over several yearsWeather:variations of these patterns on annual basisHEAT/ Temperature< 10Ccells stop functioning. Vine -> dormant> 22Ccells consumes more sugar vs possible via photosynthesis which lead to slowdown + vine stop16C to 22C: ideal growing temperatureFactors affecting temperature:LatitudeAltitudeWinds/currents. Ex: Humboldt and Beguela cools Chile and SA while Gulf Stream warms up NW of EUFogSoil & water contentAspect/sun expositionContinentality:summer vs. winter temp. Large bodies of sea -> moderating effectDiurnal range: day vs. nightLakes, rivers -> soften differencesCool nights => vine rest + longer season Warm nights => accelerates ripeningHi diurnal range => more aromatic + freshLo diurnal range => more full bodiedKey temperature hazards1. <-20C winter freeze + vine death2. < 0 spring frost -> new buds damaged/killed Protections: burners, wind machines, sprinklers, vineyard design (in slopes)3. Too mild winters -> disruption of cycles with 2 seasons in 14. Hot summers -> ripening acceleration + drought riskClimateContinentalityRainfallGrowing Season temperatureGrowing season sunlightContinentalHiLowCool -> Champagne, MoselMod -> Burgundy, Central Otago, BaroloWarm -> Ribera Del Duero, MendozaHot -> La Mancha, PortVery SunnyMaritimeLo to MedMed/hi (all year)Cool -> MuscadetMod -> Bordeaux, Rias BaixasWarm -> AucklandCloudyMediterraneanLo to MedLow/Med(mainly winters)Mod -> Chianti, CarnerosWarm ->Chateauneuf, Napa ValleyHot -> Murray-DarlingSunnySUNLIGHTNeeded for Photosynthesis. The more light, the more vine vigor.Ex: Hunter valley -> cloudy -> grape with low sugar levelsFactors affecting sunlight:Seas+Lakes-> more cloudsLatitude-> longer summer days when further from equator. Ex: Washington State -> Cab SauvignonAspect-> steep + south-facing slopes help maximise sun exposureSunlight HazardsExcess => sunburn . Bitter-tasting grapesLack of => less fruitful buds + difficult ripening of grapes. Hi acidity low fruitWATER Needed for:photosynthesis + mild water stress to promote ripening.Water needs rise with temperature.Transpiration:way by which vine accesses water via roots up to leavesPrecipitationIrrigation3 techniques: DRIP / SPRINKLERS / FLOODWater Hazards:Excess -> overgrowth + fungal infection in growing season-> rot + flavour dilution in late growing seasonLack of -> transpiration stops + photosynthesis stops = no ripeningSOILComposed of: soil particles, stones & rocks, humus + plant nutrientsIdeal soil = few nutrients but well drained to store enough water for nxt seasonSoil + Water: soil needs to provide vine with good supply of water in early growing season to promote buds flowering and then reduced supply throughout season to help ripeningSoil + nutrients: only very small amounts needed. Mainly Nitrogen, Phosphorous & Potassium key in hi levelsExcess -> excessive vine vigour Lack of -> vine not able to grow properlyChlorosis: lack of iron -> less cholorphyll in the leaves -> reduced synthesis -> poorer grapes. Most common in hi limestone soils e.g. Champagne, Burgundy, Rioja, Barolo.Terroir:ensemble of environmental influences that give wine sense of place: aspect, weather, soil, slope, grape variety, climate.Vineyard ManagementSITE SELECTIONEnvironmental conditionsi.e. avg temp, rainfall, sunlight hours + soil fertility & drainageBusiness considerationsi.e. proximity to infrastructure, workforce availability, access to machineryGrape Varietydriven by climate condition and by EU regsPLANTINGVines usually planted pre-grafted. Exception: very dry conditionsProtection of young vines vs. weeds by covering with mulch + vs. animals by sheathing the vinesIrrigation to support root system developmentAfter 3 years of planting -> 1st yield. Most vines can live 30-50 years. Qty of fruit decreases with age.MANAGING THE VINENo action vines will grow grapes but not ripe enough for winemakingViticulture control vigour of vine by:Size & shapePruning:removal of unwanted leaves, canes & permanent woodWinter: Determines location + nber of buds for nxt seasonSummer: trimming canopy to manage vine vigor and ripenessReplacement cane pruning / Single or Double Guyot1 or 2 cane retained and horizontally trained along trellis to grow several budsNot easily mechanisedSpur pruningLarge number of spurs with 2-3 buds each retained.Allows mechanisation + better protection against frostTraining & trellising (to manage direction of season’s shoots)a. Bush trained / Gobelete.g. Southern Rhone, Barossa Valleyb. Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) single canopy consisting of shoots grown verticallyLo or hi trained canes to benefit from heat/avoid frostsMain benefits: well aerated / little shade / good for hi density areasBig Vines (Geneva/Lyre D.Curtain)lower density areasUsually spur prunedIncludes Pergola systemsMechanisableGood to balance vine vigourVine vigourVine Vigour:nber + size of shoots & leaves a vine grows in the season. Determined by water, soil, heat, sunlightStress forces plant to focus on fruit (i.e. way to preserve & reproduce itself)High input hi resources/bud hi vigour hi yields +lower qualityLo input lo resources/bud lo vigour low yields + higher qualityMethods:1. Planting density to encourage competition for water, nutrients (i.e. stress)2. Grow cover crops to introduce extra competition3. Nber of buds per vine to spread the resources more thinly within the vine (big vines)4. Rootstocks to limit uptake of nutrientsRipenessRipeness: grape has reached sufficient levels of sugar and physiological ripeness for style of wine.Inputs: heat, water, sunlightHi inputs Hi sugar production fewer leaves needed to create sugar higher alcoholLo inputs lo sugar production more leaves needed to create sugar lower alcoholMethods:1. Canopy management to enhance/reduce sun exposure e.g. pergola/summer pruning2. Buds / vine to spread / not the resources 3. Limit water supply after véraisonYieldsTo meet contractual and EU obligations on top of managing ripenessMeasured by tons of grapes/hahl of wine/haMethod:remove immature grapes after véraison if too hiYield vs. quality: no direct correlationCool climates high yields lower qualityWarm climates high yields good qualityPESTs & diseasesPESTSa. Phylloxerab. Nematodes:microscopic worms attacking roots + spread viruses.Cure: difficult. Prevention by soil sanitisingc. Birds & mammals nettingd. Insects & Arachnids can damage shoots & leavesNon-systemic/fungal diseases (non-permanent)a. Downy mildewattacks green part of vineNeeds warm & shady conditionsb. Powdery mildewattacks green part of vineNeeds warm & shady conditionsReduces yields + makes wine bitterc. Grey rotdamages green parts but esp. Unripe damp/humid conditionsCure: spraying or canopy managementd. Noble rotbotrytis cinereaFungus attacking ripe, undamaged white grapes concentrating acids & sugars in themNeeds humid, misty mornings (for devt) + warm, sunny afternoons (to restrain its devt + evaporation)Grapes turn golden and develop brown spots on the skinsMore than 50% of water lost from grape in processNot all grapes affected the same way & time so harvest in several triesSystemic diseases (permanent)a. Fanleaf/Leafroll virus:distorted growth of canopy lower yieldshighly contagious + persistantspread via cuttings or nematodesno cure. Prevention by nematode-free healthy vinesb. Pierce’s diseaseincurable fatal bacterial disease spread by sharpshooterskills the vine within 3 to 5 yearsNo cureChardonnay & Pinot Noir particularly susceptibleOriginated in America. Still found in southern US+Central Americac. Eutypa dieback fungal infection attacking permanent wood, hence reducing yieldsAlternative viticultural practicesIntegrated PEST managementuse of pesticides only when absolutely necessaryOrganic viticultureonly natural pesticidesBiodynamic coincides with cycles of planets and starsHARVESTMachine: quick, less costly (although cost of machine vs. small vineyard) but not selective & not in bunchesHand:selective but cost, timeInfluenced by aspect, vinetraining, type of wine (e.g. Beaujolais, Champagne collected in bunches)VINEYARD CYCLEBudburstShoot Growth+LeafFlowering+Fruit setVéraison+RipeningHarvestDormancyNMar-AprApr-AugMay-JuneJuly-SeptSept-NovDec-MarSSept-OctSept-MarNov-DecJan-MarMar-AprJul-Sept10C minFrost riskGood supply of water neededShoots trained on trellisPEST risk15C+sunlight+no rainCoulure+millerandage riskGrapes start to ripen and change colour + berries swell with waterSummer pruningGreen harvestingDry conditions requiredNo spraying>10C vine dormant Winter pruningCoulure: if more flowers than usual fail to fertiliseMillerandage:inclement weather condition causes development of large vs. small berries with small without seeds. Can be desirable as seedless = very sweetWinemaking & maturationCommon ElementsOxygen: gas that combines easily with other molecules and changes their characteristicsToo much or too little contact with O2 can lower qualityControlled via: 1. Use of sulphur dioxide 2. Grapes picking at night (cool temp = less impact of O2)3. Air-tight winery equipment (anaerobic)Sulfur dioxide:chemical compound used as disinfectant and preservativeMax limits: 150mg/l for Reds; 200mg/l for Whites/RosésOak vessels: used in fermentation and/or maturationAdds flavour and tannins + stabilise colourAllows controlled oxygenation of wineEuropean oak toast and vanilla + fine graine tanninsAmerican oak vanilla & coconut + more aromaticCharred new oak barrels most flavour addition225l Bdx barrique 228l Burgundy piece Smaller the barrel => stronger concentration of flavourLarge oak vessels less usedInert vessels:Add no flavours and no interaction with wineStainless or concrete.Easier to clean. Temperature control.Constituent parts of a grape5 components:STEM tanninsBLOOM yeasts + bacteriaSKIN flavour compounds, tannins, coloursPULP sugar, water, acids (tartaric & malic)SEEDS bitter oilsWinemaking, maturation and packagingREDSROS?SWHITESKey: extract colours and tannins from grapes by disturbing and agitating grapes during fermentationLimit extraction of colour and tannins + retain fruitKey: 1) skin contact2) clarity3) fermentation temp + vesselSO2 grape treatmentMethod 1: DIRECT PRESSING like white wine(destem-crush-press-ferment) Method 2: DRAWING OFFAll the red wine juice drawn off from 6 to 48 hours after start of fermentation + further fermentation at cool temperaturesMethod 3: BLEEDING (saignée)Same as drawing off except only small part of red wine juice (with less colour and tannins) removedMethod 4: BLENDINGRed added to White (only New world + Champagne Rosé)SO2 grape treatmentGRAPE SELECTIONGRAPE SELECTIONGrape destemmingOnly if hand harvestedGrape destemmingOnly if hand harvestedCRUSHINGBreaking the skins to release free run juiceGrape crushingBreaking the skins to release free run juiceCold macerationFor greater colour and flavour extractionSkin contact- Cool temperatures for a few hours- Adds flavour intensitye.g. Albarino, Muscat, RieslingALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION2-3 weeks20-32C for more colour and tannin extraction (most 30-32C)Cap management via: pumping over, punching down, rack & return or rotary fermentersPRESSINGSeparates solids from liquid of the grapeVertical or horizontalPneumatic or screwWhole bunch optionPost-fermentation macerationFor greater tannins and little bit more colourAddition of sugara) to free ruin juice (from crushing)b) to pressed juiceIncreases alcohol levels during fermentationIf sugar not from grapes -> ‘chaptalisation’DRAINClarificationDesirable for Chardonnay but not for young wineFree run wine + Skins & gross lees for pressingALCOHOLIC FERMENTATIONInert vs. Oak vessel Inert -> varietal fruitOak -> more integrated and subtle oak flavour vs. oak maturation12-22C. Hi vs. lo temperatureLo -> slower + more aromasHi -> more complex + risk of aroma lossMLFRACKING OFF GROSS LEESMLF (optional)New made wineWine: alcohol (mainly ethanol), acids (tartaric, malic, lactic), colours, flavours, tanninsBlending e.g. press wine with new made wineMaturationOak can add flavour & tannins // Inert vessels preserve fruit and freshnessLees of lees can add flavour + textural roundness to wineBlending e.g. Press wine with other matured wineCLARIFICATIONSedimentation & rackingFining agents e.g. egg whites, bentonite that encourage unwanted particles to clump together and depositFiltration: physical removal via surface/sterile (very fine sieve) or depth (permeable material e.g. Kieselguhr)Tartrate StabilisationTartaric acid deposits as crystals in colour of wineMethods: chilling wine below freezing for short period + add potassium bitartrate + removal by filtrationMICROBIOLIGICAL STABILISATIONYeast, acetic acid bacteria and lactic acid bacteria can undertake further fermentation except if wine fermented to dryness+MLF+limited O2 exposure+hi acidity3 ways: sterile/surface filtration; pasteurisation; cold bottling with sterilised bottlesPACKAGINGSlight addition of SO2 to ensure no O2 intrusion // Bottle sickness straight after bottling for short timeWine for saleColour released quickly at beginning of fermentation and then slows down.Tannins released slowly at beginning of fermentation and then accelerates.Carbonic vs. semi-carbonic macerationCarbonic maceration1. Uncrushed unstemmed grapes place in VAT full of CO22. Grapes convert the glucose into alcohol, energy and CO23. Grapes burst and juice is collected4. Normal yeasted fermentationBeaujolais Nouveau -> banana, kirsch, bubblegumSemi-carbonic macerationUncrushed unstemmed grapes with CO2 from fermenting berries at bottom of the tank.Beaujolais Destemming but no crushing in Rioja and Spain.Sweet Wine making methodsInterrupt fermentationa. fortification (grape spirit)b. addition of SO2 to stop fermentation + filteringc. chilling the must +filteringAdding sweetening componenta. Sússreserve (unfermented grape juice added at bottling)b. RCGM = pure sugar solution extracted from grape juice (New World brands)Concentrating grape sugarsa. Noble rot e.g. trockbeerenauslese / beerenausleseb. Drying grapes on the vine / Passerillage (need dry and warm conditions) e.g. part of Sauternesc. Drying grapes after picking e.g. PX Sherry and Italian passito winesd. Freezing grapes on the vine e.g. German/Canadian IcewineWine with FoodsPrimary taste affected by Foods:Sweet , Savoury/umami, Sour, Salty, Bitter.Food characteristicsImpact on wine Increases Decreases MatchSweetBitternessAstringencyChemesthesisAcidityBodyRichnessSweetnessFruitUmamiBitternessAcidityAstringencyChemesthesisBodyFruitinessSweetnessAromatic winesAcidityRichnessSweetnessFruitinessAcidityHi acidity winesSaltRichnesssmoothnessBitternessAcidityAstringencychemesthesisBitternessbitternessChemesthesis BitternessAcidityAstringencychemesthesisBodyRichnessSweetnessFruit Full bodied rich and aromatic winesFlavour balancing:culinary technique to ensure well balanced food meets virtually any winee.g. if wine to harsh with food, add salt/lemon to make food matchService + StorageType of wineServing temperatureExamplesMedium-full bodied oaked whitesLightly chilled 10-13CWhite Burgundy, Fumé blancLight/medium bodied whiteChilled 7-10CMuscadet, Pinot Grigio, NZ Sauvignon Blc, Fino SherrySweet winesWell Chilled 6-8CSauternes, Sweet MuscatsSparkling winesWell Chilled 6-10CProsecco, Cava, Sekt, Asti, ChampagneLight bodied redsSlightly chilled 13CValpolicella, BeaujolaisMedium-Full bodied redsRoom temperature 18CCabernet Sauvignon, ShirazBordeauxClimateModerate maritime with warming from Gulf Stream; hi rainfall (Atlantic)SoilsGravel (Médoc, Ht Médoc, Graves)Clay+limestone (St Emilion, Pomerol)Key grapesMerlotadds body + tannins + softness + richness + colour + fruitCabernet Sauvignontannic + oak-friendly + blackcurrantCabernet Francless bodySémillonthin skinned + adds colour and body + oak-friendly +lo aciditySauvignon Blancrefreshing acidity + elderflower aromasGrapegrowingKey challenges: ripeness + fungal diseasesHi variation in seasonsLower yields for higher qualityHi density plantingMachine harvesting widespreadGrape selection + tries for best wines and sweet winesWinemakingReds Varieties fermented separatelyMaturation in VAT or in oak barriquesLo priced -> VAT + Merlot dominatedHi priced -> new oak WhitesDry in stainless VAT to preserve fruitSweet in oak fermentationClassification1855 Médoc classification1955 St Emilion system of Grand Cru1959 Graves Grand cru listBurgundy / BeaujolaisClimate Moderate continental: severe winters + warm summers; med rainfallChablis: cool continentalSoilsBurgundy: kimmeridgian clay + limestone in Chablis; limestone+marl in Cote D’OrBeaujolais: graniteKey grapesChardonnayPinot NoirGamayGrapegrowingNorth -> hi density; Guyot. Best sites on east and south-east facingSouth -> Free standing vines; Gobelet training. Best sites on hillsideWinemakingBurgundy reds -> Sensitive use of oak for Pinot NoirBurgundy whites -> stainless steel in Chablis; -> barrel fermentation and new oak ageing in Macon + Cote De BeauneBeaujolais -> Carbonic maceration; some oak ageing in large VATsKey wines1) Chablis (basic, 1er cru, Grand cru)2) Cotes de Nuits(mainly reds) Cotes de NuitsFamous villages -> Vosne Romanée, Vougeot, Gevrey Chambertin, Nuits St GeorgesBourgogne Haute Cotes de Nuit3) Cotes de Beaune Cotes De BeauneFamous villages -> Volnay, Montrachet-Puligny, Chassagne-Montrachet, Meursault, Beaune, Aloxe-Corton (Reds+whites)Bourgogne Haute Cotes de Beaune4) Cote Chalonnaise: Givry, Rully, Montagny, Mercurey5) Maconnais: Macon, Macon Superieur, Macon villages, Pouilly Fuissé6) Beaujolais: basic, villages, 10 crus: Saint Amour, Chénas, Juliénas, Brouilly, Cotes de Brouilly, Morgon, Fleurie, Chiroubles, Moulin a vent)ClassificationRegionalmust have Bourgogne in titleCommunesingle communes allowed AC1er cruvillage + vineyard name. Better vineyardsGrand cruvineyard name only, highest level for vineyardsAlsaceClimate Cool continental: severe winters + warm, dry summers; long dry autumns; lo rainfallInfluence of the Vosges which protect from rain+windsSoilsVarious including volcanicBest sites in Haut Rhin facing East/south-eastKey grapesGewurtzraminerRieslingPinot GrisMuscatPinot BlancPinot NoirSylvanerGrapegrowingSlopes -> low training + orientation to catch sun. Double GuyotPlain -> Hi training to avoid spring frostWinemakingStainless steel VATs or very old oak casks to preserve fruit characterRare MLFClassificationAlsaceAlsace Grand Cru the best 51 vineyard sites. Label includes the name.VT -> 14% Riesling+Muscat 15% Gewurtz/Pinot GrisSGN -> 16% Riesling + Muscat18.2% Gewurtz/Pinot Gris Edelzwicker + Gentil -> blendLoireClimateContinental (east) to maritime (west)Vintage variationSoilsVaried incl. Tuffeau for Vouvray and ChinonKey grapesNantais -> Melon blancAnjou-Saumur -> Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc, GrolleauTouraine -> Chenin Blanc, Cabernet FrancCentral -> Sauvignon Blanc, Pinot NoirWine makingReds Traditional fermentation with some use of oak for Cab Franc. Cabornic maceration for lighter stylesWhites stainless VAT fermentation with slightly higher temperature vs. new world wineSur lie: ageing on the lees for 3 months -> slight fizzKey wines:Nantais: Muscadet, Muscadet de Sevre et Maine sur LieAnjou-Saumur: Coteaux du Lyon, Savennieres, Rosé d’AnjouTouraine: Touraine, Vouvray, Chinon, BourgueilCentral: Sancerre, Menetou-Salon, Pouilly FuméIGP: Val de LoireRhoneClimateNorth: moderate to warm continentalSouth: warm MediterraneanWeatherMistral effectSoilsNorth: graniteSouth: stony soils in Chateauneuf du PapeKey grapesNorthern Rhone: Syrah, Viognier, Roussanne+MarsanneSouthern Rhone:Grenache, Syrah, Mourvedre, Cinsault, Grenache Blanc, ClairetteGrapegrowingNorth: Steep slopes along Rhone. Use of skates to protect from windSouth: flatter land, low bush vines to maximise heat+protection from windWinemakingLight wines: carbonic maceration (south)Traditional fermentation + large old oak vessel maturationKey winesNorth: Cote Rotie, St Joseph, Condrieu, Hermitage, Crozes Hermitage, Cornas (100% Syrah cru)South: Cotes du Rhone, 7 Crus: Chateauneuf du Pape, Beaumes de Venise, Vinsobres, Vacqueyras, Gigondas, Lirac, Tavel (rosé only)SouthClimateHot MediterraneanWeatherMistral + Tramontane windsSoilsVaried. Best on limestoneKey grapesProvence: Mourvedre, Carignan, Cinsault, Rolle clairetteLanguedoc Roussillon: Grenache, Syrah, Malbec, Mourvedre, Cinsault, Grenache Blanc, Clairette, Viognier (for IGP)GrapegrowingHi yields for IGP. Drought issue + winds. Bush training in Languedoc RoussillonWinemakingWide range. Carbonic maceration, extractive techniquesKey winesProvence: Bandol, Cotes de ProvenceLanguedoc Roussillon: Pays d’Oc IGP, Fitou, Corbieres, Faugeres, Banyuls, Cotes du Roussillon, Cotes du Roussillon villagesGermanyClimateCool/moderate continentalWeatherSpring frosts / Summer rainsHumidity in autumnSoilsVaried. Best stony soils to reflect light and capture heatKey grapesRiesling, Muller-Thurgau, Grauburgunder (P.Blc) , Spatburgunder (P.Noir), Dornfelder, WeiBburgunder (P. Blanc), SilvanerGrapegrowingSlopesUse of skates + south facing with proximity to river = best. Hand workPlainwire training and more mechanisedWinemakingLittle interference with wine to preserve fruit: use of large oak vesselStop the fermentation by must chilling or addition of Susserserve for sweeter wines or botrytisedKey winesMosel: Riesling (Bernkastel) [light body, hi acidity, med sweet]Nahe: Riesling[hi acidity, ripe fruit]Rheingau: Riesling (Rudesheim , Geisenheim and Joahnnesbirg) [med to full body ripe peach]Rheinhessen: Muller-Thurgau, Riesling (Nierstein), SilvanerPfalz: Riesling, GrauburgunderBaden/Franken: Dornfelder, SpatburgunderWine lawsPDO -> Pradikatswein (Kabinett, Spatlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Eiswein, Trockenbeerenauslese)PGI -> Land wein Other: Deutscher weinRegional divisions: Anbaugebiete, Bereich, Grosslage, EinzellageVDP: Grosses Gewachs, Erste LageOthers: trocken, halbtrocken, classic (varietal+single vineyard+vintage+min12%abv), Selection (premium classic), Erstes Gewachs (Rheinghau only)AustriaClimateModerate continentalWeather Hi diurnal range in many places. Long ripening season+ humidity for botrytis devt in some regions (Neusiedlersee)Key grapesGruner Veltliner, Riesling, Blaufrankisch, ZweigeltGrapegrowingSteep south facing slopes. Flat low lying for BotrytisWinemakingWhites -> focus on purity of fruitReds -> oak widely used for premium winesKey winesNiederosterreich: Wachau, Weinviertel [Gruner Veltliner ~ Burgundy whites +Riesling ]Burgenland: Neusiedlersee, Neusiedlersee-Hugelland [Blaufrankisch + botrytised Welschriesling]Wine lawsPDO: Qualitatswein (Kabinett), Pradikatswein (Spatlese, Auslese, BA, Strohwein, Eiswein Ausbruch, TBA)PGI: LandweinOther: WeinWachau labels: Steinfeder (lightest), Federspiel (med body), Smaragd (full body+complex)HungaryClimateModerate continentalWeatherTokaji: long autumn with morning mistsGrapesFurmint, Harslevelu, Sarga Muscotaly (muscat blanc a petits grains)Kefrankos, KadarkaGrapegrowingTokaji: harvest by hand with selection btw healthy, aszu and SzamorodniWinemakingTokaji: maceration of aszu berries in dry wine for 36 hours. 2 year ageing. Key winesTokaji: dry, Szamorodni; Aszu, EszenciaLabellingPuttonyos 3 to 6 for level of sweetnessGreeceKey winesNaoussa (Red – Xinomavro)Nemea (Red – Agiorgitiko)Santorini (White – Assytirko)ItalyClimateMediterranean – cooler in the NorthWeatherLatitude and altitude. Lack of rainfall can be an issue Hail threat in PiemonteSoilsVolcanic, alluvial and marine.Key grapesBlack:Nebbiolo, Sangiovese, Corvina, Montepulciano, Primitivo, Nero d’Avola, Aglianico, Barbera White:Garganega, Cortese, Trebbiano, Pinot Grigio, Friuli, Malvasia, Verdicchio, ChardonnayGrapegrowingMainly hillside locations. Hi trained pergola less widespread. Yields reduced for improved ripeness and better qualityWinemakingTraditional –> long maturation in Slovaninan oak botte. Now -> use of temperature control fermentation and new oak for redsPassito wines from dried grapes in lodgesKey winesPiemonteBarolo****Barbaresco ****Langhe **NebbioloDolcetto**Dogliani**DolcettoBarbera d’Asti**BarberaGavi**CorteseRoero**ArneisAlto Adige –TrentinoAlto Adige**Gewurtzraminer, RieslingTrentino*Pinot GrigioFriuliFriuli Grave**Refosco, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet SauvignonCollio***Tocai Friulano, Pinot GrisVenetoValpolicella**Valpolicella Amarone****Valpolicella Recioto****Bardolino*Corvina, Molinara, RondinellaSoave*GarganegaTuscanyChianti (Ruffina, Colli Senesi)**Chianti Classico***Brunello di Montalcino***Vino Nobile di Montepulciano****Morellino di Scansano**San Carmignano**SangioveseVernaccia di San Gimignano**VernacciaMarcheVerdicchio dei Castelli di Jesi/di Matelica**VerdicchioUmbriaOrvieto**Trebbiano, Grechetto, MalvasiaLazioFrascati* (W)Malvasia, TrebbianoAbruzzoMontepulciano d’Abruzzo**MontepulcianoTrebbiano d’Abruzzo*TrebbianoCampaniaTaurasi*** (R)AglianicoPugliaSalice Salentino**Copertino**Negroamara, Malvasia NeraBasilicataAglianico del Vulture***AglianicoSicilySicilia IGTNero d’Avola, Syrah, Cab Sauviginon, etc.SpainClimateMaritime in NW (Rias Baixas, Duero, Rueda, Rioja)Hot continental in Centre (La Mancha, Valdepenas)Warm-Hot Mediterranean (Catalunya, Yecla, Jumilla)WeatherNorth and Atlantic coast (including Rioja) affected by varying vintage conditionsCentre+Mediterranean_ little vintage changesSoilsMostly limestone/chalk excl. Far NW – granite and southeast (sand). Llicorella in Priorat.Key grapesBlack: Tempranillo, Monastrell, Garnacha, Cab Sauvignon, MerlotWhite: Viura, Verdejo, Albarino, Airen, Chardonnay, Sauvignon BlancGrapegrowingBiggest vineyard area in the world. Stresses of heat and water reduces yieldsLow bush trained vines with gobelet system to manage hot arid conditionsPergola systems in Rias Baixas to protect against humidityWinemakingTraditional -> long maturation in American oak barricas (oxidative ageing) for both reds and whitesNow -> reds with longer maceration + shorter maturation in new French oak Whites with stainless steel fermentation and unoaked to preserve fruit aromasKey regionsUpper EbroRed RIOJA**to****+Crianza – 24mths with 12 mths oakReserva – 36mths with 12mths in oakGran Reserva – 60mths with 24mths in oakTempranillo, Graciano, Garnacha, MazueloWhite RIOJA**to****Crianza – 18mths with 0mths oakReserva – 18mths with 6mths oakGran Reserva – 48mths with 12mths oakViura, Malvasia, Garnacha BlancaNAVARRA red *to***Garnacha, Tempranillo, Cabernet Sauvignon, MerlotCataloniaPRIORAT ****+Grenache Carinena, Cabernet Sauvignon, othersCATALUNYA DO**TempranilloCAVA**Macabeo, Parelleda, Xarel-loDuero ValleyRueda**VerdejoRibera del Duero****(same ageing as Rioja)TempranilloToro**TempranilloNorthwestRias Baixas**AlbarinoMencio***MencioLevanteYeclaMonastrellJumillaMonastrellCastilla-La ManchaLa Mancha White*AirenValdepenas*TempranilloPortugalClimateMaritime: near coastHot continental: inlandWeatherRain near coast Key grapesBlack: Trincadeira, Touriga nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta RorizWhite: Alvarinho, Loureiro, Arinto, TraiaduraGrape growingMixed planting with many local varieties. Predominance of smallholders.WinemakingTraditional fermentation with use of woodModern stainless steel vats + temp control + new oakWine lawsPDO: DOP + DOCPGI: IGP or VROther: VinhoReserva: distinct DOC wine with abv+0.5%Garrafeira: DOC/IGP reds with minimum 30mths ageing with 12mths in bottles min DOC/IGP rosé/whites with minimum 12mths ageing with 6mths in bottleKey regionsNorthVinho Verde**Loureiro, Arinto, Trajadura, AlvarinhoDouro***Dao**Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta RorizBairrada*Baga, Touriga Nacional, Castelao, CamarateCentralIGP Lisboa** [W]Arinto, Fernao PiresSouthern PortugalAlentejo DOC** [R]Aragones, Trincadeira, CastelaoUSAClimateCalifornia: moderate-warm Mediterranean. Coastal regions cooled by Pacific. Hot and dry in Central ValleyOregonWashington: moderate maritime (west of Cascade mountains)arid, extreme continental (east fo CM)New York: cool to moderate martime Key grapesBlack: Cabernet Sauvignon, Zinfandel, Merlot, Pinot NoirWhite: Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, ViognierGrapegrowingIrrigation due to lack of rainSpring frosts in NapaAccess to all modern techniquesLong hang times for Zinfandel+Cab Sauvignon -> hi sugar ripenessWinemakingModern wineries and methods of production widespreadBig and small businessesUS wine lawsAVA geographical area only with: 95% of fruit from stated vintage 85% of fruit from AVA75% of fruit if varietal (excl. Oregon 90% and Washington 85%)Key US regionsCaliforniaNapa Valley / Napa, Rutherford, Oakville****Napa Valley / Los Carneros***Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot + Fumé blanc (Sblc)Pinot Noir+ChardonnaySonoma / Russian River Valley***Sonoma / Dry creek valley***Sonoma / Alexander valley***Pinot Noir + ChardonnayOld ZinfandelCabernet SauvignonCentral Coast / Monterey county***Pinot Noir / ChardonnayCentral Coast / Santa Barbara***Pinot NoirCentral Valley / Lodi***ZinfandelCentral Valley / White Zinfandel*White ZinfandelOregonWashingtonN+S Oregon***Washington***Pinot NoirChardonnay // Cab Sauvignon, MerlotNY stateNY StateFinger Lakes AVAChardonnay, RieslingChardonnay ~ChablisCanadaOntario(Niagara Peninsul) and British ColumbiaViticulture only due to Niagara escarpment (water nearby+air flows)Icewine****+ from Riesling and VidalChileClimateWarm Mediterranean with cooler/wetter south. Humboldt current cools coast down.WeatherLittle vintage variationKey grapesBlack: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Carmenere, Syrah, Pinot NoirWhite: Sauvignon Blanc, ChardonnayGrapegrowingIrrigation necessary in most areasPhylloxera free countryPlantings developingWinemakingInvestment for more widespread modern techniquesKey regionsAconcaguaCasablanca**San Antonio**[above Santiago; morning from Andes and Pacific ocean afternoon winds]Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir Sauvignon BlancAconcagua**[warmest area in Chile]Carmenere, SyrahCentral valley[warm flat well supplied with water/ V4M]MaipoCabernet Sauvignon, MerlotRapel / Cachapoal zone [warm; no ocean breezes]Carmenere, Cabernet Sauvignon, SyrahRapel/ Colchagua zone [larger, more varied]Cabernet SauvignonArgentinaClimateContinental with cooling effect from altitude + hi diurnal rangeWeatherSummer hail: key issueKey grapesBlack:Malbec, Bonarda, Cabernet SauvignonWhite: Torrontes, ChardonnayGrapegrowingHail nets // Irrigation (drip /flood)Organic viticulture thanks to dry conditions.WinemakingInvestment for more widespread modern techniques. Oak barriques for premium wines.Key regionsSalta provinceCafayate**[highest in world up 3111m]Torrontes[fruity, floral with medium body, acidity]Mendoza province[Andes on west; Mampas plain on the right; altitude key; irrigation from snow-melt Andes]Uco Valley[highest up to 1450m; Tupungato: top quality]Torrontes, Malbec, Cabernet Sauvignon, MerlotLujan de Cuyo[up to 1100m hi; old Malbec vines]Old MalbecMaipu[up to 760m hi; cool climate]Pinot Noir, Torrontes, Malbec, Merlot + SparklingOther regionsSan Juan, Neuquen, Rio Negro provincesSouth AfricaClimateWarm-hot Mediterranean Very arid inland.Martime on coast with Benguela current cooling effectSoilsStellenbosch – sandstone+limestoneKey grapesBlack:Pinot Noir, Pinotage, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, SyrahWhite:Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon BlancGrapegrowingViruses key issue. Increased plantings of red varietiesWinemakingCo-operatives important. Investment to modernise since end of apartheid.Key winesWestern CapeMulti-regional blendsCoastalStellenbosch* to ****[cooling effect from False bay + nearby mountains]Cabernet SauvignonPaarl**ShirazConstantia**, Durbanville **Sauvignon BlancGeneric coastal* to ***Chenin Blanc, PinotageBreede river valleyRobertson**Sauvignon Blanc, ChardonnayOthersWalker bay District***Chardonnay+Pinot NoirElginSauvignon BlancElimSauvignon BlancAustraliaClimateWarm-Hot Mediterranean Altitude for cooler areas Maritime in Margaret River (western Australia)WeatherLittle vintage variation // Drought : issueSoilsCoonawarra – terra rossa . Otherwise variedKey grapesBlack:Shiraz, Pinot Noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Grenache, MataroWhite: Riesling, Chardonnay, Sémillon, Sauvignon Blanc, Colombard, VerdelhoGrapegrowingIrrigation. Hi yields but quality maintained via hi tech. Most phylloxera free (excl Victoria)WinemakingModern winemaking techniquesWine lawsLabel integrity programme85% of fruit from region/sub-region; 85% of fruit from varieties and vintage statedKey winesWestern AustraliaMargaret RiverCabernet Sauvignon (Bdx style)Chardonnay South AustraliaEden valley**Riesling (lime citrus; slightly off dry)Clare valley***Riesling (lime citrus; dry)Adelaide Hills***PinotNoir,Chardonnay (citrus+stone)Barossa Valley*/****Shiraz (full bodied, dark ripe fruit)McLaren Vale*/****Shiraz (soft ripe tannins)Limestone coastCoonawarra***Cabernet Sauvignon (mint, eucalyptus)New South walesRiverina*Shiraz-CabernetHunter valleySemillon+ShirazVictoriaMurray-Darling *Shiraz-CabernetYarra valleyPinot Noir, ChardonnayRutherglenMuscatNew ZealandClimateMaritime. North: warmer but more humidity. South: cooler with more hours of sunshineWeatherRain but some protection from central mountain ranges. Hi diurnal rangeSoilsVaried. Marlborough – stony soilsKey grapesBlack:Pinot Noir, Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon, SyrahWhite: Sauvignon Blanc, Chardonnay, Pinot Gris, RieslingGrapegrowingCanopy management + trellising of vines expertsWinemaking Modern wineries with use of stainless steel and temperature controlKey winesNORTH ISLANDAuckland[warm/wettest]Cabernet Sauvignon, MerlotChardonnayGisborne**ChardonnayGewurtzraminerHawke’s Bay***Cabernet Sauvignon/Merlot (Bdx styles), SyrahMartinborough***Pinot NoirSOUTH ISLANDMarlborough**Sauvignon BlancPinot NoirCanterburySauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, RieslingNelsonSauvignon Blanc, Pinot Noir, ChardonnayCentral Otago***Pinot NoirSparkling wines4 production methods: TraditionalTankTransferAstiTraditional method8 steps: Primary fermentation: cuvée + taille fermented separately, steel VATs, Juice clarified by sedimentationBlending: of hi acidity wine+med alcohol tatrate stabilisation as wellSecondary fermentation (bottle): liqueur de tirage (yeasts, fining agents, sugar)+wine @ 11C horizontally => +alcohol+bubblesMaturation in bottle (Yeast autolysis): gives toasty, biscuit aromasRemuage/Riddling: bottle inclined to let sediment slide to below crown cap (remueurs/gyropallettes) Disgorgement: bottle neck frozen, crown cap and yeast depot removedDosage: addition of liqueur d’expedition (wine+cane sugar for balance & sweetness)Dressing: corkRosé champagne: mix of white + red or rosé base wine before second fermentationKey factors affecting quality:Hand harvesting to avoid damage+colourNo destemming, no crushing and just very gentle pressing. 160kg for 100l of ChampagneBlending is key so availability is as wellLength of time spent on the leesSweetness adjusted by dosageOther methodsTransfer:2nd fermentation in bottle but wine then decanted in tank for clarification and re-bottled. New worldTank:2nd fermentation in sealed tank. Less autolytic flavours suitable for aromatic wines (Riesling, Muscat)Asti:Only 1 fermentation in sealed tank. After abv @ 6% CO2 trapped in for bubbles. @ 7%abv must chill, filtered and bottledCarbonation CO2 injected in still wine. CheapChampagneClimateCool continentalSoilsChalkKey grapesChardonnay, Pinot Noir, Pinot MeunierGrapegrowingFrost annual threat -> Taille Chablis for Chardonnay. Cordon de Royat for Pinots.Hand harvesting mandatory and necessaryAgeingNon-vintage: 15 mthsVintage: 36mthsStylesNV / Vintage / Cuvée PrestigeBlanc de Blanc: 100% ChardonnayBlanc de Noirs: Pinot Noir+MeunierRoséOther Sparkling winesClimateCool climate most suitableKey grapesLoire: Chenin Blanc(Saumur/Touraine)Cava: Xarel-lo, Parellada, Macabeo(Penedes in Catalunya)Prosecco: Glera (Veneto)Asti: Muscat Blanc a Petits Grains (Piemonte)Crémant de Limoux: Mauzac(Southwest)New World: Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Shiraz(Aus: Yarra Valley, Tasmania, AdelaideCalif: Los Carneros, Anderson ValleyNZ: Gisborne, Hawke’s Bay, MarlboroughSA: Cap Classique tradi method)AgeingCava, Crémant: 9 mthsAsti: no ageingFortified winesSherryPortMadeiraVDNMain regionsJerez – South-west of SpainDouro valley + Villa Nova de GaiaPortuguese islandVariousClimateHot MediterraneanDouro – hot continentalVilla – warm maritimeHot, humid, subtropicalSoilAlbariza(chalk)schist-Key grapesPalomino,Pedro Ximenez, MoscatelTouriga Franca (colour, structure, perfume), Touriga Nacional (body) Tinta Roriz (for finesse)Sercial, Verdelho, Bual, Tinta Negra, MalmseyMuscat Blanc a Petits Grains, GrenacheGrapegrowingWidely spaced vines, use of pits to enhance water retention, hand harvestSteep terraced vineyards (patamares), hand harvestingBeneficio system for yieldsSteep terraced slopesFortificationAfter fermentationFino from 11% to 15% // Oloroso from 11% to 17%During fermentationAutovinification for quick colour+tannin extractionFortification when wine with 77% abv grape spirit in VATsDuring fermentationAddition of grape spirit 96% abv max 5 days after fermentation startedDuring fermentation by addition of 95% abv grape spiritMaturationAgeing in 600l butts. Solera system for fractional blendingFino+Manzanilla: Biological maturation (butts part filled for flor to develop) for 3-4 yearsAmontillado+Oloroso +Palo Cortado: oxidative ageing (no flor but young wines regularly) for up to 30 yearsAmontillado = fino fortified to 17% and put in Amontillado solera systemMaturation in Vila Nova de Gaia in traditional wood cask (only seasoned oak or vats)Few months to 40 yearsHot maturation in:Canteiros: first heated by the sun in cask and then aged for min 3 yearsEstufas: min 3mths in Estufa containers at 45-50C. Ageing for 2 years minimumKey styles1) DRYFino**: lemon colour almonds, tangy, drink young, 15%abvManzanilla**: same as Fino but from Sanlucar de BarramedaAmontillado***: amber yeast+oxidative aromasOloroso:Palo Cortado****: failed fino aged in oloroso solera system2) NATURALLY SWEETPX/Muscat***3) BLENDED SHERRIESPale cream**: Fino+RCGMMedium**: Amontallido+PX or MuscatCream**: Oloroso+PX/MuscatAlso for sweetened Amontallido or OlorosoVOS/VORS: avg age 30years. Vintage sherries.1) RUBYRuby port*: 2-3 years, full body, deep colour, sweet & fruity, no decantingReserve Ruby Port**:up to 5 years, richer fruit, no decantingLBV Port***: 4-6 years, richer more complex, must state vintage, bottle matured need decanting.2) TAWNYTawny Port**: 2-3years paler and browner, Baixo Corgo region, potentially aged in hot DouraReserve Tawny Port**: at least 7 years in wood, very complexAge Indicated Tawny***: 10,20,30,40 avg age, complex and concentrated, no decantingColheita****: local Port, min 8 years in wood, single vintage3) Vintage port/Single Quinta4) White ports: Golden colour, low acidity, honey +nuts, off dry, 2-3 years old with some wood ageingFinest**: 3 years (Tinta Negra only)Reserve**: 5 years oldSpecial Reserve***: 10 years oldExtra reserve****: 15 years oldVintage****+Rutherglen – MuscatMuscat Beaumes de Venise - MuscatBanyuls - GrenacheSpiritsBase materialany agricultural crop that contains fermentable sugarFermentationlength of ferment and yeast used can have an impact on style of spiritDistillationseparation of different elements of an alcoholic liquid by taking advanting of the different boiling points (water 100C, alcohol 78.3C) in order to concentrate the alcohol and certain flavoursBrandyGrapes -> wine (low abv wine) -> distillation -> maturationCognac2 distillations in pot stillGrape brandy only from Cognac areaKey areas: Grande champagne, Petite champagne, Borderies, Fins bois, bois ordinairesKey grapes: Ugni Blanc, Colombard, Folle BlancheDistillation: use of tetes and seconds, lees. Maturation: French oak. New then old. Min 2 yearsStyles:*** or VS – 2years age of youngest spiritVSOP – 4 yearsXo/Hors d’Age/Napoleon – 6 yearsFine champagne: minimum 50% Grande Champagne + Petite ch.Armagnac1 distillation only in Armagnac or double in Cognac style pot stillGrapes: Ugni Blanc, Baco 22AMaturation: mainly French oak . New then oldStyles: *** or VS 1-3 y. oldVSOP 4-9 y.oldNapoleon6-9 y.oldHors d’Age/XO10-19 y.oldAge indicatedmust state on labelVintage Min 10 y.oldBrandy de JerezAiren based brandy aged in Solera. Grapes grown and distilled in La Mancha. Matured in JerezPommace/BrandyMarc – France Grappa in ItalyWhiskyMade from mix of cereal grains that must include barley in 6 steps:Insoluble starch made into soluble starch (germination or intense heat)Starch dissolved in hot waterand converted to sugar by enzymes in barleyFermentationDistillationMaturation Blending and finishingScotch whiskyDistilled in Scotland and matured for a min 3 yearsKey influences on style:a. Size and type of pot stillb. Use of peat during kilning processc. Length of maturation + type of wood (ex-Bourbon/European oak/Sherry oak)Scotch Whisky Types: Malt Whisky: only from malted barley + distilled in still potsGrain whisky: malted barley & others + continuous still + never peated + American oakSingle whisky: blends from 1 distillery only. Single Malt or Single GrainBlended whisky: blends from several distilleries. Blended Malt or Blended Grain or BlendedRegions: lowlands, highlands, Islay, speysideIrish WhiskeyDistilled and matured in IrelandKey influences: umalted barley, triple distillation, size and type of stillBourbonCan be made anywhere in the USA.Min 51% of grains used must be corn (maize), max strength of distillate 80%abvMatured in new, charred oak casks for vanilla, coconut and spice flavours+colour in non-air conditioned warehouses for accelerated ageing+quick colour extractionTennesse WhiskySame as Bourbon excl. Lincoln County Process (passing through maple wood charcoal before maturation)RumMainly CaribbeanMethod: molasses or cane sugar juice -> fermentation -> distillation (still/continuous) -> maturation (oak)Key influences: molasses vs. cane sugar juice; short or long fermentation; type and size of still used; unaged or aged; blending; use of caramelStyles: WhiteColumn for light intensityPot for aromaticGoldenPot/column. Caramel useDark rumblends of rums from different distilleries unless premium addition of caramelTequila and MezcalTequila is a type of Mezcal only produced in certain area of Mexico51% of fermentable sugars from blue agave distillate.Method: Agave pina cooked to convert starch to sugar -> pina crushed to liberate juice -> fermentation -> distillation -> maturationKey style influencers: roasted/steamed pina, lo rectification of distillate, maturationStyle: BlancoUnagedJoven/Orounaged+caramel+additives to soften flavourReposadoaged min 2 mths max 12mths in woodAnejoaged in oak for 1 yearMuy anejoaged in oak for 3 years minGin Method: Highly rectified neutral spirit -> redistilled in pot still with botanicals (basket, maceration, added flavour –> no maturationKey influences: 1) quality of base spirit 2) method of adding flavours, mix of botanicalsStyles: London Gin (Juniper must dominate), Distilled gin (London Gin+flavours added after distillation), Cold compounded (essential oils/artificial flavourings)VodkaBase: grain, molasses, potatoDistillation in continuous still to 96%abv (EU) or 95% abv (US)Post-distillation: filtration, glycerol added for mouthfeel, falvour, unagedStandard, Premium, Super premium no legal weightLiqueursblend of distilled alcohol with flavours, sugar, water, colouringsFlavouring via maceration, infusion, percolation, distillation, steam distillation, artificial flavours addedBlending, sweetening and colouring after flavouring ................
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