COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION
TECHNIQUES
AND
FORMATS:
HELP
SECTION
SUBJECTS AND VERBS
One of the earliest things that we remember in our schooling is the construction of complete sentences. We put nouns together with action words, and we conveyed ideas that made sense to the people around us. It is important that we pay particular attention to those early building blocks that can now create good text for our instructors and managers. When someone reads your text it is important that the text flows somoothly with no flagrant blocks in concentration. Subject and verb quality and agreement allows the reader to move through the text without stumbling over subjects that are singular coupled with verbs that are plural. It is therefore vitally important to be aware of what you are doing with your subjects and verbs. Look at the following examples and make sure that you understand why the examples are written as they are. This is not the time to hear rules. It is time to understand why the sentence reads the way it does, to be aware of the needs of the reader and how much sentence construction can help or hinder understanding.
Subject/verb agreement
(If you need a rule singular subjects take singular verbs/plural subjects take plural verbs.)
Look at these sentences. Why do you think the subjects and verbs agree the way they do?
1. The lab experiment fulfills the needs of the assignment.
2. In the beginning of the testing period, twelve vials were presented to the experimenters.
3. Most test tubes do not pass the minimal standards.
4. Plutonium and Tridium have been used in the study.
5. Plutonium or Tridium has been used in the study.
6. Plutonium or two benzynes have been used in the study.
7. Plutonium as well as Tridium is used in the study.
8. The equipment is going to be transferred today.
9. Platinum, gold, and lead are being used in ME 412.
10. Each of the labs, including fluids, is going to be difficult.
11. There are ten labs in this building.
12. Unfortunately, Bryon mixed the chemicals that were used in the previous experiment.
13. Teripherium is a gas and a solid.
RULES:
a. Subjects and verbs must agree in person and number - singular with singular, plural with plural.
b. A verb must agree with its subject not with any words that come between them.
c. Subjects joined by ANDusually take a plural verb.
d. When subjects are joined by OR or NOR the verb agreees with the subject closest to it.
e. For engineering the category of noncount words used as subjects include words like equipment which takes a singular verb.
f. When using subordinate clauses with a pronoun as subject, the verb agrees with the antecedent to which the pronoun refers.
g. A verb agrees with the subject even though in many cases the subject will follow the verb.
h. When using a linking verb (is are, was, were, forms of be) the subject is the noun that precedes the verb, not the nouns that follow the verb.
SENTENCE VARIETY/TYPES
Since we are interested in making our text flow as smoothly as possible, it is importnat that we introduce a certain amount of variety into the sentences that we create. The age old conventional subject-verb-object sentence (Bob saw the cat.) doesn't present an interesting picture if it is the only types of sentence that we use.
The idea then is to vary the structures to allow the reader to enjoy the experience of reading the text.
Here are the different varietyies that you can use to assemble your reports.
Simple sentence - subject-verb-object
The laboratory report stimulated conversation.
Compound sentence - subordinate clause- main clause
If you find the answer, it will relieve everyone in the class.
Complex sentence - independent clause - independent clause
The final reports were due yesterday, and no one knew who had the original.
Compound/complex sentence - independent with subordinate clause - independent
If you find the answer, it will relieve everyone in the class; and I think that you will get a reward.
Normal sentences - subject before the verb
The scanivalve malfunctioned.
Inverted sentences - verb first then subject
How complicated is this exercise!
ACTIVE/PASSIVE VOICE
There will always be an argument among writers about when and how to use active and passive voice. An easy explanation of the two is:
Active voice distinctly focuses on the doer of the action.
Sound reverberated off the walls. It is easy to see that the wrioter wants us to understand that sound is the main focus of the sentence.
Passive voice, on the other hand, changes the position of the previouss subject into an indirect object and focuses the sentence on the receiver of the action done by the previous subject.
The walls were struck by sound's reverberations. Again it is east to see that the writer wants us to focus on the walls as the receivers of the sound not on the sound itself.
The main thing to remember is that in the active voice there is a distinct doer of the action.
In the passive voice the subject becomes the receiver of the action.
Using active voice ands to the directness of your writing. It puts the doers of the action upfront in the eyes of tyhe reader. The passive voice, on the other hand, separates the doers from the action and allows the writer to move away from the active work of the subject to a more detached position. It is definitely a less abrupt approach to any action.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns have been around since you were as small child. You probably can remember some of your first sentences using the ever popular, "Me want!" It was easy for you to understand who ME was. It was you. This then was your first usage of words that stand for other words.
I,me, mine, ours, theirs, you, them, whom, they COPY
The important thing to realize now is that when you use these words, they must agree with the antecedent to which they refer.
1. The laboratory was new in its heyday.
2. Mark lifted the ammeter slowly, and he realized his mistake immediatley.
3. Tridium, Plutonium, and Boron were all used as they should be.
Another issue often raised is the inabilty of students to make their pronoun usage clear and understandable.
I worked hard on the experiment, and it was difficult.
(Does the writer want us to see the experiment as difficult, the work that was done as difficult, or that is was difficult to work hard.)
Vague references can make a very difficult reading.
Lastly, do not put a great deal of space between your pronouns and your antecedents. The further apart they are , they more difficult it may become for your reader to be clear on their relationship.
1. If your lab partner brings a guest, tell him to leave the lab. (Who is leaving ?)
2. The engineers found the samples; they were not happy. (The samples aren't happy?)
3. I know the answers to the problems with the sending device; they are really complicated. (Problems or answers are complicated?)
CONSISTENCY
A buzz word for the present is CONSISTENCY. It is imperative when you write that the forms, spellings, patterns, and verb tenses be consistent throughout the text. You cannot change the names of items without announcing to the reader what you are doing. By viewing inconsistancies in your text, the reader will begin to doubt your integrity as a conveyor of knowledge. If you can't make decisions on how something should be presented, why should they believe your information. Thexze inconsistencies may appear as simple, misspellings of words. You will need to make sure that every word in your text is spelled uniformly and correctly. Punctuation must also be consistent. You cannot use it any way the moment seesm to dictate. I fou use a particular form early in the text, make sure that the form stays the sdame throughout the text. (Capitalizing certain words, abbrevaiating others, underlining, using bold, or numbering figures)
Laboratory experimentation is a real hands-on way to experience engineering. When we will take the measurements it was a good feeling. I am pleased with the results.You were, too, I will be sure. ( If it reads a little awkwardly, then you are hearing the inconsistencies in the wording.)
In the above example, the verb tenses are not consistent. It is difficult to understand where actions are taking place and how to react to the text. This inconsistency will cause major problems with the undertstanding of the reader.
Anyone can do the experiment,if you have the knowledge. (Notice how reader can question who YOU is.)
Engineers can no longer ignore the things that they have not done in the theater of the world. ( Does THEY refer to engineers? Could it refer to some other group?
Good communication is vital to engineering, as well as in the grocery business, where getting your idea across is vital. (Does WHERE refer to engineering or to ther grocery business?
The problem with the above sentences arises because the writer has not carries the ideas through the sentence. The flow of material is not complete, so the reader fails to grasp exactly who the writer is talking about. Another way that inconsistency hinders the ability to communicate.
FLOW
Remember that when we read or listen, we like to hear continuity. We enjoy being able to follow the flow of the ideas from one to another. It is most disconcerting when you are given a piece of information only to be jolted to another unrelated piece of information with no idea of the connection.
The lab experiment went successfully. I have no doubts about the upcoming trip during spring break.
(Readers wonder if they have lost some thread of information that would tie these two ideas together. When they discover that it is simply just a poor writng sample, they can become quite angry. You have wasted their time and they don't like it.)
It is vitally important that you make an effort to carry a comfortable flow of information between every sentence in your text. When editing what you write, a fair amount of care needs to go into the awareness of how each sentence combines with those around it. Sentences need to be combined, if by being separated they do not lend to the flow of the text.
Mary perfomed the lab. It was dificult. It was long.
better:
Mary perfomed the long and difficult lab.
(Combining helps to make the text flow.)
from above:
The lab experiment went successfully; therefore, I have no doubts about our being able to take the upcoming trip during spring break.
(Here the reader knows what the connection between the two sentences is.)
The passages on pages 29 and 30 reflect the issue of flow.
COMMAS
included within this report are theory and methods of analysis, equipment an dexperimental setup, procedure guidelines, results, a discussion of results and conclusions. (commmas before and in series)
APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE AND AUDIENCE
COHERENCE
DIRECT LANGUAGE
JARGON
CLICHES
REDUNDANCY
COMPOUND WORDS
TECHNICAL STYLE
SEXIST LANGUAGE
PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION
TOPIC SENTENCES AND SUPPORTING STATEMENTS
DRAFTS AND MARGINALIA
BEING A READER
READINGS THAT CAN HELP
Effective Technical Communication --Eisenberg--T 10.5.E36
General overall coverage of the major topics of technical writing..includes proposals, letters, and reports
Writing for Science, Industry, and Technology--Hirschhorn--T 11.H56
Especially good Appendix where information may be gathered by writers. An approach to writing that takes the writer from the beginning of the process to the end product.
English for Science and Technology--Huckin/Olsen--T 11.H23
Good book for the nonnative speaker in the process of report construction.
Designing Technical Reports--Mathes/Stevenson--T 11 f.M36
A process approach to the writing of a technical presentation from the information side not from the form of the report procedure.
How to Write and Publish Engineering Papers and Reports--Michaelson--T 11.M418
Primarily aims at the writing of papers for publication, , but does a good job of looking at quality of writing and the concern for the reader.
Technical Writing--Principles and Practices--Miles--T 11.M47
A general text to help with basic problems and a great deal on the process of getting started.
Technical Writing--Turner--T 11.T786
A teaching text with a good visual format--nice section on memo writing.
Technical Writing--Fear--T 10.5 F4
For the writer who wants instruction in clear concise steps.
Reporting Technical Information--Houp/Pearsall--T 11.59
The best of the group for future use and present needs. Gives lots of examples and helps in the writing process.
FORMATS:
It is important to realize that there will be many situations in the real world that require a variety of written forms of communication. These will include the short notes to a superior or to a peer, brief hand-written reminders to do some project, informal reports, memos that flow in and out of your workplace, large formal reports that document months of work, and visual presentations that reuqire great preparation and little text.
MEMOS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARIES
FORMAL REPORTS
GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION
OF A FORMAL TECHNICAL REPORT
The principle purpose of the formal report is to incorporate the information gathered in the experiment or simulation into a document that will be useful to the Whirlwind corporation. Your fellow engineers at Whirlwind are interested in the work that you are doing because it will enable them to do further work and produce a better product for the consumer.
As you work your way through the process of producing the formal report, always keep in mind that it is for an audience beyond the closed loop system of the classroom.
The discussion below presents each of the required sections in the formal technical report. The structure that has been created for these will in many ways resemble the reports that are produced by industry, but it is important to note that each writing experience must be carefully investigated for the needs of the report and its audience and the information that must be understood by the communicator. The sections that follow present experimental studies in a rational, logical manner. As you write your report remember:
a) The report uses paragraphs to communicate through a logic structure with a beginning, middle, and end.
b) Each paragraph in the report uses sentences to provide a logical structure with a beginning, middle, and end.
c) Each sentence consists of carefully chosen words to clearly and concisely communicate the facts required in the above structure.
Think about the logical structure of your report as you read the sections described below. Keep in mind what your reader expects and what you have to know in order to present the clearest information to these readers.
Title: The title should be as brief as possible, consistent with clarity. Seven to eight well chosen words is a typical length. Industry readers do not need vast explanations; they need clear directions to the report within.
Abstract (Summary): Although it is placed first it should not be written until all other parts of the report have been completed. It should state, in simple declarative sentences what was attempted and accomplished, how it was accomplished only if special techniques were utilized, and what was achieved. That is, it should contain the main results and the main conclusions based on the results. The abstract should be written with the expectation that it will be printed separately from the report.
This is both the shortest and most difficult section to write. It is also the most important. In technical publications, the abstract, and only the abstract, is what most people will read. Therefore, it must communicate all the relevant ideas and results in 1-2 paragraphs. (250-350 words)
Remember that in the abstract, details of the experiment, which are in the past, need a past tense verb. The use of the past tense verb will keep the reader from getting confused over when actions took place. We use this kind of an abstract to allow the reader to see what was accomplished along with what was actually desired when the experiment began. Engineers out in industry do not have time need great volumes of reports. They rely on the abstracts to give them the insight into what the experiment was about.
Table of Contents: List each heading along with the page where it can be found in the report. The Table of Contents is not listed, nor is the Abstract. One is obvious (table); the other should not be listed because it cannot rely upon the report for backup, for figures, or for additional information, The Abstract must stand alone and present the required information without any need for the reader to go into the report for explanation.
Nomenclature Listing: List and define all symbols used in the report. They should be listed alphabetically, Arabic then Greek. Whirlwind readers need to have a place where they can easily find an explanation of the symbols that you use in the Analysis section. Be aware that abbreviations should be left in the text and not in the Nomenclature i.e. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
Introduction: The introduction should state the motivation for the experiment and the background information that is relevant for the present study. Note that the essential task for the introduction is to orient the engineering staff to the substance of the experiment and the context in which it was executed. Whirlwind corporation has invested a great deal of money in both the experimental and simulation equipment for you to prepare your findings. There is a need to give the Whirlwind engineers a clear picture of why you have chosen to do the experimentation that you are conducting. Make sure that you refer to the product that is being considered and the importance of the work that you are doing, especially why it will be beneficial to the development of the product.
When referring to the present report, it is acceptable to use the present tense. Future tense will explain what could be projected into future
circumstances. In the introduction make use of an active voice. Use direct statements and stay away from the passive voice as much as you can in technical writing. For example, use, "We boiled the water.", not "The water was boiled by us."
The introduction should briefly introduce the material contained in the report by noting what is presented in each of the sections to follow. Most Whirlwind engineers do not look at the Table of Contents. It is therefore important for them to briefly know what you have in store for them after you have motivated them to read your report.
Analysis: Each experiment can, and should be analytically supported when presented in this section. The analysis should proceed from the general (and well-known) basic relationships and evolve the specific formulae to be used in the interpretation of the data. Note that the symbols must be clearly defined. It is usually appropriate to make use of a defining sketch. All of the symbols used should appear in the "Nomenclature" described above. Analytical results which have been previously derived and which are readily available, for example equations from a text, can be quoted with suitable reference. Their derivation need not be repeated, if that derivation is not important to the Whirlwind engineer's understanding of the experiment.
All relevant mathematical analysis should be presented. What is crucial to a good analysis are the supporting explanations and commentary on the mathematics. Do not require the reader to consult lab handouts or textbooks to understand the specific analysis required for the experiment. If it is important enough to mention, it is important enough to include.
Experimental Equipment and Procedure: A schematic representation of the experimental equipmentor simulation pogram, including detailed views of unusual or important components, is a valuable aid in informing the reader about the experiment. The sketch can be used to document pertinent dimensions of the apparatus and it can be used to specify the specific experimental equipment used for the study. If the procedure used in the experiments is not an established one, it is necessary to include details of the techniques used. The criterion here is that someone familiar with the general area of investigation should be able to exactly reproduce your experiments from the information given in this section. Be careful to describe the experimental procedure in the past tense. You may slip into the present tense when describing the procedure needed to perform the experiment by a second party. In this section, the report's flow and overall feel can be destroyed by an incomplete or incorrect discussion of the experiment procedure and equipment. Some major points to remember are:
1 - When first referencing a figure, give the figure on the same page (or next page) as the explanation about it. It is distracting for the reader to have to look through the report to find a clarifying figure.
2 - Make figures at least one-third of a page in size. Figures that are too small are hard to read.
3 - Figures and tables should have clear and complete titles. If they are removed from the report, the information presented and its contents should still be clear. A short explanation of the figure contents under the title is normally necessary.
Results: This is the section where the answers obtained from the analysis or experiments are presented. This section should contain short declarative statements of the results in reference to your presentation of specific graphic or tabular data which are also presented. The purpose of these statements is to tell the reader (without discussion) what the author's interpretation of the results are, based upon the answers or data which are also presented. Keep in mind that the same data or answer could be interpreted in more than one way, thus the importance of your stated results. When stating these results vary your sentence structure. Don't fall into colloquial, jargonish, or slang language, but aim for smooth flowing paragraphs which show more than just a mass of subject-verb-object structures. This section is a logical presentation of what was observed in the experiment.
Don't forget that your readers may have picked up your report in mid- stream, meaning that they have read the Abstract then possibly gone directly to the Results. Never assume that the report will be read from page 1 to the end. It seldom happens that way.
In the industrial arena only certain things are important to certain people, therefore you will need to prepare readers for the sections that you write. This is especially important in the Results section where you want your readers to see the results in the same light that you do. Five birds sitting on a fence mean a lot of different things to a lot of different people.
The communicator should also distinguish between "Figures," which are schematic drawings, photographs, graphs, etc. and "Tables," which are tabular compilations of data or computational results. Each type of data presentation should be sequentially numbered with a title: e.g. "Figure 1. Schematic of the combustion chamber."
Give readers a sense of what you observed without an elaboration of what it means.
While you are to present your data without discussion, do not present it without explanation. A results section with only tables and graphs in it is hard to understand. Remember, you want to make it as easy as possible for the reader to understand your message.
Discussion: This section may start with a very brief summary statement of the results and then proceed to a discussion of these results. The principal task is to interpret the results, to note what is "as expected", what is unexpected, and what is of technical interest. The interpretation of the results in terms of the motivation for the experiment and its correlation to the current Whirlwind Corporation project should be the focus of the discussion. The discussion could involve a comparison with other similar investigations or comparison with expected results. The strong points of the work should be brought out here along with any limitations, because if the writer does not point out the limitations of his work, someone else surely will later. It may also be legitimate to comment on possible future investigations. Discuss the experimental specific results, using references to the accuracy of the measurements. It is useful to note the estimated uncertainties and their effect on the calculated values. For example: "The pressure was 0.0 + in H2O and the velocity was 30 + 10 fps. Note that the "information content" of this example is much larger than the statement: "the manometer liquid was fluctuating and the pressure could not be accurately measured." It is extremely important to provide specific discussions and avoid vague modifiers such as: greater than, about, like, and sort of.
Keep in mind that good paragraph construction will present a thesis statement or idea and then give supporting details for that thesis. When new points need to be made make sure you move to new paragraphs. You should design the discussion to follow a logical progression that will support the conclusions of the next section. Judge the information that you are providing to the readers. Readers have specific expectations. They expect to be presented information in a pattern that presents what is known first and then what is new second. Sentences start with old or known information and then expand upon this information with new related information.
Conclusions: A useful style is to state: "The following conclusions are supported by the results of this study": and then to list these in one or more simple (declarative) sentences using numbers to differentiate each separate conclusion. See the summary page in the ASignal Processing@ section for an example. Remember that Whirlwind engineers are looking for concise statements that clearly tell them what your results and discussion have formulated. They are not interested at that point about further investigation or explanation. They want the masses of data synthesized into the briefest conclusions that you can make.
References: The list of references used should be included, with great care taken to follow the specified format of the organization for whom the report is being written. The suggested format for this lab is shown below.
References are to be grouped at the end of the manuscripts and are to be given as follows:
1. Walker, R.E., A.R. Stone, and M. Shandor. "Secondary Gas Injection in a Conical Rocket Nozzle. " AIAA Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2, Feb. 1963, pp. 334-338.
2. Turner, M.J., H.C. Martin, and R.C. Leible. "Further Development and Applications of Stiffness Method. " Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, 1st ed., Vol. 1, New York: Macmillan, 1964, pp. 203-206.
3. Segre, E., ed. Experimental Nuclear Physics. 1st ed., Vol. 1, New York: Wiley, 1953, pp. 6-10.
4. Book, E. and H. Bratman. "Using Compilers to Build Compilers." SP-176, Aug. 1960, Systems Development Corp., Santa Monica, Calif.
5. Soo, S.L. "Boundary Layer Motion of a Gas-Solid Suspension." Proceedings of the Symposium on Interaction between Fluids and Particles, Institute of Chemical Engineers, Vol. 1, 1962, pp. 50-63.
Always give inclusive page numbers for references to journal articles and a page or chapter number for books. Each reference must be cited in the text. (Taken from the AIAA Journal Instructions to Authors.)
Appendices: Simple or lengthy calculations, or side issues that are not really in the main theme of the report, should be relegated to the appendix. A criterion for the deciding whether or not to put something in the appendix is to ask the question "Is its inclusion in the main body of the report required for the logical description of the investigation?" If the answer is "No", the item should either be left out or put in the appendix.
Please bear in mind that these are the briefest possible comments about a very important area of engineering and science. It is quite likely that in the future you will spend a great deal of your time in the preparation of and the reading of technical reports. Your skill in these two areas will in large part determine your advancement in your chosen profession.
General Rules:
1) Type the report. NEVER use pencil. MINOR CORRECTIONS and unusual symbols can be neatly inserted in black pen.
2) Use short, DIRECT sentences and correct grammar.
3) Use one side of the page only.
4) Start a new topic (heading) on a new page.
5) Number all pages including graphs and charts.
6) Figures should be clearly labeled on axes. They should have a title and possibly a short descriptive phrase after the title explaining the Figure. The convention for placement of tables or figures is that the bottom of the table or figure will be on the bottom or right-hand side of the report page.
7) Figures should appear in the text on the same page or immediately after they are mentioned in the text. Key data curves if there are two or more lines.
NOTE: The College of Engineering has PC based technical word processors available, so use them. No one should have to type their report on a mechanical typewriter. Reports have a professional appearance when the equations and tables are machine produced.
After your report is written, proofread it:
When proofreading your report make sure you are aware of the following:
1. Are all the necessary items included.
2. Are capital letters where they should be.
3. Is all the punctuation included and correct.
4. Is the spelling correct and are you comfortable with it.
If you are not it is probably wrong.
5. Are the words you have used redundant?
If so, find something that will express the same idea in a new, fresh manner.
6. Read the paragraphs out loud to get an idea of just how they sound.
7. Are all important ideas presented? Logically?
8. Are all the meanings clear.
9. Have someone else read the paper to check for the above problems.
Careful reading of the report is always necessary before it is finished. Most errors can be eliminated at this stage resulting in a higher quality report (Better grade!).
THINGS TO BE AWARE OF
1. It's and its contraction and possessive
2. Parenthetic express. John, on the other hand, is quiet.
3. Coordinate Conjunctions -- connect equal elements
It was a resistor, but it never worked properly.
4. Subordinate Conjunctions -- clause after the independent clause completes the idea of the ind.clause.
The resistor wouldn't work because it was broken.
5. Join independent clauses with a semi-colon.
It was the resistor; it wouldn't work.
6. Evaluate commas after participial phrases at the beginning of sentences.
After the fire, men were seen to cheer.
After we saw the fire there were marshmallows everywhere.
7. Avoid the negative.Reword to the positive.
He is never on time. He is usually late.
8. LIKE governs nouns. She was like us.
Winston tastes good as a cigarette should.
9. Split infinitives - To boldly go
COMPOUND WORDS
1) Omit the hyphen when words appear in regular order and the omission of the hyphen causes no problems.
a) palm oil, eye opener, living costs
2) Combine when two words combined make more sense.
a) afterglow, cupboard, gentlemen
3) Elements of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and in adjective compounds with a numerical first element.
a) 7-hour day, 3-inch ruler, eighty-five.
Problems with Punctuation
Main reason to punctuate is to clarify the structure and prevent misreading.
One way to avoid some punctuation is to arrange the words so that meanings are clear.
a) I recognized the man, who was too tall for the door. (only one)
b) I recognized the man who was too tall for the door.
(more than one)
Dates, addresses, and special forms.
Before conjunctions joining independent clauses.
a) John saw the enemy coming, and he felt that he needed to cry out.
In a series of coordinate words -
a) Mary,Bob, and Fred ( so as not to seem like a compound end word)
Around parenthetical remarks -
a) The last play of the game, showing the true skill of the outfield, was impressive.
Restrictive I woke up this morning at six when you banged on the door.
Nonrestrictive I woke up this morning at six, when you banged on the door.
Being careful --
a) If he likes shooting, the cat may find a place to hide.
b) If he likes shooting the cat may find a place to hide.
Specials -
a) He wrote on November 3, 1983, that it was cold.
b) He says that what provisions there are, are hardly enough to sustain us.
Compound word: conveys a unit that is not as clearly conveyed by separate words. The hyphen not only unites but separates the componenet words.
Basic rules:
1. Omit the hyphen when words appear in regular order and the omission causes no confusion in sound or meaning.
2. Compound two or more words to express an idea that would not be as clearly expressed in separate words.
3. In the derivative of a copmpound, keep the solid or hyphenated form of the original compound, unless otherwise indicated for particular words.
4. When any, every, no and some are combined with body, thing, and where, type as one word.
Technical Writing is:
1. A problem-solving discipline
2. A text converter
3. Stylistic
clear,objective,economical
4. Format oriented
memos, lab reports, abstracts
5. No nonsense
6. Focused early
7. Specialized in vocabulary
8. Filled with highly specific fact filled sentences
9. #'s dimensions
10. Signs,symbols,formulas
11. Graphs,tables
12. Documentation
Qualities:
1. Content
2. Methodical construction
3. Objectiveness
4. Importance in workplace
5. Clarity
6. The knowledge that it must be learned
Take a look at the following text and see how the sentences are constructed and the flow of ideas moves from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph.
Polluted Ground Water, Sinking Land Price of Progress
by Dr. Sunao Ogose
Japan is often described as a country that lacks natural underground resources. Certainly Japan depends on imports for nearly 100 percent of its petroleum and for all of its uranium, and most of the numerous coal fields and metal mines that flourished around the country in the past have since disappeared. There is almost no hope of any workable oil fields, coal fields, or metal mines being newly developed from now on, either.
Ground water and the hot spring water that comes from the geothermal heating of ground water are also a precious underground resource. If the hot water and steam created by the geothermal heating of deep ground water at high temperatures is withdrawn at the surface, this also becomes an important geothermal resource.
Boiling point
Japan has been blessed with abundant ground water resources since ancient times. The situation took a turn for the worse after about 1960, however, when the country entered a period of high economic growth accompanied by rapid industrialization and urbanization. To meet the consequent dramatic demand for water, active efforts were made to capture surface water through the construction of dams and at the same time to develop ground water through deep wells. These endeavors, however, led to a lowering of ground water levels or even to a drying-up of ground water around the country.
Most of the ground water in Japan is so-called pore water, which exists in the spaces between soil particles in permeable beds, such as sand and gravel beds. This pore water can be divided into two types: unconfined ground water and confined ground water. Unconfined ground water accumulates on clay or other semipermeable beds, which is the first layer hit below the surface, and is easily influenced by the weather. In contrast, confined ground water accumulates beneath the semipermeable bed and is not very much influenced by the weather.
In addition, the special characteristics of ground water - its temperature changes less than that of surface water, it generally contains many minerals and carbonic acid so is more tasty than surface water, and it generally has a lower pollution level than surface water - are even more evident in confined than unconfined ground water. For this reason, confined ground water accounts for most of the ground water that has been developed to meet the nation's increased demand for water, especially water for living purposes.
Compared with unconfined ground water, however, confined ground water flows extremely slowly; it actually consists of unconfined ground water that has trickled down to its present zone over a long period of time. For this reason, if the pumping rate for confined ground water at a certain place exceeds the confined ground water's rate of replenishment, the recharge storage will decline by that amount.
Reckless construction
Unfortunately, deep wells have been recklessly constructed and confined ground water pumped up in excessive quantities in numerous places, as a result of which the recharge storage has declined and in some cases even faces the critical possibility of depletion.
When confined ground water is removed in large amounts, new movements of ground water occur to make up for the quantity loss and decreased pressure. Unconfined ground water near the surface also passes through the semipermeable bed to the deeper area to supplement and create new confined ground water. As a result, if the aquifer of the unconfined ground water has a high degree of compressibility and is formed from soft ground, dehydration of the aquifer leads to land sinking. In addition, when ground water is pumped up in large quantities in coastal areas and a decline in quantity and pressure occurs, the infiltration of sea water can lead to the ground water's salinization.
In the past, land sinking has been especially conspicuous in large industrial belts, such as the Nobi Plain, the southern Kanto Plain and the Osaka Plain. It also has occurred on a large scale in natural gas fields of the dissolved-in-water type, like Niigata Plain. To preserve ground water resources and prevent land sinking, regulations have been placed on the pumping of ground water in accordance with local conditions. As a result, the sharp land sinking that occurred previously has not been seen in recent years.
In places where pumping regulations have not been implemented because of the difficulty of providing alternative water resources, land sinking continues as before. Meanwhile, the salinization of ground water is especially conspicuous in coastal industrial belts, where large quantities of water are pumped for industrial use.
The problem is that the implementation of pumping regulations does not mean that sunken land will return to its original level. Moreover, ground water does not easily return to its original condition once it has been salinized. Consequently, these two aspects of ground water pollution are exerting an immense adverse impact on regional development.
Civil engineering perils
Recently the civil engineering and construction industries have come to occupy a central role in Japan, to such an extent that Japan has been described as a "civil engineering and construction state." The subsequent rapid progress of underground development, however, has led to the outbreak of several forms of ground water pollution throughout the country.
For example, the construction of subways in cities like Tokyo and Yokohama, because it involves the cutting up of the ground water basin, has led to ground water depletion and land sinking on quite a large scale in some places. In addition, tunnel construction for railways and roads has caused ground water depletion and land sinking not only in major urban areas but also in many mountain villages.
At geothermal electric power generating stations, the extraction of large quantities of hot water and steam from deep underground by means of productive wells can bring about abnormal changes at nearby spas, which can experience a decline or depletion of their hot spring water. Such an example has actually occurred in Oita Prefecture. One of the reasons why geothermal development has made only slow progress in Japan is that people in the hot spring industry are worried about the possibility of such a disaster happening.
The development of Hishikari Mine in Kagoshima Prefecture saw the discharge of a large quantity of spring water inside the mine, as a result of which Yunoo Spa, which is situated down stream of this spring water, experienced not only reductions or even depletions of its hot spring water but also the fastest rate of land sinking ever recorded in Japan. Some wooden buildings in this spa resort were completely destroyed, as if they had been hit by a strong earthquake.
Appropriate development
Although exact figures are not available, the amount of ground water withdrawn in Japan at present reaches more than 10 billion cubic meters a year. From now on, in view of the fact that the amount of pumped water has exceeded appropriate levels in many places, leading to various types of ground water pollution, it will be necessary for each district to calculate appropriate quotas and to develop ground water within these limits.
In addition, the pollution of ground water has advanced considerably in recent years, affecting not only unconfined but also confined ground water. Pollution caused by coagulants used in underground construction and organic solvents used in factories has become especially serious. Maintenance of the quality of ground water is extremely important.
SUBJECTS AND VERBS
One of the earliest things that we remember in our schooling is the construction of complete sentences. We put nouns together with action words, and we conveyed ideas that made sense to the people around us. It is important that we pay particular attention to those early building blocks that can now create good text for our instructors and managers. When someone reads your text it is important that the text flows smoothly with no flagrant blocks in concentration. Subject and verb quality and agreement allows the reader to move through the text without stumbling over subjects that are singular coupled with verbs that are plural. It is therefore vitally important to be aware of what you are doing with your subjects and verbs. Look at the following examples and make sure that you understand why the examples are written as they are. This is not the time to hear rules. It is time to understand why the sentence reads the way it does, to be aware of the needs of the reader and how much sentence construction can help or hinder understanding.
Subject/verb agreement
(If you need a rule singular subjects take singular verbs/plural subjects take plural verbs.)
Look at these sentences. Why do you think the subjects and verbs agree the way they do?
1. The lab experiment fulfills the needs of the assignment.
2. In the beginning of the testing period, twelve vials were presented to the experimenters.
3. Most test tubes do not pass the minimal standards.
4. Plutonium and Tritium have been used in the study.
5. Plutonium or Tritium has been used in the study.
6. Plutonium or two benzynes have been used in the study.
7. Plutonium as well as Tritium is used in the study.
8. The equipment is going to be transferred today.
9. Platinum, gold, and lead are being used in ME 412.
10. Each of the labs, including fluids, is going to be difficult.
11. There are ten labs in this building.
12. Unfortunately, Bryon mixed the chemicals that were used in the previous experiment.
13. Teripherium is a gas and a solid.
RULES:
a. Subjects and verbs must agree in person and number - singular with singular, plural with plural.
b. A verb must agree with its subject not with any words that come between them.
c. Subjects joined by AND usually take a plural verb.
d. When subjects are joined by OR or NOR the verb agrees with the subject closest to it.
e. For engineering the category of noncount words used as subjects include words like equipment which takes a singular verb.
f. When using subordinate clauses with a pronoun as subject, the verb agrees with the antecedent to which the pronoun refers.
g. A verb agrees with the subject even though in many cases the subject will follow the verb.
h. When using a linking verb (is are, was, were, forms of be) the subject is the noun that precedes the verb, not the nouns that follow the verb.
SENTENCE VARIETY/TYPES
Since we are interested in making our text flow as smoothly as possible, it is important that we introduce a certain amount of variety into the sentences that we create. The age old conventional subject-verb-object sentence (Bob saw the cat.) doesn't present an interesting picture if it is the only types of sentence that we use.
The idea then is to vary the structures to allow the reader to enjoy the experience of reading the text.
Here are the different varieties that you can use to assemble your reports.
Simple sentence - subject-verb-object
The laboratory report stimulated conversation.
Compound sentence - subordinate clause- main clause
If you find the answer, it will relieve everyone in the class.
Complex sentence - independent clause - independent clause
The final reports were due yesterday, and no one knew who had the original.
Compound/complex sentence - independent with subordinate clause - independent
If you find the answer, it will relieve everyone in the class; and I think that you will get a reward.
Normal sentences - subject before the verb
The scanivalve malfunctioned.
Inverted sentences - verb first then subject
How complicated is this exercise!
PARAGRAPH CONSTRUCTION
1) Use logical order of sentence arrangement
general to specific
developing from facts
2) Utilize a careful repetition of words
3) Use parallel structure
4) Use transitional words
since, moreover, however, in which
Present your ideas in a manner that allows the reader to understand. Complexity breeds confusion and time commitment
Outlandish things do not make a reader happy.
Suggestions:
Use a format
Work from an outline
Edit,Edit,Edit again!
Do your weeding.
Use small words.
Edit illustrations.
TOPIC SENTENCES AND SUPPORTING STATEMENTS
Creating something that is readable and contains appropriate content material is your primary goal in engineering communication. The individual who picks up your text must be able to easily move through the text no matter how difficult the material itself might be. Technical text cannot be defined as unreadable. This thought violates the true intent of technical writing, which is to convey information to a particular audience in a clear and concise manner. The material will most likely be of a technical nature, but that does not mean that it can be simply downloaded without any sense of order and flow.
From your earliest paragraph construction days you learned that a paragraph needed to contain a single topic, one focus for the reader with supporting details. This usually means around 5 sentences, all aiming at a particular idea. Within the paragraph the main focus usually rests in the topic sentence. The topic sentence can appear at any point in the paragraph. It also can appear in the form of a pervading idea in which the reader is able to clearly see what the paragraph focuses on. It is your job to make sure that all the ideas contained within a paragraph relate to one central idea. If there are ideas that relate to other foci, you will need to construct additional paragraphs.
The laboratory focussed on the turbulent flow present in the small wind tunnel. The turbulence was created by restricting the inlet valve from 1" to 1/2". The force of the flow coming into the valve was not increased, but the force coming out of the valve increased by a factor of 2. It was decided that the turbulence would act in this manner for all valve restrictions of this size.
Technical text has a tendency to place topic sentences at the beginning of the paragraph. You can see this from the paragraph above. It is easy to tell that the central idea is the turbulence created in a wind tunnel. Each sentence that follows relates to the idea of that turbulence. If you take your own work and evaluate a random sample of paragraphs, you can monitor your progress toward making each paragraph fit the needs of a properly constructed paragraph.
In order to build the individual paragraphs into a complete paper, you can take ideas from the beginning paragraph and expand the idea into another paragraph. This can go on for ever if you like. The paragraph above could give rise to additional paragraphs on the valve types, further looks at restrictions, more information on flow speeds,and the wind tunnel itself. The ideas are endless. Your only restriction is time and space.
Correctly constructing sentences that fit into paragraphs that join together to convey a smooth flowing idea should be your goal. You need to look at each piece of text that you create as a finely sculptured unit of knowledge that you are conveying to others. It needs to move with no restrictions. It must roll comfortably so that when the reader finishes, they know that you are a creator of clear and concise text. "Make it so."
IRREGULAR VERBS
Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs
INFINITIVE
be
become
begin
blow
break
bring
burst
catch
choose
come
do
draw
drink
drive
eat
fall
fight
freeze
get
give
go
grow
have
hear
hide
know
lay
lead
let
lie
make
raise
ride
ring
rise
run
say
see
set
sit
slide
speak
spin
stand
swing
tear
think
throw
write
PAST TENSE
was
became
began
blew
broke
brought
burst
caught
chose
came
did
drew
drank
drove
ate
fell
fought
froze
got
gave
went
grew
had
heard
hid
knew
laid
led
let
lay
made
raised
rode
rang
rose
ran
said
saw
set
sat
slid
spoke
spun
stood
swung
tore
thought
threw
wrote
PAST PARTICIPLE
been
become
begun
blown
broken
brought
burst
caught
chosen
come
done
drawn
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
fought
frozen
got,gotten
given
gone
grown
had
heard
hidden
known
laid
led
let
lain
made
raised
ridden
rung
risen
run
said
seen
set
sat
slid
spoken
spun
stood
swung
torn
thought
thrown
written
ACTIVE/PASSIVE VOICE
There will always be an argument among writers about when and how to use active and passive voice. An easy explanation of the two is:
Active voice distinctly focuses on the doer of the action.
Sound reverberated off the walls. It is easy to see that the writer wants us to understand that sound is the main focus of the sentence.
Passive voice, on the other hand, changes the position of the previous subject into an indirect object and focuses the sentence on the receiver of the action done by the previous subject.
The walls were struck by sound's reverberations. Again it is easy
to see that the writer wants us to focus on the walls as the receivers of the sound not on the sound itself.
The main thing to remember is that in the active voice there is a distinct doer of the action.
In the passive voice the subject becomes the receiver of the action.
Using active voice adds to the directness of your writing. It puts the doers of the action upfront in the eyes of the reader. The passive voice, on the other hand, separates the doers from the action and allows the writer to move away from the active work of the subject to a more detached position. It is definitely a less abrupt approach to any action.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns have been around since you were as small child. You probably can remember some of your first sentences using the ever popular, "Me want!" It was easy for you to understand who ME was. It was you. This then was your first usage of words that stand for other words.
I,me, mine, ours, theirs, you, them, whom, they COPY
The important thing to realize now is that when you use these words, they must agree with the antecedent to which they refer.
1. The laboratory was new in its heyday.
2. Mark lifted the ammeter slowly, and he realized his mistake immediately.
3. Tritium, Plutonium, and Boron were all used as they should be.
Another issue often raised is the inability of students to make their pronoun usage clear and understandable.
I worked hard on the experiment, and it was difficult.
(Does the writer want us to see the experiment as difficult, the work that was done as difficult, or that is was difficult to work hard.)
Vague references can make a very difficult reading.
Lastly, do not put a great deal of space between your pronouns and your antecedents. The further apart they are , they more difficult it may become for your reader to be clear on their relationship.
1. If your lab partner brings a guest, tell him to leave the lab. (Who is leaving ?)
2. The engineers found the samples; they were not happy. (The samples aren't happy?)
3. I know the answers to the problems with the sending device; they are really complicated. (Problems or answers are complicated?)
CONSISTENCY
A buzz word for the present is CONSISTENCY. It is imperative when you write that the forms, spellings, patterns, and verb tenses be consistent throughout the text. You cannot change the names of items without announcing to the reader what you are doing. By viewing inconsistencies in your text, the reader will begin to doubt your integrity as a conveyor of knowledge. If you can't make decisions on how something should be presented, why should they believe your information. These inconsistencies may appear as simple, misspellings of words. You will need to make sure that every word in your text is spelled uniformly and correctly. Punctuation must also be consistent. You cannot use it any way the moment seems to dictate. I you use a particular form early in the text, make sure that the form stays the same throughout the text. (Capitalizing certain words, abbreviating others, underlining, using bold, or numbering figures)
Laboratory experimentation is a real hands-on way to experience engineering. When we will take the measurements it was a good feeling. I am pleased with the results.You were, too, I will be sure. ( If it reads a little awkwardly, then you are hearing the inconsistencies in the wording.)
In the above example, the verb tenses are not consistent. It is difficult to understand where actions are taking place and how to react to the text. This inconsistency will cause major problems with the understanding of the reader.
Anyone can do the experiment,if you have the knowledge. (Notice how reader can question who YOU is.)
Engineers can no longer ignore the things that they have not done in the theater of the world. ( Does THEY refer to engineers? Could it refer to some other group?
Good communication is vital to engineering, as well as in the grocery business, where getting your idea across is vital. (Does WHERE refer to engineering or to their grocery business?
The problem with the above sentences arises because the writer has not carries the ideas through the sentence. The flow of material is not complete, so the reader fails to grasp exactly who the writer is talking about. Another way that inconsistency hinders the ability to communicate.
FLOW
Remember that when we read or listen, we like to hear continuity. We enjoy being able to follow the flow of the ideas from one to another. It is most disconcerting when you are given a piece of information only to be jolted to another unrelated piece of information with no idea of the connection.
The lab experiment went successfully. I have no doubts about the upcoming trip during spring break.
(Readers wonder if they have lost some thread of information that would tie these two ideas together. When they discover that it is simply just a poor writing sample, they can become quite angry. You have wasted their time and they don't like it.)
It is vitally important that you make an effort to carry a comfortable flow of information between every sentence in your text. When editing what you write, a fair amount of care needs to go into the awareness of how each sentence combines with those around it. Sentences need to be combined, if by being separated they do not lend to the flow of the text.
Mary performed the lab. It was difficult. It was long.
better:
Mary performed the long and difficult lab.
(Combining helps to make the text flow.)
from above:
The lab experiment went successfully; therefore, I have no doubts about our being able to take the upcoming trip during spring break.
(Here the reader knows what the connection between the two sentences is.)
The passages on pages 29 and 30 reflect the issue of flow.)
COMMAS AND VARIOUS KINDS OF ERRORS
included within this report are theory and methods of analysis, equipment an experimental setup, procedure guidelines, results, a discussion of results and conclusions. (commas before and in series)
Notice the following statements. You should get a clear indication of the difficulty that can be encountered by the reader when trying to understand your meaning. They probably can understand it, but they may not take the time to go back and forth to clearly understand what you have intended in the passage.
As stated above the derivation of the uncertainty qualities....
Readers will look at the passage in the first reading and quickly see
as stated above the derivation. They will assume that it means something above the derivation, which it doesn't. When the comma is placed between above and the, the meaning is now clear - As stated above, then what is stated.
In general errors fall into two categories....
Here again it is a simple problem and when taken out of context, it appears to be something that will confuse no one. But if you think about it - In general errors. The reader hears that there are general errors, not in general, errors. Commas do make a big difference in the ease of writing.
In this experiment error could have been introduced....
Again a simple example of words that run together and cause confusion. This confusion may be for only a second, but that second may cost the reader the entire thought of the paper. If the reader hears the passage as experiment error and not in this experiment, error could have been introduced then they will be in an area of confusion. How long this confusion lasts will designate how much the reader loses in the reading.
One type of error are class 1 errors...
Just for sound sake. Obviously there is a singular subject involved in the passage, and this subject needs a singular verb. But even more so, the sound of the sentence is thrown off by the lack of agreement of the subject and verb. If it reads poorly, then the reader will react to the sound and this will definitely affect the content.
There are other factors that contribute to the uncertainty that were not considered in the....
Notice here the that usage in the passage. The first that introduces a restrictive clause that needs to be an integral part of the sentence and the ideas that are being presented. We as readers need to know that other factors contribute to the uncertainty. In the case of the second that, the idea of the factors not being considered are important first level pieces of information. They must be there in order for the reader to fully understand the context.
There are other factors, which have garnered little interest in the audience, that I feel should get increased funding.
The passage uses one which and one that. The which introduces a non-restrictive clause, which simply provides additional information to the reader. This information is not necessary for the underlying context of the passage. The that clause, on the other hand, contains information that ivs vital to the presentation of the context. The reader needs to know that other factors should get additional funding.
Due to the inability to read...
Just a little passage that causes the reader to wonder who has the inability? Can the person involved actually read? Do people in general have a problem with reading? There is slight confusion here. It may only be momentary, but every effort must be made to eliminate any places where the reader can go astray, or more importantly - YOU ALLOW THE READER TO GO ASTRAY.
SEMICOLONS
The semicolon lies halfway between the comma and the period in force. Its use is quite restricted.
Main clauses
Place a semicolon between two closely connected main clauses that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction (and , but, nor, for, or yet.)
The expanding gases formed during burning drive the turbine;the gases are then exhausted through the nozzle.
If the clauses are long,have internal punctuation, or if separate emphasis is desired, then the comma before the coordinating conjunction may be increased to a semicolon.
The front lawn has been planted with a Chinese beauty tree, a Bechtel flowering crab, a mountain ash, and assorted small shrubbery, including barberry and cameo roses; but so far nothing has been done to the rear beyond clearing and rough grading.
Series
When a series contains commas as internal punctuation within the parts, use semicolons between the parts.
Included in the experiment were Peter Moody, a freshman; Jesse Gatlin, a sophomore; Burrel Gambel, a junior; and Ralph Leone, a senior.
Last term in school?
Get yourself a good writing guide to go with your engineering texts.
The Chicago Manual of Style is also good to have. It's only $39.00.
COLONS
Remember the rule from your younger years.
Colons link related thoughts, BUT one of those thoughts must be able to stand alone as a sentence.
The lab needed one more piece of equipment to fulfill the contract: a vise.
Colons also are used to introduce lists.
Professor Harrigan cataloged the chemicals:
1. Tritium
2. Parodesium
3. Grotect
When used in your text with equations, colons are used after the words follow, follows, and following.
Equation (7) is quickly transformed into the following:
x+y=***.***
Whatever punctuation you are using within your text, make sure that you understand what it is doing to the overall understanding of the words. If by putting it into your text it confuses the reader to the point that they lose the focus of the paper, then you must remove unnecessary pieces. If the lack of punctuation hurts the meaning, then you must make an effort to include more help in the form of punctuation. KNOW WHY YOU ARE USING PUNCTUATION, NOT RULES ABOUT PUNCTUATION!
COMPOUND WORDS
1) Omit the hyphen when words appear in regular order and the omission of the hyphen causes no problems.
a) palm oil, eye opener, living costs
2) Combine when two words combined make more sense.
a) afterglow, cupboard, gentlemen
3) Elements of compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and in adjective compounds with a numerical first element.
a) 7-hour day, 3-inch ruler, eighty-five.
Problems with Punctuation
Main reason to punctuate is to clarify the structure and prevent misreading.
One way to avoid some punctuation is to arrange the words so that meanings are clear.
a) I recognized the man, who was too tall for the door. (only one)
b) I recognized the man who was too tall for the door.
(more than one)
Dates, addresses, and special forms.
Before conjunctions joining independent clauses.
a) John saw the enemy coming, and he felt that he needed to cry out.
In a series of coordinate words -
a) Mary,Bob, and Fred ( so as not to seem like a compound end word)
Around parenthetical remarks -
a) The last play of the game, showing the true skill of the outfield, was impressive.
Restrictive I woke up this morning at six when you banged on the door.
Nonrestrictive I woke up this morning at six, when you banged on the door.
Being careful --
a) If he likes shooting, the cat may find a place to hide.
b) If he likes shooting the cat may find a place to hide.
Specials -
a) He wrote on November 3, 1983, that it was cold.
b) He says that what provisions there are, are hardly enough to sustain us. Compound word: conveys a unit that is not as clearly conveyed by separate words. The hyphen not only unites but separates the component words.
Basic rules:
1. Omit the hyphen when words appear in regular order and the omission causes no confusion in sound or meaning.
2. Compound two or more words to express an idea that would not be as clearly expressed in separate words.
3. In the derivative of a compound, keep the solid or hyphenated form of the original compound, unless otherwise indicated for particular words.
4. When any, every, no and some are combined with body, thing, and where, type as one word.
GRAMMATICAL THINGS TO BE AWARE OF
1. It's and its contraction and possessive
2. Parenthetic express. John, on the other hand, is quiet.
3. Coordinate Conjunctions -- connect equal elements
It was a resistor, but it never worked properly.
4. Subordinate Conjunctions -- clause after the independent clause completes the idea of the ind.clause.
The resistor wouldn't work because it was broken.
5. Join independent clauses with a semi-colon.
It was the resistor; it wouldn't work.
6. Evaluate commas after participial phrases at the beginning of sentences.
After the fire, men were seen to cheer.
After we saw the fire there were marshmallows everywhere.
7. Avoid the negative.Reword to the positive.
He is never on time. He is usually late.
8. LIKE governs nouns. She was like us.
Winston tastes good as a cigarette should.
9. Split infinitives - To boldly go
DIRECT LANGUAGE
Just a few of the many times that we use too many words when a fewer number would be clearer to the reader.
An innumerable number of tiny veins
at this point in time
bright green in color
we conducted inoculation experiments on
due to the fact that
during the time that
fewer in number
for the reason that
goes under the name of
if conditions are such that
in the event that
it is often the case that
it is possible that the cause is
it would appear that
lenticular in character
oval in shape
the tube which has a length of 3m
prior to
innumerable tiny veins
now
bright green
we inoculated
because
while
fewer
because,since
is called
if
if
often
the cause may be
apparently
lenticular
oval
the tube,3m long
before
JARGON (definition)
1) confused,unintelligible language; 2) technical terminology of a special group or activity; 3) obscure and often pretentious language marked by circumlocutions and long words.
All of the above should be avoided as much as possible. We only say this because it causes problems with the understanding of the text. Jargon may seem like a neat way of saying something that your readers may misinterpret what you have to say. 1 and 3 should always be avoided, but 2 might be difficult in your technical area. Technical writers do find that they can use the jargon freely, but only after it has been defined or explained to the reader.
BIG WORDS VERSUS THE REGULARS
When you have a choice of using something that says what you want to say or something that makes you sound overinflated, the best course is to go with the simpler term. The reader will not be allowed to interpret what your text says. They will take their lead from you and understand what you want them to understand.
1. As a case in point, other authorities have proposed that slumbering canines are best left in a recumbent position.
2. It has been posited that a high degree of curiosity proved lethal to a feline.
3. There is a large body of experimental evidence which clearly indicates that members of the genus Mus tend to engage in recreational activity while the feline is remote from the locale.
4. Even with the most sophisticated experimental protocol, it is exceedingly unlikely that you can instill in a superannuated canine the capacity to perform novel feats of legerdemain.
5. A sedimentary conglomerate in motion down a declivity gains no addition of mossy material.
6. The resultant experimental data indicate that there is no utility in belaboring a deceased equine.
7. From time immemorial, it has been known that the infestation of an "apple" (i.e. the pome fruit of any tree of the genus Malus, said fruit being usually round in shape and red,yellow, or greenish in color) on a diurnal basis will with absolute certainty keep a primary member of the health care establishment absent from one's local environment.
CLICHES
It is probably important to note that the cliche is something to be avoided in the writing that you will do as engineers. Cliches when they were first coined were vivid descriptions of something that was current in the minds of the people. As time passed,though,these descriptions lost there original power and meaning. They became worn out and did not reflect good descriptive text. Some of the ones that you have heard are:
a can of worms be at loggerheads
acid test bated breath
all things considered give the green light to
along those lines in the nick of time
cast a pall days are numbered
by the same token avoid like the plague
You might have a definition for each of these, maybe because you have heard them so many times. But do you know what they really mean in the context of when they were first used. Probably not. They get overused for all varieties of definitions and have little real meaning. Be careful of using wording that you hear all the time that also may not carry the meaning you expect.
There are also things that appear in everyday conversation that take on that old worn out quality that makes the writing that we do fail to excite the reader.
Some of these include:
red in color -- red
in the vast majority of circumstances -- in most circumstances
on a monthly basis -- monthly
at that point in time -- at that time
due to the reasons that -- due to
during the course of -- during
until such time as -- until
very unusual -- unusual
round in shape -- round
the red truck was a firetruck painted red -- it was a red firetruck
Technical writing needs to be clear and concise. Do what you can to make what you say as brief as it can be with all the meaning intact.
SEXIST LANGUAGE
When you study languages around the world including English you discover that the distinction between words that are classed as either male or female is prevalent.
particular endings on words designate them as male or female and this fact will have an importance in the way that they are connected to other words in the sentence. In English many words will specifically designate a female or male position - fireman, hostess, host, actress, usher, and on and on. Since jobs in the 90s are being performed by both male and female, it is important to realize that words that designate specific gender distinctions must be removed if the people described are a mix of males and females.
A. This concern is very evident in the use of pronouns. Pronouns like HE are used to described a category of people who could be either male or female. This causes a biased view of the position.
An engineer was needed quickly. He would be in charge of the plant.
(The engineer could be a woman and therefore HE is not correct.)
These kinds of problems can be solved by simple evaluating the thought and making changes to the text that will cause no problems.
An engineer who would be in charge of the plant was needed quickly.
(One way to remove the problem.)
B. When it comes to pronouns, one of the easiest ways to eliminate gender focus is to make the words plural. By doing this, you usually remove the male or female focus.
He ran the test. She ran the test. THEY RAN THE TEST.
C. Try to remove any words that unnecessarily distinguish between male and female.
employee for workman
chairperson for chairman
D. Stay away from odd looking and sounding mutations that do not help a text's flow.
s/he, he/she, or hisorher. Use plurals, change words, or simply say he and she, his or her, or him and her.
SERIOUS PAPER RUINED?
(This was given to me a long time ago - it shows the need for making sure that what we write is what we mean.
The inhabitants of ancient Egypt were called mummies. They lived in the Sarah Dessert and traveled by Camelot. The climate of the Sarah is such that the inhabitants have to live elsewhere, so certain areas of the dessert are cultivated by irritation. The Egyptians built the pyramids in the shape of a huge triangular cube. The pyramids are a range of mountains between France and Spain.
The Bible is full of interesting caricatures. In the first book of the Bible, Guinesses, Adam and Eve were created from an apple tree. One of their children, Cain, asked, " Am I my brother's son?" God asked Abraham to sacrifice Isaac on Mount Montezuma. Jacob, son of Isaac, stole his brother's birth mark. Jacob was a Patriarch who brought up his twelve sons to be patriarchs, but they did not take to it. One of Jacob's sons, Joseph, gave refuse to the Israelites.
Pharaoh forced the Hebrew slaves to make bread without straw. Moses led them to the Red Sea, where that made unleavened bread, which is bread made without any ingredients. Afterwards, Moses went up on Mount Cyanide to get the ten commandments. David was a Hebrew king skilled at playing the liar. He fought with the Philatelists, a race of people who lived in Biblical times.
Solomon, one of David's sons had 500 wives and 500 porcupines. topic.
Without the Greeks we wouldn't have history. The Greeks invented three kinds of columns Corinthian, Doric, and Ironic. They also had myths. A myth is a female moth. One myth says that the mother of Achilles dipped him in the River Stynx until he became intolerable. Achilles appears in The Iliad, by Homer. Homer also wrote The Oddity, in which Penelope was the last hardship that Ulysses endured on his journey. Actually, Homer was not written by Homer but by another man of that name.
The above passage is obviously silly, but it does bring home a few important points. It helps to stress the need for serious consideration of the words that you employ in your text, the knowledge that you have of the subject, and the manner in which you present this information. In the above passage you lose any idea of a professional writer. You laugh along with everyone else at the mistakes. The problem is that the writer really felt that a learned piece of text was being created. It obviously failed to come about.
READINGS THAT CAN HELP
Effective Technical Communication --Eisenberg--T 10.5.E36
General overall coverage of the major topics of technical writing..includes proposals, letters, and reports
Writing for Science, Industry, and Technology--Hirschhorn--T 11.H56
Especially good Appendix where information may be gathered by writers. An approach to writing that takes the writer from the beginning of the process to the end product.
English for Science and Technology--Huckin/Olsen--T 11.H23
Good book for the nonnative speaker in the process of report construction.
Designing Technical Reports--Mathes/Stevenson--T 11 f.M36
A process approach to the writing of a technical presentation from the information side not from the form of the report procedure.
How to Write and Publish Engineering Papers and Reports--Michaelson--T 11.M418
Primarily aims at the writing of papers for publication, , but does a good job of looking at quality of writing and the concern for the reader.
Technical Writing--Principles and Practices--Miles--T 11.M47
A general text to help with basic problems and a great deal on the process of getting started.
Technical Writing--Turner--T 11.T786
A teaching text with a good visual format--nice section on memo writing.
Technical Writing--Fear--T 10.5 F4
For the writer who wants instruction in clear concise steps.
Reporting Technical Information--Houp/Pearsall--T 11.59
The best of the group for future use and present needs. Gives lots of examples and helps in the writing process.
REVISION CHECKLISTS
One of the most important things to realize in the communication area is that you as the communicator need to know what is going on and why those things happen. Just spouting rules does not make a good communicator. We will attempt to get everyone on track by making each writer aware of the important elements in the text that is being produced. Therefore,
YOU MUST IDENTIFY IN THE TEXT BY NUMBER WHERE YOU HAVE ADDRESSED THE FOLLOWING ITEMS:
TITLE PAGE
1.Title of paper
2.Course
3.Date due
4.Section time
5.Name
ABSTRACT
6.Why was the lab performed
7.How was the lab performed
8.What was discovered,achieved, or
concluded
9.Past tense used
10.Reference to experiment not paper
11.No personal reference
( I,We)
NOMENCLATURE
12.In alphabetical order
13.Upper case then lower case
(A a B b c G g1 g1a)
14.Arabic and Greek separated
15. Only symbols appear
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.All sections represented
17.Abstract and Table of C not listed
18.Lab Observations as a heading
Analysis,equip,procedure,
results - sub headings
19.All columns lined up
INTRODUCTION
20.Ample motivation for the experiment stated
20A.yours
20B.Whirlwind's
21.Sufficient information to orient reader to the substance of experiment
22.Sufficient information to excite reader
23.Sections to follow mentioned
LAB OBSERVATIONS
24.Mathematical model used to predict system behavior presented with ample explanation and lead in 25.equations numbered
26.punctuation with equations (: with follow/s/ing only)
27.equations have space
28.Schematic of equipment used
29.Figures/Tables correct
(Figure 1. Title)
30.Figures oriented correctly
Clearly labelled and referenced
Stated:
31.Highlights of equip. used
32.Highlights of the procedure (not specific steps)
33.Data presented with clear indication of what data applies to
34.Reader will understand what this data refers to
35.Trends in data stated
(then to be discussed in the discussion section)
36.Clear indication of what reader should see in the data
DISCUSSION
plete discussion of the results appears
38.Connection of data and Whirlwind is clearly stated
parison to similar
experiments is shown
40.Strong points of study given
41.Weak points of study given
42.Statements are specific
43.Logical progression to support conclusions that follow
CONCLUSIONS
44."The following conclusions are supported by this study:"
45.Conclusions are numbered
46.Conclusions are concise and highly specific
47.Vague statements do not exist
48.Conclusions directly flow from discussion
REFERENCES
49.Initials for first names
50.All information included
51.References #d in text [1]
CREATING REFERENCES/DID YOU SAY REFERENCES?
Most everybody is doing a great job in citing the texts where information is either being copied word for word or paraphrased extensively. The few bits of information that we handed out at the beginning of the semester seem to have done the job for our purposes. This is fine but questions do arise, and I thought that it might be as good a time as any to make some mention about referencing in the work that you are producing.
FIRST - Check the publication that you are sending to / the professor you are writing for / or the company that you are working for - IF THEY HAVE A STRICT FORM FOLLOW IT. If they don't you can use any appropriate form as long as it is consistent.
SECOND - Use only the important material in the references. Sometimes this list gets cluttered with great numbers of sources that may allude to the issue or quote but are not really important.
THIRD - Proofread the reference list carefully. Make sure that all the entries are the same within their designation - book,journal,whatever.
OKAY - STYLE
I just read a passage that says that one reader looked at 52 scientific journals and found 30 different styles for listing references. That certainly tells you to check before you submit. As I said most students have done well this semester in this area because they have checked the form that we want.
THE MOST COMMON FORMS
Name/year - (Smith 1962)
Alphabetical order in reference list/numbering text (13) - from an alphabetical list at the end
Citation/order - (13) - in order as they appear in the text
Name/year
Friten,R.B. 1987. How to Construct Fractls. 2nd Ed. Lansing,MI: John's Press.
Grisback,T.L. 1923. Elos. New York: Big Pages Press.
Alphabet/number
1. Friten,R.B. 1987 How to Construct Fractls. 2nd Ed. Lansing,MI: John's Press.
2. Grisback,T.L. 1923. Elos. New York: Big Pages Press.
Citation/order
1. Friten,R.B. How to Construct Fractls. 2nd Ed. Lansing,MI: John's Press; 1987
2. Grisback,T.L. Elos. New York: Big Pages Press; 1923.
This only hits the tip of the iceberg when it comes to using and documenting correctly the references that you use. If you take a look at the Modern Language Association style guide or The Chicago Manual of Style you will find a wide array of styles and forms - the biggest concern is that you be consistent within an acceptable form. Always check the form for your publication.
FORMATS:
It is important to realize that there will be many situations in the real world that require a variety of written forms of communication. These will include the short notes to a superior or to a peer, brief hand-written reminders to do some project, informal reports, memos that flow in and out of your workplace, large formal reports that document months of work, and visual presentations that require great preparation and little text.
As you experience the numerous jobs that you do, courses that you take, and managers to whom you report; you will find one of the things that may aggravate you is continual changing of formats. It will be necessary for you to adapt quickly to a variety of ways of conveying information. The information that you will be given here only scratches the surface when it comes to the many ways that text may be presented. Always be ready to learn new techniques of presenting information. Listen to the managers for whom you work; adjust for their particular needs; and be flexible enough to adapt to changing situations and formats.
MEMOS
Memos are written by every engineer in the field. They are most often designed to be used within the writer's own company or organization. They may note the existence of a problem, propose some course of action, describe a procedure, or report the results of a test or an investigation.
They are sometimes referred to as informal writing, but this does not mean sloppy, casual, or carelessly done. Memos must be carefully prepared, thoughtfully written , and thoroughly proofread for errors.
Memos begin in a particular manner:
To: Name, job title
department
name of Organization
From: Name, job title
department
name of Organization
Subject: Issues addressed in the memo (subject is commonly Re or RE)
Date: Date
The following are omitted if there are none:
Dist: Distribution list of other people receiving the memo
Encl: Other documents included with the memo
Ref: List of particularly important background documents
The format of the memo is also simple and contains the following information:
Foreword -- The statement of the problem or important issue
Summary -- The main results and other information that a reader needs to know
Discussion or Details -- The extra information needed by the technically involved readers -- support for the claims in the Summary or extra details needed to implement or fully understand the solution proposed.
On this and the following pages, a selection of memos have been collected. They require some form of answer in order to satisfy the sender. Try your hand at preparing an answer to these memos. Keep in mind the format and the needed parts for each memo.
To:
From:
Date:
Re: Memo received from Euro-Disney
You have expertise in both your area of engineering and the particular interest that you have chosen as your focus for your communication assignments. With these in mind it is felt that you can adequately address issues that cross the desk of a normal consulting firm. The following memo has been received in our office at Gunn/Hotton Consultants ( the firm that has hired you because of your outstanding talents.) Please read it and address its concerns.
To:Gunn/Hotton Consultants
From:Francois De LaBarge - General manager Euro Disney / Paris,France
Date:10 January 1995
Re:Increased interest in and income for Euro-Disney
With the current state of affairs at our operation of Euro-Disney, it is vital for the continued progress of this theme park that an added dimension of technology be added to the choices now given. Although many people feel that parks of this nature require "fun and games," we feel that it is much more important to both educate the park visitors and cater to their more intelligent mental processes. It is with this thought in mind that I ask you to present to us a sampling of the variety of areas that your engineers might provide to our visitors. We would like a simple and short reflection on the areas of interest and why they are important to people who must see technology as a positive and productive activity.
I cannot respond to the memo because I would be unable to talk about your areas of interest. Please give me a copy for review by next Tuesday.
Thanks.
To:
From:
Date:
Re: Memo from Dr.Carl Castensen, Assistant Dean College of Engineering, Texas A+M
I have received a memo from Dr.Carl Castensen. He is very interested in the writing activities of engineers. He has asked me to supply him with information on the areas of interest that engineers engage in at the undergraduate level. He is particularly interested in topics that might be useful for graduate research at Texas A+M. I suggested simply giving him what you are writing about. He informed me that that was totally inadequate. He wants details. Therefore, please put together a memo that outlines your area of interest and some of the interesting facets of it.
To:
From:
Date:
Re: Angry letter to the Editor in the Lansing State Journal
Sorry to give you this on so short a notice, but it does need someone to respond. I am leaving for a conference in Des Moines,Iowa and would be glad to pen a rebuttal, but I have to prepare my presentation on the flight. Please respond to the following letter in the Journal. You don't need to go into broad generalities about engineering - just use your area of interest to back up your positive remarks.
Dear Editor:
Who do engineers think they are anyway. What rite do they have to tell us what to do. They make too much money anyway. The world would be better if the world never had no engineers. I am unanimous in that feeling.
Fred Smullins
321 Baranger Lansing,Mi
Be Positive and good luck! See you next week.
FORMAL REPORTS
GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION
OF A FORMAL TECHNICAL REPORT
The principle purpose of the formal report is to incorporate the information gathered in the experiment or simulation into a document that will be useful to the Whirlwind corporation. Your fellow engineers at Whirlwind are interested in the work that you are doing because it will enable them to do further work and produce a better product for the consumer.
As you work your way through the process of producing the formal report, always keep in mind that it is for an audience beyond the closed loop system of the classroom.
The discussion below presents each of the required sections in the formal technical report. The structure that has been created for these will in many ways resemble the reports that are produced by industry, but it is important to note that each writing experience must be carefully investigated for the needs of the report and its audience and the information that must be understood by the communicator. The sections that follow present experimental studies in a rational, logical manner. As you write your report remember:
a) The report uses paragraphs to communicate through a logic structure with a beginning, middle, and end.
b) Each paragraph in the report uses sentences to provide a logical structure with a beginning, middle, and end.
c) Each sentence consists of carefully chosen words to clearly and concisely communicate the facts required in the above structure.
Think about the logical structure of your report as you read the sections described below. Keep in mind what your reader expects and what you have to know in order to present the clearest information to these readers.
Title: The title should be as brief as possible, consistent with clarity. Seven to eight well chosen words is a typical length. Industry readers do not need vast explanations; they need clear directions to the report within.
Abstract (Summary): Although it is placed first it should not be written until all other parts of the report have been completed. It should state, in simple declarative sentences what was attempted and accomplished, how it was accomplished only if special techniques were utilized, and what was achieved. That is, it should contain the main results and the main conclusions based on the results. The abstract should be written with the expectation that it will be printed separately from the report.
This is both the shortest and most difficult section to write. It is also the most important. In technical publications, the abstract, and only the abstract, is what most people will read. Therefore, it must communicate all the relevant ideas and results in 1-2 paragraphs. (250-350 words)
Remember that in the abstract, details of the experiment, which are in the past, need a past tense verb. The use of the past tense verb will keep the reader from getting confused over when actions took place. We use this kind of an abstract to allow the reader to see what was accomplished along with what was actually desired when the experiment began. Engineers out in industry do not have time need great volumes of reports. They rely on the abstracts to give them the insight into what the experiment was about.
Table of Contents: List each heading along with the page where it can be found in the report. The Table of Contents is not listed, nor is the Abstract. One is obvious (table); the other should not be listed because it cannot rely upon the report for backup, for figures, or for additional information, The Abstract must stand alone and present the required information without any need for the reader to go into the report for explanation.
Nomenclature Listing: List and define all symbols used in the report. They should be listed alphabetically, Arabic then Greek. Whirlwind readers need to have a place where they can easily find an explanation of the symbols that you use in the Analysis section. Be aware that abbreviations should be left in the text and not in the Nomenclature i.e. Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
Introduction: The introduction should state the motivation for the experiment and the background information that is relevant for the present study. Note that the essential task for the introduction is to orient the engineering staff to the substance of the experiment and the context in which it was executed. Whirlwind corporation has invested a great deal of money in both the experimental and simulation equipment for you to prepare your findings. There is a need to give the Whirlwind engineers a clear picture of why you have chosen to do the experimentation that you are conducting. Make sure that you refer to the product that is being considered and the importance of the work that you are doing, especially why it will be beneficial to the development of the product.
When referring to the present report, it is acceptable to use the present tense. Future tense will explain what could be projected into future
circumstances. In the introduction make use of an active voice. Use direct statements and stay away from the passive voice as much as you can in technical writing. For example, use, "We boiled the water.", not "The water was boiled by us."
The introduction should briefly introduce the material contained in the report by noting what is presented in each of the sections to follow. Most
Whirlwind engineers do not look at the Table of Contents. It is therefore important for them to briefly know what you have in store for them after you have motivated them to read your report.
Analysis: Each experiment can, and should be analytically supported when presented in this section. The analysis should proceed from the general (and well-known) basic relationships and evolve the specific formulae to be used in the interpretation of the data. Note that the symbols must be clearly defined. It is usually appropriate to make use of a defining sketch. All of the symbols used should appear in the "Nomenclature" described above. Analytical results which have been previously derived and which are readily available, for example equations from a text, can be quoted with suitable reference. Their derivation need not be repeated, if that derivation is not important to the Whirlwind engineer's understanding of the experiment.
All relevant mathematical analysis should be presented. What is crucial to a good analysis are the supporting explanations and commentary on the mathematics. Do not require the reader to consult lab handouts or textbooks to understand the specific analysis required for the experiment. If it is important enough to mention, it is important enough to include.
Experimental Equipment and Procedure: A schematic representation of the experimental equipment or simulation program, including detailed views of unusual or important components, is a valuable aid in informing the reader about the experiment. The sketch can be used to document pertinent dimensions of the apparatus and it can be used to specify the specific experimental equipment used for the study. If the procedure used in the experiments is not an established one, it is necessary to include details of the techniques used. The criterion here is that someone familiar with the general area of investigation should be able to exactly reproduce your experiments from the information given in this section. Be careful to describe the experimental procedure in the past tense. You may slip into the present tense when describing the procedure needed to perform the experiment by a second party. In this section, the report's flow and overall feel can be destroyed by an incomplete or incorrect discussion of the experiment procedure and equipment. Some major points to remember are:
1 - When first referencing a figure, give the figure on the same page (or next page) as the explanation about it. It is distracting for the reader to have to look through the report to find a clarifying figure.
2 - Make figures at least one-third of a page in size. Figures that are too small are hard to read.
3 - Figures and tables should have clear and complete titles. If they are removed from the report, the information presented and its contents should still be clear. A short explanation of the figure contents under the title is normally necessary.
//Results: This is the section where the answers obtained from the analysis or experiments are presented. This section should contain short declarative statements of the results in reference to your presentation of specific graphic or tabular data which are also presented. The purpose of these statements is to tell the reader (without discussion) what the author's interpretation of the results is, based upon the answers or data which are also presented. Keep in mind that the same data or answer could be interpreted in more than one way, thus the importance of your stated results. When stating these results vary your sentence structure. Don't fall into colloquial, jargonish, or slang language, but aim for smooth flowing paragraphs which show more than just a mass of subject-verb-object structures. This section is a logical presentation of what was observed in the experiment.
Don't forget that your readers may have picked up your report in mid- stream, meaning that they have read the Abstract then possibly gone directly to the Results. Never assume that the report will be read from page 1 to the end. It seldom happens that way.
In the industrial arena only certain things are important to certain people, therefore you will need to prepare readers for the sections that you write. This is especially important in the Results section where you want your readers to see the results in the same light that you do. Five birds sitting on a fence mean a lot of different things to a lot of different people.
The communicator should also distinguish between "Figures," which are schematic drawings, photographs, graphs, etc. and "Tables," which are tabular compilations of data or computational results. Each type of data presentation should be sequentially numbered with a title: e.g. "Figure 1. Schematic of the combustion chamber."
Give readers a sense of what you observed without an elaboration of what it means.
While you are to present your data without discussion, do not present it without explanation. A results section with only tables and graphs in it is hard to understand. Remember, you want to make it as easy as possible for the reader to understand your message.
Discussion: This section may start with a very brief summary statement of the results and then proceed to a discussion of these results. The principal task is to interpret the results, to note what is "as expected", what is unexpected, and what is of technical interest. The interpretation of the results in terms of the motivation for the experiment and its correlation to the current Whirlwind Corporation project should be the focus of the discussion. The discussion could involve a comparison with other similar investigations or comparison with expected results. The strong points of the work should be brought out here along with any limitations, because if the writer does not point out the limitations of his work, someone else surely will later. It may also be legitimate to comment on possible future investigations. Discuss the experimental specific results, using references to the accuracy of the measurements. It is useful to note the estimated uncertainties and their effect on the calculated values. For example: "The pressure was 0.0 + in H2O and the velocity was 30 + 10 fps. Note that the "information content" of this example is much larger than the statement: "the manometer liquid was fluctuating and the pressure could not be accurately measured." It is extremely important to provide specific discussions and avoid vague modifiers such as: greater than, about, like, and sort of.
Keep in mind that good paragraph construction will present a thesis statement or idea and then give supporting details for that thesis. When new points need to be made make sure you move to new paragraphs. You should design the discussion to follow a logical progression that will support the conclusions of the next section. Judge the information that you are providing to the readers. Readers have specific expectations. They expect to be presented information in a pattern that presents what is known first and then what is new second. Sentences start with old or known information and then expand upon this information with new related information.
Conclusions: A useful style is to state: "The following conclusions are supported by the results of this study": and then to list these in one or more simple (declarative) sentences using numbers to differentiate each separate conclusion. See the summary page in the ASignal Processing@ section for an example. Remember that Whirlwind engineers are looking for concise statements that clearly tell them what your results and discussion have formulated. They are not interested at that point about further investigation or explanation. They want the masses of data synthesized into the briefest conclusions that you can make.
References: The list of references used should be included, with great care taken to follow the specified format of the organization for whom the report is being written. The suggested format for this lab is shown below.
References are to be grouped at the end of the manuscripts and are to be given as follows:
1. Walker, R.E., A.R. Stone, and M. Shandor. "Secondary Gas Injection in a Conical Rocket Nozzle. " AIAA Journal, Vol. 1, No. 2, Feb. 1963, pp. 334-338.
2. Turner, M.J., H.C. Martin, and R.C. Leible. "Further Development and Applications of Stiffness Method. " Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, 1st ed., Vol. 1, New York: Macmillan, 1964, pp. 203-206.
3. Segre, E., ed. Experimental Nuclear Physics. 1st ed., Vol. 1, New York: Wiley, 1953, pp. 6-10.
4. Book, E. and H. Bratman. "Using Compilers to Build Compilers." SP-176, Aug. 1960, Systems Development Corp., Santa Monica, Calif.
5. Soo, S.L. "Boundary Layer Motion of a Gas-Solid Suspension." Proceedings of the Symposium on Interaction between Fluids and Particles, Institute of Chemical Engineers, Vol. 1, 1962, pp. 50-63.
Always give inclusive page numbers for references to journal articles and a page or chapter number for books. Each reference must be cited in the text. (Taken from the AIAA Journal Instructions to Authors.)
Appendices: Simple or lengthy calculations, or side issues that are not really in the main theme of the report, should be relegated to the appendix. A criterion for the deciding whether or not to put something in the appendix is to ask the question "Is its inclusion in the main body of the report required for the logical description of the investigation?" If the answer is "No", the item should either be left out or put in the appendix.
Please bear in mind that these are the briefest possible comments about a very important area of engineering and science. It is quite likely that in the future you will spend a great deal of your time in the preparation of and the reading of technical reports. Your skill in these two areas will in large part determine your advancement in your chosen profession.
General Rules:
1) Type the report. NEVER use pencil. MINOR CORRECTIONS and unusual symbols can be neatly inserted in black pen.
2) Use short, DIRECT sentences and correct grammar.
3) Use one side of the page only.
4) Start a new topic (heading) on a new page.
5) Number all pages including graphs and charts.
6) Figures should be clearly labeled on axes. They should have a title and possibly a short descriptive phrase after the title explaining the Figure. The convention for placement of tables or figures is that the bottom of the table or figure will be on the bottom or right-hand side of the report page.
7) Figures should appear in the text on the same page or immediately after they are mentioned in the text. Key data curves if there are two or more lines.
NOTE: Most Colleges of Engineering have PC based technical word processors available, so use them. No one should have to type their report on a mechanical typewriter. Reports have a professional appearance when the equations and tables are machine produced.
These word processing systems are available in a variety of levels. Some require a great deal of effort; others require only minimal amounts of time in order to master simple usage. As you progress and need more and more features, keep in mind that word processing will be with you for the rest of your life. As an engineer you will find little in the world that does not require you to be competent in computer usage.
One way to make life easier for you with the computer is to create your own help file. As you discover particular things that you use continually, make note of those activities and how you handle them on the computer. Make a list to keep by the computer. You will very quickly that you no longer need the list after only a short period of time.
ABSTRACTING
OBJECTIVES
RESULTS
CONCLUSIONS
IMPLICATIONS
USUALLY 1 PARAGRAPH
SINGLE SPACED
200 WORDS MAXIMUM
1) PRESENTS SUFFICIENT INFORMATION TO INTEREST READER
2) GIVES ENOUGH INFORMATION SO THAT READER WON'T HAVE TO READ WHOLE WORK
TWO TYPES
1) INDICATIVE - TABLE OF CONTENTS IN NARRATIVE FORM
2) INFORMATIVE - CONDENSED ACCOUNT OF THE OBJECTIVE,PROCEDURE, RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
ABSTRACTS
"A descriptive summary (abstract) is a table of contents in paragraph form; it is a general map for readers." - Michael Alley
1. Miniversion of the paper
2. It provides a brief summary of the main sections of the paper
3. It is a summary of the information in the paper
4. It enables readers to identify the basic content of the document quickly and accurately.
5. It gives reader the signal - to read or not
6. The abstract should
a. state the principal objectives and the scope of the investigation
b. describe the methodology involved
c. summarize the results
d. state the principal conclusions
(Notice that the conclusions appear in the abstract and in discussion along with a conclusion section)
7. Abstracts are written in the past tense because it is work that is already done
8. Abstracts should never reflect conclusions not voiced in the paper
9. Types of abstracts
a. The above is referred to as an informative abstract - obvious why
b. The second form is the indicative abstract.
10. The abstract is meant to stand by itself. Published alone, it must be self contained.
11. It should not contain bibliographic, figure, or table references.
12. The language should be familiar to the potential reader. No obscure abbreviations of acronyms.
13. Do not abbreviate.
14. Watch out for too little information, but also chop any superfluous info. Shortest abstract - e=mc2
15. Abstracts are single paragraph. It is the first thing read in a review process. It must be clear and simple.
16. A reviewer will generally make decisions by just reading the abstract - the paper will be icing. A bad abstract sets the stage for disaster.
Executive Summaries
You may be required to submit only an executive summary. This report boils all the work that you have done into the briefest document that you can make. It will contain information that an individual who amy not have all the technical expertise will need to make a clear decision on the work that you have done. It reduces all that work to the plain facts. It must describe the key elements of your work in nontechnical language. You go straight to the point with concise language. The executive summary focuses on the managerial side of business not the technical side. It should contain the following information:
1. The background of the situation or the problem
2. Implications of cost
3. Conclusions
4. Recommendations
If you have constructed abstracts before you will see a similarity. Both pieces of text utilize only a short space. They rely upon concise clear language to focus the reader's attention on what is being investigated, what has been done, the conclusions that this work has produced, and the course of action to be taken. In many cases, this will be the only text that is read before a decision is made to proceed on or call a halt to further action. With that understanding you will need to spend a great deal of careful time in preparing either the abstract or the executive summary.
The following abstract written by an engineering student reflects the checklist previously mentioned. By making sure that required items are included, you reflect upon what has been included and what needs to be addressed before the paper is turned in.
Abstract {11}
Experiments {10} were conducted {9} to access the applicability of digital signal analysis to the design, development, and testing of Whirlwind's new light aircraft gas turbine. These techniques could be used to monitor the transient and steady-state property variation of the new powerplant, predict potentially catastrophic failure, and pinpoint sources of extraneous noise generation {6}.
Several elementary sinusoidal and square wave signals were generated {9} by a commercially available Waveteck function generator. These signals were then converted {9} to the frequency domain by LabView's "Spectrum Analyzer" via the Fast Fourier Transform. Various combinations of sampling frequency and sample size were investigated {9}. When deemed appropriate, these signals were {9} also low-pass filtered {7,10}.
The Discrete Fourier Transform only accurately represented {9} components less than half the sampling frequency. Higher frequency components were reflected {9} across the Nyquist frequency or its integer multiples. This aliasing was eliminated {9} by low-pass filtering, but occasionally important signal components were discarded {9}. Whenever the input signal contained components that were not integer multiples of the frequency resolution, the magnitude of the corresponding spectrum peaks were diminished {9}. This leakage was reduced {9} by increasing the frequency resolution by increasing the sample size {8,10}. These signal analysis techniques proved {9} their utility and applicability to the new gas turbine project.
Here the student has addressed the important elements of the assignment, which were to tell the reader why the experiment was performed, how it was done, and what the principal results were.
Just looking at a few lines within the above text, you will notice some methods that the writer has used to make the text move easily. Line 6 starts the paragraph with "Several elementary sinusoidal and square waves," which prompts the reader to know what is to follow. It is important to lead the reader through the process of reading your text. You are the controller and it is vital that you keep control of the text's train of thought. Line 19 shows the writer relating " These signal analysis techniques" back to the previous sentence. Keep the reader following your lead. make sure that the reader is not allowed to assume anything or travel paths that you have not paved with your ideas.
E-MAIL
E-mail has become a necessary part of existence in every office around the country. Messages gather in computer mailboxes at a phenomenal rate, and the returns that we send take up more and more of our time. It is, therefore, vitally important that we look closely at both what we receive and what we return to the sender. E-mail cannot be construed as simply an easy way to answer some call for information. It must be carefully read and the responses that we send must be as thoroughly created as any formal document. The presentation that we make to the outside world in the form of poor spelling habits, sloppy construction, and unreadable text can do no positive good for our status and in many cases may create a distinct negative impression. E-mail is a record of our text production. Once we have sent the message it is out of our hands and we can do nothing to change the content or its presentation. Here are a few` simple rules to follow:
1. Always read what you are sending. (Some people never do, and it shows.)
2. Make an effort to use grammatical conventions - proper sentence structure, subject/verb agreement, spelling, flow or ideas, etc.)
3. Proofread your copy. Did you say what you thought you said?
Are there gaps in your train of thought that will cause a reader to fail to understand your message?
4. Have you thought about your response before you pushed the key to send that response? Once it is gone, it is hard to explain glaring mistakes in logic.
E-mail is a fantastic tool, but it carries with it some very strong responsibilities and possibly damaging consequences. Never use it when a face-to-face dialog is needed. Do not use it when a formal document is required. E-mail does not carry the presentation status of a formal bound report. People will notice if you use a paper bag to do the job of an ornately wrapped present. Remember that e-mail may also not be as private as you think. It goes out over the phone lines, and these lines can be accessed by others. Computers are also not invulnerable to entry by a host of unwanted guests. Much as an unwanted person may read your letters sent through the mail or listen to your calls on the phone, an number of people may be checking through your e-mail. It is vital, therefore, hat you make every effort to use the tool wisely and not let it embarrass you or cause you undue grief.
Inappropriate Language
Since you are trying in your text to make your reader understand your message, it is important that you pattern the language that you use to the audience at hand. If it is a group of small children then you must talk to that group in language that they will understand. Since most of your text will be directed at audiences comprised of technical people you should learn to avoid language that does not reflect a technical writer. Language that is commonly called affective is dubbed with that title because it looks very impressive and appears complex, but in actuality it is useless to most readers because of their inability to understand its meaning or intent. Technical writing is direct, concise, and above all clear. If you write simply to impress, you will fail many more times than you succeed. What follows are some examples of things that you will need to change in they crop up in your text used improperly.
altercation -- dispute utilize -- use
contiguous -- touching facile -- easy
innocuous -- harmless oblique -- indirect
ulterior -- hidden elucidate -- make clear
expedite -- hurry along
Now, you will immediately say, "Wait a minute I use those all the time!" If you look at the sentence before the list, you will notice a small thought - don't write to impress and use words properly. If you are -- no problem.
PROGRESS REPORTS
At some time in every job, you will be asked to indicate how you are progressing toward some goal. Managers, co-workers, stockholders, or you your self will want to know where you are positioned in some course of action. The Progress Report appears as the means by which you can report on your status.
Commonly the progress report will have sections much like any other report prepared for a manager:
Beginning
Introduction
Project Description
Middle
Summary of what you have done
In brief terms, the sections are explained as follows.
Beginning - Here you capture the interest of the readers by informing them of what you are going to do in the report. You give a clear indication of what the report is and where it is going to lead the readers. You expose the readers to the scope of the work being done, the overall progress to date, the purpose of the work, and any changes that have been required in the project.
Middle - Here the reader is acquainted with the time span of the project and where you are in the overall plan. Things that have been done and the time required to finish them can be contained in this section. It is also important to explain to the reader the particular tasks that have been accomplished and the tasks that need to be completed.
Ending - Draw the whole paper together. Summarize the main points of action and reiterate where you are along the road to completion.
Remember that these may be used to stop a project in midstream or used to give added help to completing a project with additional help. The reports need to be attractive and easy to understand.
PROBLEM STATEMENTS
As you begin to work on projects you may be required to present a problem statement concerning the work that you assume is to be done and the course that you will take to accomplish the solution to the problem. Problem solving is an integral part of engineering. It has been found that the initial statement of the problem is more vital than the solution itself. If you are not on the right track in the beginning, you may not successfully reach the solution that is necessary. So here are some basics:
1). Work with data that you have collected - analyze all the avenues of pursuit in finding a solution.
2). Utilize personal contacts with individuals who know about the problem.
3).investigate the problem first hand.
4). In the first views if the problem, make sure that everything that is in
front of you is correct.
With data in front of you, you can start to prepare the document that will be called the problem statement. It will contain a clear indication of what you perceive the problem to be. It is necessary that you address the actual problem and not peripheral problems that do not address the core problem. A clear statement of the true problem allows you to proceed on the course of seeking a solution to that problem. In your document you can then expand on those steps that you will take to reach a conclusion.
Remember the old joke that really was a problem needing a solution.
"A man went to the doctor and complained of a stiff neck. He said that every morning when he got up and dressed he experienced the stiff neck. He was unable to turn his neck and it was causing him much grief. The only way he had found to be comfortable was to not get out of bed and not go to work. For him to come to the doctor had caused him even more pain. The doctor asked him what else he had done to solve the problem. The man listed a whole variety of remedies that he had tried. None had helped. The doctor looked at the man, analyzed the situation and said quietly, " When you get up in the morning take the coat hanger out of the shirt that you are going to wear before you put that shirt on. " The problem was solved.
Use the above to look closely at the problems you will encounter and take the right path.
THANK-YOU NOTES
After interviewing for a job or preparing your plans for a co-operative position, you should make every effort to send thank-you letters to the individuals who interviewed you. You shouldn't wait more than 48 hours to send these letters, and remember that these may be just the thing that put you before the competition. Make them businesslike and concise.
Using the sample formats from the letters section use the following suggestions:
1st paragraph
Thank the interviewer for the interview and signify your interest in working for the company.
2nd paragraph
Mention again your qualifications.This is the time to state any positive qualities that you may have forgotten at the interview.
3rd paragraph
Close the letter with a final thank you and express your interest in hearing from the interviewer and the company. Provide the interviewer with phone numbers where you can be reached and your e-mail address if you have one. If you would like to have a firmer hold on the response give a specific time within which you will follow up the letter with a phone call.
Things to remember:
1. Make each thank-you letter a separate entity. Don't use form letters. Try to personalize the interview so that the reader will get a positive feeling from the text.
2. If you get a rejection, follow the same procedure above. The positive value of your response may open up new doors to employment.
3. In cover letters, than-you letter, and resumes; it is best to keep to the same kind and color of paper.
COVER LETTERS
Cover letters can sometimes become one of the most important documents that you will create in your early career, or should we say pre-career. Cover letters travel in the mail with resumes and transcripts. They are in many cases the only view that an employer has of you. They open doors, but they can slam them shut, too. The cover letter functions as your introduction to the prospective employer. As you look at the items that follow, keep in mind why these items are being included in the cover letter. View the letter as a clear indication of what you can offer the employer. If they don't like what they read, you may never get the chance to talk to them in person.
Therefore, what should you include in a cover letter. In the briefest terms here is what you should address in the letter.
1. All pertinent information that are needed - your address, phone number and likewise the information about the person to whom you are writing.
2. 1st paragraph - The reason that you are writing the letter.
The source of your information about the employer
What you would like to do in the future
3. 2nd paragraph - Your impression of what your resume shows. This is where you can give your view of what the resume shows.
4. 3rd paragraph - New information that may not be ready to be included in the resume.
This could include things that are going on at the moment - courses,
research, or completion of activities.
5. 4th paragraph - Your summing up in a thank you for the consideration that hopefully will be given to your resume and letter. Here you can offer your phone number for calls, and you can inform the employer that you will call the company to confirm receipt of the letter or to check on interview schedules.
Every effort must be made to make these letters present a positive impression of you. A good deal of should be spent in perfecting a quality cover letter.
LETTERS IN GENERAL
The need to correspond is strong in all of us, and one of the ways that we do that is thorough the written word. We write papers and scribble notes, but the formal letter sent to a prospective employer, funding agency, or information gathering operation may be answered or not answered simply because of the quality of the letter that you send. Letters should be clearly written, to the point, and positive. They need to reflect whatever it is that you want and not require the reader to try to discover for themselves what the letter concerns. In many cases, the letter is the only contact that you will have with the person receiving the correspondence. If what you have sent is not quality production, you then already have strikes against you from which you may not recover. Use the format below to help you write better text.
LETTERHEAD
DOUBLE
DATE
DOUBLE TWICE
INSIDE ADDRESS
DOUBLE
SUBJECT
DOUBLE
DEAR
DOUBLE
PARAGRAPH
DOUBLE
SINCERELY
DOUBLE TWICE
YOUR NAME
ALTERNATE
DATE
DOUBLE TWICE
INSIDE ADDRESS
DOUBLE
SUBJECT
DOUBLE
DEAR
DOUBLE
PARAGRAPH
DOUBLE
SINCERELY
DOUBLE TWICE
___________
YOUR NAME +
ADDRESS
REGULAR
YOUR ADDRESS
DATE
DOUBLE TWICE
INSIDE ADDRESS
DOUBLE
SUBJECT
DOUBLE
DEAR
DOUBLE
PARAGRAPH
DOUBLE
SINCERELY
DOUBLE TWICE
YOUR NAME
Construct a response to the three letters that follow:
25 January 1995
Harrison Sanders
College of Engineering
Memphis State University
Memphis, TN 67219
Gunn/Hotton Consultants
5603 Beechwood Drive
Hagar Shores, MI 49038
Dear Craig,
I was pleased to hear that you have a varied group of engineers in your course this spring. It is really nice to have a group that reflects the many aspects of the engineering area. We have finally decide to get into the graduate education business and I would really like to hear about some of the ideas that your students might be thinking about regarding graduate studies that they might be considering for the future. I could them compare this sot our students' responses and see what we can generate to offer in the future. So, if you would please ask your students to send me a short idea of what we could offer as research possibilities and why it would be important for them or our students. Thanks a lot.
Sincerely,
25 January 1995
Paul Prellen Ph.D. edc-112.56
NASA
P.O.Box CIA
Bent Fork, Virginia 82501
Gunn/Hotton Consultants
5603 Beechwood Drive
Hagar Shores, MI 49038
Dear Dr.Gunn:
It has come to our attention that you have access to information that may be beneficial to certain segments of the US population. It is not within our directive to divulge these segments, but please be assured that they are true Americans in every sense of the word. The information that we have alluded to reflects the students who are currently enrolled in your ME491.602 course for spring 1995. These students appear to mirror exactly the kind of students being sought by the above segment of the US population. We would, therefore, appreciate your help in discovering the type of work that they might suggest for funding by our consortium of agencies. If you will have them send us short letters explaining work that they could see as beneficial, we will make every effort to address funds for that work.
Sincerely yours,
Paul Prellin Ph.D.
PP/ch
25 January 1995
Nate Toner
222 Student Services Bldg.
Michigan State University
East Lansing. MI 48824-1354
Gunn/Hotton Consultants
5603 Beechwood Drive
Hagar Shores, MI 49038
Dear Mr.Gunn:
We have discovered a very interesting happening here at the Student Services building. We have had a number of requests for students to visit their old high schools to speak to current juniors who will be preparing their applications for colleges. A majority of these requests have come from teachers who would specifically like to have engineering majors visit their classes. When we tabulated the lists, we discovered that all of the current requests are for students enrolled in ME 491.602. Their high school teachers must have thought highly of them or they never would have requested them by name. The only condition that was made by most of the teachers was that they would like a clear indication of what topics your students will talk about to their classes. It appears that they have had some problems with students coming into their classes and talking about parties, booze, and class breaks. If your students could give a brief description of their talks it would be appreciated. Also, please have them simply address it to their favorite teacher at the high school that they graduated from. Thanks for the efforts.
Sincerely yours,
Nate Toner
NT/jyt
RESUMES
The formats for resumes are wide and varied, but ultimately you have to decide upon a form that you can be happy with. Of primary concern is the way in which the resume will be viewed. Will a prospective employer find it a positive presentation of you or a negative check on your capabilities? Therefore, keep in mind that the reader of the resume wants to know some very pertinent information - who you are, what degrees you have, what jobs you have held and their work descriptions (what you did), and how active you have been in extracurricular. Obviously each employer will put a different percentage weight to each of these areas, but they do have an effect upon the reader. The format that follows is simply one of many. The important elements are highlighted.
Name
College address Permanent address
Objective: An entry level position in (Give the reader some choices for your interests.)
Education: YOUR DEGREE (not your school - school is second line)
your school
when you will graduate - Expected Date of Graduation
your grade point
% of college expenses that you have paid
Work
Experience: Your Job Title
The company for which you worked
What you did on the job
List the jobs from the most recent in backward progression
Activities: List all the activities that you participate in
(evaluate them as to their importance - daydreaming may not be a good thing to list - whereas volunteer teaching may be quite valuable.)
make sure that as many people as you can read the resume. Listen and evaluate all the comments that you get from these readers, and then customize the resume to fit your needs.
PRESENTATIONS
(Just a few ideas to think about when you go out to present your technical material)
1. TRIM ALL VERBAL FAT
2. ELIMINATE NOTHING SENTENCES
3. USE CONCRETE TERMS
4. WRITE TIGHT SENTENCES - LEAN
5. JUSTIFY ADJECTIVES.
6. WATCH THE JARGON OR SHOP TALK
"TACTICAL NUCLEAR EXCHANGE"
"OVERKILL"
"GOOD SOCIO-ORIENTED LIFE SKILLS"
7. BE CAREFUL OF "WISE"
COSTWISE/TRAFFICWISE
8. AVOID LOTS OF QUOTES
9. USE APPROPRIATE WORD
10.USE SMALL WORDS
11.IF YOU MUFF THE LINES - DON'T PANIC
TAKE A BREATH - AND SIMPLY EXPLAIN
QUICKLY THAT YOU NEED TO REGROUP
12.STAGE FRIGHT
FORGET ABOUT YOURSELF, THE SPEECH, THE AUDIENCE
15.GET THE MOVEMENTS IN LINE WITH IDEAS
16.USE VARIETY
17.USE RESERVE
18.TYPES Of GESTURES
ENUMERATIVE - ONE, TWO
DESCRIPTIVE - 2-INCHES LONG WITH FINGERS
LOCATIVE - ABOVE AND MOVE HAND
SYMBOLIC - GOD AND RAISE YOUR EYES
EMPHATIC - CLENCHED FIST SCARLET OHARA
POSTURE - CONCERNED ONLY WITH STANCE
CAGED LION - BACK AND FORTH
PINBALL PLAYER - GRABS PODIUM AND HANGS ON
MONEY MAN - HANDS IN POCKET
TEETER-TOTTER - ROCKS BACK AND FORTH
CHALK-CHUCKER - CHALK HANDLER
HITCH-HIKER - PULLING UP PANT
FACE-RUBBER - RUBS EYES AND FOREHEAD
FIG LEAFER - HANDS IN FRONT OF BODY
DRESSER-UPPER - ALWAYS CHECKING CLOTHES
19.THINGS TO REMEMBER
SPECIFY THE PURPOSE
DETERMINE THE SCOPE
KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE
ASSEMBLE YOUR IDEAS
VISUAL AIDS
A. TABLE OF ORGANIZATION
B. FLOW CHART
C. SCHEMATIC/DIAGRAMMATIC - WHERE THINGS ARE
D. BAR GRAPH
E. LINE GRAPH -- FIGURES THAT YOU ARE COMFORTABLE WITH SHOWING
RELATIONSHIPS
F. DIVIDED CIRCLE GRAPH/PIE CHART
G. PICTOGRAPH
WHEN TO PLACE IN TEXT
1. WHEN NEEDED TO ADVANCE THE READER'S IMMEDIATE UNDERSTANDING.
2. APPEND A VISUAL NEEDED ONLY TO SUPPORT THE READER'S PROCESS OF UNDERSTANDING.
WITH VISUALS
1. DEFINE AND CLARIFY
2. EXEMPLIFY
3. CLASSIFY AND DIVIDE
4. COMPARE AND CONTRAST
5. DESCRIBE A PROCESS
6. ILLUSTRATE PARTS
7. CLARIFY RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PARTS
WHEN TO USE
1. WHERE WORDS WOULD BE EITHER IMPOSSIBLE OR QUITE INEFFICIENT FOR DESCRIBING A CONCEPT.
2. MAKE THE TITLE MEANINGFUL
3. IF SLIDES GROUP FOR EFFECT AND NOT LIGHTS OUT
4. SLIDES NEED TO BE 2X2
5. BLACKBOARDS MAKE FOR A SHODDIER APPEARANCE. HANDOUTS OKAY BUT BE CAREFUL (THEY TAKE TIME AND ORGANIZATION.
EDITING
Peer editing. Proofreading. Getting the most of out of a reader. Editing your text. Using the tools of previous lessons. Darwin (not from Sea Quest.)
A) READ FOR FLOW - DOES THE MOVEMENT THROUGH THE SECTION APPEAR TO PROGRESS EASILY OR DOES IT APPEAR CHOPPY AND HARD TO FOLLOW.
ARE THERE THINGS MISSING THAT YOU FEEL CAUSE A DISTRACTION IN
THE READING.
ARE SENTENCES SET UP SO THAT INFORMATION MOVES FROM THE OLD OR KNOWN INFORMATION TO THE NEW INFORMATION.
ARE THERE SUITABLE TRANSITIONS TO ALLOW FOR EASY READING.
B) DO YOU NOTICE WHERE THE WRITER HAS REPEATED WORDS THAT COULD EASILY BE DROPPED OR REWORDED.
C) HAVE THE WRITERS GIVEN YOU WHAT IS ASKED FOR.
D) COMMENT ON DEFICIENCIES AND ON THINGS THAT YOU NOTICE AS POSITIVE; WHAT MAKES YOU FEEL INFORMED AS A READER.
E) LOOK AT IDEAS IN THE PARAGRAPH; DO THEY MOVE IN A LOGICAL ORDER.
F)DO THE PARAGRAPHS HAVE CENTRAL IDEAS AND SUPPORTING SENTENCES.
EDITING
A. YOU ARE NOT THE BEST EDITOR OF WHAT YOU WRITE.
B. MAKE AN EFFORT TO GET YOUR WORK OUT TO OTHER READERS
PROOFREADING
A. USE THE REVISION TECHNIQUE PREVIOUSLY MENTIONED
B. READ BACKWARDS
C. READ IT OUT LOUD
OUTLINING
A. IT DOESN'T HAVE TO BE FORMAL BUT SOME KIND OF DIRECTION IS IMPORTANT.
Here we look a just a piece of text and see how some of the elements of the report work for creating a good atmosphere for reading and learning about the content.
Notice how the writer connects the first two sentences through requirements and the first phase of the project.
Here the use of the pronoun it links sentence 1 to sentence 2 in the paragraph.
Finally signals an end to the idea flow in the paragraph.
Notice this signal and its ability to help the flow of the text.
Look at all the underlined items in the text. They indicate flow techniques used to keep the reader moving easily through the reading.
Introduction
Whirlwind Corporation requires dynamic signal analysis techniques to aid the design of their new light aircraft gas turbine. The first phase of the project entails testing and evaluation of instrumented prototype systems for use in the development stage. Reviewing signal processing fundamentals and evaluating test equipment is of primary importance at this time, but the development group's ultimate objective is to provide a new industry standard {20B}.
Whirlwind's revolutionary turbine design will set several new benchmarks {22}. It will provide 30% better energy efficiency and 20% more peak power than similar products currently available {20B}. Moreover, it will require significantly less engine compartment space and allow designers to reduce aircraft weight {22}. Both undesirable vibration and extraneous noise emission will also be substantially reduced {22}. Finally, its projected 10,000 hour median life before failure will not be overlooked {20B}.
Tests of the transient and steady-state operation of the new turbine will generate many signals. Of course, the Development Group will analyze the variation of the working fluid's thermodynamic and transport properties {20A}. The "frequency signature" of the vibrating components will also be determined {20A}. Small variations in this signal often indicate imminent failure. By measuring and modifying the natural frequencies of the turbine and its forcing functions, catastrophic failure due to resonance can also be avoided. Finally, the acoustic output of the turbine will be monitored, and sources of unwanted noise will be pinpointed and eliminated {20A}. Although the Development Group will collect data in the time domain, most of the analysis will be completed in the frequency domain {21}.
The Development Group's current investigation focuses on elementary sinusoidal and square wave signals {21}. Although these waves do not represent actual turbine test data, their analysis highlights difficulties encountered in digital signal processing. Specifically, the sampling frequency and the quantity of data collected determine the accuracy and precision of the results generated {21}. These parameters also predetermine the instrumentation's range of frequency
FLOW
Mention has been made throughout this text concerning the flow that is necessary to sustain a reader's attention. Flow is a feeling that a reader gets when reading any written text. The feeling sensed is that the ideas move smoothly in a concerted effort toward some conclusion. The facts are presented in an orderly fashion, and the language used is at the level of the reader. Some people will read through an assignment and have no idea why the text is easily readable. They just seem to know that it was not a grueling activity to process the given material. This is fine for a reader, but what should the writer attempt to do in order to make the text easier to handle for the reader. The following course of action can help to make the text that you write a more enjoyable activity for your readers.
Some easy things:
1) Proofread your text. There is nothing more horrifying than reading a text that is full of mistakes. The spell checker cannot think. It can only look for words that look like the one you tried to spell. It does not know what you wanted to use.
2) Be consistent. Don't use varying forms of spellings, abbreviations, and forms that should be uniform in usage. For example, if you capitalize Figure and Table in the beginning of the text, keep doing it that way throughout the text. If you capitalize something on one page, don't lower case it on the next page. Make sure it is right the first time and use it correctly as you progress through the text. Your readers may not notice, but they will notice if you vacillate around using a variety of forms that are not correct.
3) Be conscious of what you like when you read a text. Put yourself in the reader's shoes. Don't do things that you dislike when you read a text.
4) Read what you have written out loud. If you stumble through it, how do you think your readers will fare. Mark those places that cause you difficulty and make an effort to improve their flow.
You read this far and seem to want to make your readers comfortable. Here are some specific things that may make your readers even more pleased with your written production. These items refer to the actual words that can be used in your writing to create a greater sense of flow in the text. Again a reader may not pick them out consciously, but they will feel them as they read.
1) The most common flow activity that we seem to recognize is the use of transitional words. These words allow the writer to connect one idea to the next, one sentence to another, one paragraph to another. First, then, on the other hand, besides, furthermore, therefore, similarly, in lieu of this, likewise, finally, as a result.
2) Another way of linking your text ideas so that a reader feels the flow is to use something that you learned in elementary school (Notice the "another way" at the beginning of the paragraph - it helps to link this and the previous paragraph.). It is time to resurrect the pronoun. It is very appropriate to use pronouns to draw needed connections in text. "The lab was a mixture of difficult equations and painstaking work. It was not meant to be an easy exercise." The reader is drawn into the second sentence and sees the connection through the use of "it" which refers back to the experiment. These pronouns serve as a link between sentences currently being read and those already finished.
3) Repetition can also help your readers. You must be careful, though. Too much repetition makes a reader want to stop reading because they become tired of the over usage of the same words. Your job is to make the repetition just enough. You want the emphasis but not the tiredness of overuse.
4) Work with a variety of words. Repetition helps to reinforce the reader's knowledge of what you are saying, but overuse does not help the text to flow. Always evaluate the words that you use in order to provide the reader with variety and continuity of ideas.
5) Make an effort to link paragraphs together by alluding to what will appear in the next paragraph or stating it directly.
Transitions allow the reader to see connections between varying ideas and statements. You cannot expect the reader to simply "know" what is going on. Readers must be led in order to follow the progress of your ideas. Lack of transitions is a primary cause for a reader's lack of interest in a text.
All of the ideas expressed earlier filter through your mind, realize that the concerns of your reader should be foremost in your mind. The content that you are giving them must be presented in such a fashion that they can understand the technical material, follow the manner in which it is presented, and see the quality of the presentation itself. Grammatical issues must be addressed, and the ease of reading should be reflected in a text that allows steady unencumbered movement through the material. The text reflects what you know about a subject, but it also reflects what you understand about your readers. A well-constructed piece of writing makes a reader feel that the text was written just for them.
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