Outline the causes of the Battle of Marathon



Outline the causes of the Battle of Marathon. Evaluate the historical significance of the attack on Athens at Marathon in 490BC.

Greek city states such as Athens and Sparta often among themselves, despite the potential and dangerous foreign enemies like Persia being out their doorstep. During the 5th century BC, Greek city states and the Persian Empire clashed in a series of wars. These wars between Greece and Persia were known as the Greco-Persian Wars and lasted until 448 BC. Historically, the Greek armies were grossly outnumbered and small in comparison to the Persian army which was enormous. Considered as underdogs throughout the course of the war, the Greeks were ruthless, inexorable and unyielding in the face of the powerful Persians. Of all conflicts fought between the Greeks and Persians, the Battle at Marathon; much acclaimed for its military engagements and the aftermath of the war; it would be remembered as one of the most epic of battles fought of antiquity.

The Battle of Marathon (490 BC) was the culmination of King Darius I of Persia's first major attempt to conquer the remainder of the Greeks and add them to the Persian Empire, thereby securing the weakest portion of his Western border.[1]

Persia had several reasons for their attack on Athens at Marathon. Herodotus largely claims that it was revenge that pushed Darius to war with the Greek states.[2] Darius understood the capture of Greece as an economic opportunity. The capture of Athens would have then given Darius traction on Greece. Lastly, Persian influence could be extended over the whole of Greece as a result of Persian conquest, thus leading to Persia’s step official steps of western expansion.

Darius planned his attack by landing his army at Marathon and from there march on to Athens. Athens was in dire need of help and therefore asked help from Sparta. Sparta subsequently sent 600 hoplites to join Athens’s 9000 hoplites. The Greek army, led by War Archon Callimachus and Miltiades, faced Persia’s 20 000 infantry, 5000 cavalry, 200 triremes and 40 000 sailors.

In due course, the Greeks lined up across the plain of Marathon. Their tactic was to have further hoplites on the flanks other than the centre. The rights flanks were commanded by Callimachus and the Plateans commanding the left. With this tactic, the mighty Persians were trounced by the Greeks, though in the centre; Greek defence had broken through. However, with strong tactics, leadership, and skill, Persian offence collapsed. Furthermore, it was a defeat for Persia and victory for the Greeks. Amounting to the causalities, the Persians amounted 6400 dead whereas 192 for the Greeks. This victory was one of the greatest battles ever fought by the Greeks.

The Battle of Marathon is considered as one of the most significant wars fought between Greece and Persia. Marathon was decisive, yet important for Greek history. Nevertheless, it was a defining moment for Greece itself. The Athenians viewed the war of great historical significance to the history of western civilisation because of its wondrous achievements. It prompted the start of an epoch that would last for many generations.

Most of what is known of this battle comes from the Greek historian Herodotus in his Histories.[3] Herodotus, a Greek historian, recorded much of the conflicts between the two differing cultures. Herodotus’ writings were the only source for the account of the war and his findings clearly portray the extent of the war at Marathon. Thus, his findings are important in trying to portray the war’s significance.

The effects of the Battle at Marathon were immense for the two cultures. Persia’s defeat was heartbreaking whereas Greek victory was overwhelming. The Battle of Marathon was the first real check on Persia’s plans for western expansion.[4] Western expansion was ideal for the accumulation of greater resources, manual labour for slaves, wealth and so on. Therefore, the war had an absolute enormous effect on Persia’s plans for western expansion. The mighty Persians were bested on land and sea by small Greek-city states. However, the defeat was only temporary setback and did not deter them from making another attempt.[5] In an attempt to rectify mistakes, the Persians changed enormously their battle strategies and usual war preparations. Subsequently, the result of the war made the Persians hungrier than ever to bring about the downfall of Greece. All in all, as the reasons mentioned, the war was significant for the Persians merely on the fact that vast changes had to be implemented on their battle strategies. As suggested, if this wasn’t the case at Marathon, where the Persians, if had won, could have achieved their goals on western expansion.

On the Athenian point of view, the victory can be described as ‘inspirational’, ‘decisive’, ‘immense’, ‘massive’ and even ‘monumental’. The small Greek-city states had attested their ability to fight and win against all odds of the Persian army. As Cornelius Nepos states:

‘Than this battle there has hitherto been none more glorious; for never did so small a band overthrow so numerous a host’ (Miltiades chapter IV, translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson, MA).[6]

Cornelius Nepos describes the battle as being ‘none more glorious’ to ‘overthrow so numerous a host’. Accordingly, Persian defeat was a huge blow as Cornelius Nepos describes it. Their defeat brought numerous city-states into question referring to their submission to Persia. As a result, many city-states abandoned their submission to Persia and joined forces with the Athenians and Spartans. The submission of city-states from Persia to Greece was important for a number of reasons. The Athenian victory highlighted the significance of the battle because small city-states (Athens) had toppled powerful emergences like Persia. Usually, as predicted by all, the bigger army had bested over the small, though, at Marathon this wasn’t the case. The outcome of Marathon was therefore significant for all Athenians, and most importantly the submission of city-states to Greece had ensured the rise of a prolific Greek culture (age).

With this in mind, the Greeks no longer entrusted upon the belief that the Persian Empire was unbeatable. The battle showcased the lethal damage of Greek hoplites to the Persian army. This realisation therefore saw tremendous pride, self-confidence and faith in their democratic system and verified that a nation so powerful could be defeated. According to J.F.C. Fuller, he states:

‘Their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which western culture was born’ (J.F.C. Fuller, A Military History of the Western World).[7]

Consequently, as J.F.C. Fuller states – the victory gave rise to an epoch of Greek culture. J.F.C. Fuller also resonates over John Stuart Mill's opinion that Marathon was more important than the Battle of Hastings – event of British history. This epoch of Greek culture had profound effects on western civilization. These effects amounted heights in literature, in philosophy and politics, visual and dramatic arts, in sport, and many other aspects of human life. As a result, this victory was highly significant in revealing the reverberation of Greek culture. Today, Greek culture is evident in everybody’s consciousness. It is still evident today. For example: Greek literature, Greek playwright Aeschylus and the marathon run at the Olympics Games have all come from the flourish of Greek culture and is still today revered by all.

Conversely, if the battle had gone the other way, that is, with the Greek army defeated at Marathon; the Greeks would therefore been under the Persian Empire rule. If this happened, what would happen to the Greek culture? Would Greek culture ever exist today? And would Greek defeat see the rise of Persian culture? In summation, this outlook of the war in the different perspective would have changed the whole stance of world history. With this in mind, there would not have been a flourish of Greek culture. Art, literature, architecture, visual and dramatic arts, philosophy and politics, sport, and other forms of art presiding Greek culture would not have been established. The Greek culture which have spanned out right now to the present day would not exist today. The Greek playwright, Aeschylus was present at the battle. His death at Marathon would have changed the whole outlook of Greek tragedy. Many of Aeschylus' works were influenced by the Persian invasion of Greece. His play The Persians remains a quintessential primary source of information about this period in Greek history. [8] The war was so important to Greeks and to Aeschylus himself that, upon his death around 456 BC, his epitaph included a reference to his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon but not to his success as a playwright.[9] Art and literature would be then very different if Aeschylus had died at Marathon. As a result, this is therefore one of the most vital aspects of Marathon that held to great historical significance in antiquity.

According to John Stuart Mill, he describes the Battle of Marathon as more important than the Battle of Hastings because of its unforeseen effects upon Greek civilisation. As previously stated, this included literature, the visual and dramatic arts, in philosophy and politics, in sport, and in many other aspects of human life.

The poet Pindar lauded Athens as ‘Bulwark of Hellas … city of godlike men’. Marathon loomed large in the Athenian psyche; the men of Marathon were regarded as heroes. As Australia remembers and honours the original ANZACS, so do the Athenians and the rest of Greece, honouring the Marathon fighters. As previously mentioned, this too is an important aspect of historical significance at Marathon.

Their victory over the Persian Empire was instrumental. The Greeks developed growing confidence through their ability to defend themselves. In addition, Athenian confidence increased. Obtaining such confidence was very important and this would see Greek-city states further enhance their ability to defend themselves in future battles. Therefore, the association at Marathon was vital in unveiling this confidence in every Athenian.

Marathon was also important in unveiling the source of Greek religion. This was because that their link with their gods was further enhanced. The Athenians rely heavily on their Gods for assistance during the difficult times. Thus, Athenians believed that the gods had been with them during battle. In gratitude of their victory, the Athenians credited the gods Athena, Apollo and Artemis for their assistance. In honour and thanks for their assistance, the Boedromia, was established. Boedromia, a festival celebrated at Athens on the seventh day of the month of Boëdromion, in honour of Apollo Boëdromius.[10] The name Boëdromius, by which Apollo was called in Boeotia and other parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by this festival he was honoured as a martial god, who either by his actual presence or by his oracles afforded assistance in the dangers of war.[11] Thus, through this understanding of Marathon, it can be said that religion strengthened the beliefs of the Athenians and enhanced their ties with their gods, and thus, in turn brought about great significance of the war.

With confidence, rise as a prominent military head, faith, prestige and valour, Marathon was largely viewed as a triumph of democracy over tyranny. The idea that a small contingent of loyal, freedom loving citizens could hold off one of the largest and most powerful armies of the day has always captivated western thought.[12] In 487 BC would notice constitutional changes. These changes would lessen the authority of traditional positions and increase the power of the people. Strategoi was elected by the whole people whereas archons were chosen by lot. The strategoi had political as well as military importance with access to the ekklesia (assembly).[13] Thus, strategoi gradually replaced the archons in importance[14] and therefore, greatly increasing in importance.

As democracy triumphed, freedom also triumphed too. Marathon became a symbol of Greece’s commitment to freedom. Freedom to rule themselves in their own way was the motivating factor behind the young democracy’s stand.[15] With the desire to rule themselves and protect their infant democracy, freedom and democracy became further linked.

The Athenian victory was overwhelming and substantiated power – the Athenians gained prestige for defeat of the barbarian. Prestige marked the beginning of her emergence as the leading state in Greece. As described by Pindar, the ‘men of Marathon’ took on heroic proportions. For example: A coin minted in 486 commemorates the great Athenian victory at Marathon. Athenian victory captured the imagination of the world. The most obvious example of this is the Marathon race (run), which takes its name from the battle, celebrating the journey of the Greek hoplite that brought the joyful news of victory to Athens. This story of the Greek hoplite, known as Phiedippides, although appearing fictional, gave climb to the name of the track and field event which in turn was introduced in the 1896 Olympic Games at Athens. According to Herodotus, he recorded this:

‘And first, before they left the city, the generals sent off to Sparta a herald, one Pheidippides, who was by birth an Athenian, and by profession and practice a trained runner…’.[16]

Pheidippides became a prominent figure in Greek culture with his run at Marathon. The long run of Pheidippides became the inspiration for the marathon race, which was featured at the 1896 Olympic Games for the first time. Nowadays, the modern marathon distance is based on the run of Pheidippides, that is, a 26 mile run. The Marathon run was inevitably important because of its great impact to the world of sport.

With Pheidippides becoming famous and capturing the imagination of the world, the battle immortalized the name of such Miltiades; Greek commander. Miltiades was regarded a ‘hero’ of Marathon because of his wide military contributions. Miltiades utilised the ‘double envelopment’ strategy. The maneuver is mostly self-explanatory; the flanks of the opponent are attacked simultaneously in a pinching motion after the opponent has advanced towards the centre of an army which is responding by moving its outside forces to the enemy's flanks, in order to surround it.[17] At the same time, a second layer of pincers attacks on the more extreme flanks, so as to prevent any attempts to reinforce the target unit.[18] Miltiades, knowing tactics of the Persian army used this ‘double envelopment’ strategy which caused the downfall of the Persian Empire. Consequently, the ‘double envelopment’ strategy would see the inclusion of it in such tactics used by armies later on. For example: the ‘double envelopment’ strategy was used at the Battle of Tannenberg during World War I. Therefore, it is much acclaimed that the ‘double envelopment’ strategy was important in portraying the historical significance of Marathon because it was one of history’s famous military engagements.

As a result of their triumph at Marathon, it was nonetheless an important part of world history. The Battle of Marathon was a pivotal encounter where the Greeks defeated the Persians. Being so vastly outnumbered and odds all going to the way of the Persians, Greece had overlooked this perspective. Their victory waged for numerous monuments such as buildings, paintings and sculpture were erected at Athens, at Marathon and at Delphi to remind the Athenians and the rest of the Greeks of Athenian victory and pre-eminence. The Painted Stoa in the Agora of Athens is an example of a painting fresco that depicts the various stages of the battle. In essence for the first time, the Athenian victory gave rise to the prolific ‘age’ of Greek culture. The Classical Period or Golden age of Greece, from around 500 to 300 BC, has given us the great monuments, art, philosophy, architecture and literature which are the building blocks of our own civilization.[19] As a result, the epoch of Greek culture was instrumental in valuing the historical significance at Marathon. Athenian confidence and prestige hyped significance at Marathon. In addition, the Battle Marathon was a major accomplishment that awarded its place in world history.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

D. Clare, John (2004) Your Ancient Greece: Homework Helper, ticktock Entertainment Ltd, Great Britain

Bradley, Pamela (1998) Ancient Greece: Using Evidence, Edward Arnold (Australia) Pty Ltd, Sydney

, The Golden Age of Greece, , accessed on 1/09/08

Source – Herodotus, Histories Book II, 5th century BC

Thucydides, cited in Historical Periods, Peloponnesian War, II, 34-5

, NationMaster – Encyclopaedia: Double Envelopment, , accessed on 4/09/08

penelope.uchicago.edu, Boedromia, */Boedromia.html, accessed on 3/09/08

en., J.F.C. Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, cited in , accessed on 3/09/08

en., Aeschylus, , accessed on 3/09/08

n., Battle of Marathon, , accessed on 4/09/08

Miltiades chapter IV, translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson, MA, accessed on 25/08/08

mlahanas.de, Battles: Marathon, , accessed on 1/09/08

raf., Rise and Fall Heaven: Greek History, , accessed on 3/09/08

ancienthistory., Strategos, , accessed on 4/09/08

-----------------------

[1] Battles: Marathon, , accessed on 1/09/08

[2] Rise and Fall Heaven: Greek History, , accessed on 3/09/08

[3] Battle of Marathon, , accessed on 4/09/08

[4] P. Bradley, Ancient Greece Using Evidence, David Patterson, Edward Arnold (Australia) Pty Ltd, 1988, p 128

[5] Ibid

[6] Miltiades chapter IV, translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson, MA, accessed on 25/08/08

[7] J.F.C. Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, cited in , accessed on 3/09/08

[8] Aeschylus, , accessed on 3/09/08

[9] Ibid

[10] Boedromia, */Boedromia.html, accessed on 3/09/08

[11] Ibid

[12] Rise and Fall Heaven: Greek History, , accessed on 4/09/08

[13] Strategos, , accessed on 4/09/08

[14] Ibid

[15] P. Bradley, Ancient Greece Using Evidence, David Patterson, Edward Arnold (Australia) Pty Ltd, 1988, p 128

[16] Herodotus, cited in Your Ancient Greece Homework Helper, Histories Book II, 5th century BC

[17] NationMaster – Encyclopaedia: Double Envelopment, , accessed on 4/09/08

[18] Ibid

[19] The Golden Age of Greece, , accessed on 1/09/08

................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download