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ASTRONOMY IN ANCIENT INDIA: AN INTROSPECTIVE STUDYMr. Avinandan Krishna Mandal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3rd Year Students, VIT, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, E-mail: avikm1998@ABSTRACT: The intellectual achievements of ancient India lay scattered across several fields of study texts ranging from the Vedas and the Upanishads to a whole range of scriptural scientific and artistic sources. In ancient India, the development of knowledge in scientific disciplines like Astronomy, arithmetic, algebra, medicine, chemistry, biology were the results of meticulously accurate observations of natural phenomena. Ancient India's contributions in the field of Astronomy are well known and stand in the highest position from the Vedic period and even in the present world. The objective of the study is to search the enrichment in the subject of Astronomy in ancient India. This study is a descriptive type of research based on secondary data gathered from ancient books, articles, websites and web-based journals.? KEYWORDS: Intellectual achievements, Vedas, Upanishads, Vedic period, Natural phenomena.I. INTRODUCTIONThe knowledge of Astronomy is found mostly in Sanskrit in the shape of?Shloka?in Vedas, Vishnu Purana, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Srimad Bhagavata Gita, and so many epics. In India, all scientific information is imbibed in routine life by explaining them through mythological Stories. Through tradition or custom, all scientific truths are brought to the stage of implementation in day-to-day life. During the period 2500 BCE and 500 CE, ancient Indian Astronomy emerged as an important part of studies and its effects were also seen in several treatises of that period. Ancient India's contributions in the field of Astronomy are well known. The earliest references to Astronomy are found in the Rig Veda, which are dated 2000 BCE. In some instances, astronomical principles were borrowed to explain matters, pertaining to astrology, like casting of a horoscope, etc. Apart from this linkage of Astronomy with A strology in ancient India, Astronomy was continued to develop independently, and culminated into original findings, like (1) The calculation of occurrences of eclipses, (2) Determination of Earth's circumference, (3) Determining the sun as a star and the number of planets in the solar system. The Indian Astronomy is one of the ancient astronomical studies of the world. It is sometimes considered a controversial subject, because some scholars argue that it shows a higher antiquity of the Vedic culture as generally assumed. The Astronomy and the Astrology of India are based upon sidereal calculations. The Sidereal Astronomy is based upon the stars and the sidereal period that it takes the object to make one full orbit around the Sun, relative to the stars. This is considered to be an object's true orbital period. In Indian language, the Astronomy is called Khagola-shastra. The word Khagola perhaps is derived from the famous astronomical observatory at the University of Nalanda, which was called Khagola. It was at Khagola where the famous 5th century Indian astronomer Aryabhatta studied and extended the subject. [6] Objective: The objective of the study is to search the enrichment in Astronomy in Ancient India.II. METHOD AND MATERIALSThis study is a descriptive type in nature based on secondary sources of ancient astronomical works in ancient India.??Sources of Data:?The data of secondary sources are collected from books, articles, websites, and web-based journals?published at different times.?Analysis:?The different materials collected from the different sources have been scrutinized, verified and set up systematically under appropriate heading to hold requisite presentation and conclusion. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION1. The Universe: Lord Krishna showed the solar system, galaxy and the whole universe (Virat Roop) while bestowing Srimad Bhagvata Gita to Arjuna (3rd brother of Panch Pandava) and also said about the existence of universe where there are countless numbers of galaxies. He gave Dviya Drishti (Super eyes) and power to Arjuna because he with limited capabilities of material body could not see or hear or feel Lord Krishna’s teachings. It is one kind of subatomic particle’s trajectory. This is because that they are trying to observe something that is of the same scale as the photons they are using to observe it. In the 1920′s Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) formulated his famous uncertainty principal, which states when a physicist attempts to observe a subatomic particle, the experimental apparatus inevitably alters the subatomic particle’s trajectory. Many mysterious functions of the universe and planets in the solar system were discussed in our Srimad Bhagavata Gita before 5500 years. Again many inexplicable things in the universe were explained in Veda also.[7] V2C2t′ = t (1 ─ )Where: t′ = Time duration in space t = Time duration on the earth V = Speed with which the universe is expanding C= Speed of lightThe ancient Indian thought, which based on Vedic philosophy, is the only one that propounds the idea of life-cycles of the universe. It suggests that the universe undergoes an infinite number of deaths and rebirths. According to Sagan,[1]?one cycle runs from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of the Brahma. One day and night Brahma is equal to 8.64 billion human years age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang. Long before Aryabhata (6th century) came up with this awesome achievement, apparently there was a mythological angle to this as well- it becomes clear when one looks at the following translation of Srimad Bhagavata Gita (part VIII, lines 16 and 17), where Lord Krishna said, ?"All the planets of the universe, from the most evolved to the most base, are places of suffering, where birth and death takes place. But for the soul that reaches my Kingdom, O son of Kunti, there is no more reincarnation. One day of Brahma is worth a thousand of the ages (yuga) known to humankind; same as is for each night". In other words, the four ages of the?mahayuga?must be repeated a thousand times to make a "day of Brahma", a unit of time that is the equivalent of 4.32 billion human years, doubling which one gets 8.64 billion years for a Brahma day and night. This was later theorized (possibly independently) by Aryabhata in the 6th century. This is also supported by Einstein’s Time Dilation Theory. The formula of time dilation of Einstein is shown here.The cyclic of nature of this analysis suggests a universe that is expanding to be followed by contraction, a cosmos without end. This, according to modern physicists, is not impossibility. [8] The same theory of the universe said by Lord Krishna in Srimad Bhagvata Gita 5500 years ago has been shown by Einstein with a sophisticated formula. 2. The Nine Planets (Navagrahas): The Indians were worshiping the ‘Navagrahas’ (Nine planets) of the solar system, when the rest of the world did not know about planet. Worshipping the ‘Navagrahas’ by the Indians in 5500 BCE remains an inherent aspect of our tradition. The influences of the stars, planets and other celestial bodies of the cosmos on our existence are undeniable. It is believed that the ‘Navagrahas’ have a profound impact throughout our life time. Planetary positions and conjunctions at a given point in time can create, support and disrupt harmony in nature. Jyotisha-shastram, an important branch of Vedic studies also known as a?Vedanga?is a comprehensive study of how the various elements of the cosmos and their interplay affect our lives, individually and collectively. Seven of the nine?planets?are linked to the seven days of the week as per the Indian calendar and are also worshipped individually on these days. Stories and descriptions about the?Navagrahas?as well as their impact are found throughout our epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and?Puranas. In situations where particular?planet is found to have negative influences, suitable remedial measures are suggested including worship of the planet?on the corresponding day of the week.[9]? The ancient Indian discovered the shape of Earth as spherical and the Earth moves/revolves round the Sun while others were busy claiming earth is flat. But now, the people of the rest of the world who laughed at Indians are agreeing that ancient India was the hub of knowledge.3. Age of Earth: Our ancient Srimad Bhagavata Gita estimated the age of earth as 4,320 million (4.32 billion) years. Carbon-dating undertaken some decades ago put the age of the earth at 5,000 million years. There is a little variation in computation of Srimad Bhagavata Gita before 5540 years.[10] Manusmriti, a sacred book of ancient India says that the earth is more than 4 billion human years. Science says, it is 4.54 billion human years approximately. Geologist Holmes said, “Long before it became a scientific aspiration to estimate the age of the earth, many elaborate systems of the world chronology had been devised by the sages of antiquity. The most remarkable of these occult time-scales is that of the ancient Hindus, whose astonishing concept of the Earth’s age has been traced back to Manusmriti, a sacred book”. [7] 4. Duration of Year: The Rig-Veda shows that the Indians divided the year into 360 days, and the year was subdivided into 12 months, each of 30 days. Every 5 years, two intercalary periods were added to bring the calendar back in line with the solar year, ensuring that years averaged 366 days. However, the Indian year still migrated four days in every five years, and Indian astronomers constantly tweaked and adjusted their calendars over the millennia. The text also shows that the Indians used four cardinal points for ensuring the correct orientation of altars. Some other astronomers also enumerated the sidereal year through their own mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment. This is discussed below. [11] (i) Yajnavalkya?(c.?9th–8th century BC) based on his heliocentric model, he calculated the average length of the?tropical year?as 365.24675 days mentioned in his astronomical text?titled ‘Shatapatha Brahmana, which is only 6 minutes more than the modern value of 365.24219 days. This estimate for the length of the?tropical year?remained the most accurate anywhere in the world for over a thousand years. [11] (ii) As per Surya Siddhanta, the average length of the?sidereal year (the length of the Earth’s revolution around the Sun) is 365.2563789 days in 800 CE, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.2563627 days. This remained the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.(iii) Rishi Bhaskaracharya born in 1114 CE calculated (in his book ‘Siddhanta–Siromani’ in 1150 CE) the time taken by the earth to orbit the sun hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart. Bhaskara (1114-1185) CE was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhanta Siromani in 1150 CE on planetary positions, eclipses, cosmography, mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment dividing into two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places, which was hundreds of years before the astronomer Smart. As per his computation, time taken by the earth to orbit the sun is 365.258756484 days. [6] [12] Now the above values are compared with the modern values in the Table-1 below.Table-1: Time taken by the Earth to orbit the Sun as per Shatapatha Brahmana, Surya Siddhanta and Siddhanta–SiromaniTime taken by the Earth to orbit the SunModernVariationYajnavalkya’s ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ in ?9th–8th century BC365.24675 days for a tropical year365.24219* days for a tropical year0.00456 day i.e., 6 minutes 33.98 Seconds more in ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’Lata’s ‘Surya Siddhanta’ in 800 CE365.2563789 days365.2563627 days0.0000162 days i.e. 1.40 seconds more in ‘Surya Siddhanta’Rishi Bhaskaracharya’s ‘Siddhanta–Siromani’ in 1150 CE365.258756484 days365.2563627 days(365 days 6 hours 9 minutes 9.73728 seconds) (0.002393784) day i.e., 3 minutes 26.82 seconds more in ‘Siddhanta–Siromani’Source: Shatapatha Brahmana, Surya Siddhanta and Siddhanta–Siromani and Modern Calculation.[13] Findings of Table-1: In the three ancient and oldest astronomical treatises on the duration of the earth to orbit the sun, it is observed that in ancient time the measurement of year by the three astronomers were near about correct. In Yajnavalkya’s ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ in ?9th–8th century BC, 6 minutes 33.98 seconds are more than that of modern measurement in a year. In Lata’s ‘Surya Siddhanta’ in 800 CE, only 1.40 seconds were more in a year. In Rishi Bhaskaracharya’s ‘Siddhanta–Siromani’ in 1150 CE, 3 minutes 26.82 seconds were more in a year. The duration of a year in ‘Surya Siddhanta’ is more accurate. 5. Eclipses of the Sun and the Moon: Brahmagupta (598-668) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain and during his tenure, he wrote a text on Astronomy, the Brahmasphuta Siddhanta in 628. He was the earliest to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. He also develops methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of time of eclipses of the Sun and the Moon. [6]6. Distance of Sun and Moon from the Earth: Yajnavalkya?(c.?9th–8th century BC) recognized that the Earth was round and believed that the Sun was the centre of the solar system as described in the?Vedas. His astronomical text?titled ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’?(8.7.3.10) stated: “The sun strings these worlds – the earth, the planets, the atmosphere – to himself on a thread.” He also accurately measured the relative distances of the Sun and the Moon from the Earth as 108 times the diameters of these heavenly bodies, almost close to the modern measurements of 107.6 for the Sun and 110.6 for the Moon. [11] Yajnavalkya’s Measurement of the distance of the Sun and the Moon compared with modern measurement is shown in Table-2 below. Table-2: Comparison between Yajnavalkya’s Measurement and Modern Measurement for the Distance of Sun and Moon from the Earth Heavenly BodyDiameter Distance from Earth as per Yajnavalkya’s measurement = Diameter × 108Distance from the Earth as per modern instrumentDifference in Yajnavalkya’s measurementSun1392680 km150409440 km1392680 km× 107.6 = 149852368 km557072 more Moon3474.2 km375213.6 km3474.2 km × 110.6 = 384246.52 km9032.92 less Source: Yajnavalkya?(9th–8th century BC)’s Treatise ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’?(8.7.3.10) and Modern MeasurementFindings of Table-2: Yajnavalkya?(c.?9th–8th century BC) calculated the distance of the Sun and the Moon from the Earth in (9th - 8th century) BC. It is unbelievable to the rest of the world when there was no modern instrument. His calculation is accurate to the modern measurement with slightly more in the distance of the Sun and slightly less in the distance of the Moon from the Earth. It shows that how the ancient Indian developed the knowledge of Astronomy. Hanuman Challisa: As per Hanuman Challisa (Prayer of Hindus) the distance between the Earth and the Sun is shown below. Hanuman challisa was written by Goswami Tulasidas (born 15th century). Two lines of the Hindu prayer Hanuman Chalisa compute this distance with great simplicity.????????????????????, ????????????????????This means that the Sun (????) is at a distance of yuga sahastra yojanas (??????????????–Unit of distance in Sanskrit/Hindi).According to the following conversion practices that are in use as per Hindu Vedic literature:1 yuga = 12000 celestial years1 sahastra = 10001 yojana = 8 MilesTotal Distance = yuga × sahastra × yojana = parabhanu miles from the Earth to Sun.Total Distance = 12,000 × 1000 × 8 miles = 96,000,000 miles from the Earth to SunOr, Total Distance in kms = (96,000,000 miles × 1.6) kms = 153,600,000 kms from the Earth to the Sun (as 1 mile = 1.6 kms). The earth moves in an elliptical orbit around the sun, so there will be slight variation depending on the season. The distance between the Sun and earth had been calculated much more accurately than the 17th century scientists even before 2 centuries. The Question here is how Tulsidas calculated this distance or how he is able to know about this distance. We also have to observe that the people of that age had more knowledge, capabilities and much more advanced technology that is beyond the imagination of our present day technologies. [14] 7. Diameter and Duration of Revolution of Planet around the Sun: The?Surya Siddhanta, a Sanskrit?treatise is one of the several astronomical studies related to ancient Indian texts in ancient India composed?or revised in 8th century CE from an earlier text. According to al-Biruni, the 11th Century Persian scholar and polymath, a text named the?Surya Siddhanta?was?written?by one Lata. It was a palm-leaf manuscript. The?text described the rules how to calculate the motion of various planets and the moon relative to various?constellations, and how to calculate the?diameter and the orbit?of various?celestial bodies. The treatise predicted reasonably accurate. Some contributions of this text in astronomical field are shown below in Table-3. Table-3: Astronomical calculations: Computation of diameter and Duration of revolution of Planet around the Sun as per Surya SiddhantaComputationSurya SiddhantaModernVariationComputation of DiameterComputation of the Earth's diameter7,840 miles7,927.7 miles87.7 miles less in Surya SiddhantaComputation of the Moon’s diameter2,400 miles2,160 miles240 miles more in Surya SiddhantaComputation the distance between the moon and the earth253,000 miles 252, 710 miles(Vary: 221,500–252,710 miles)290 miles more in Surya SiddhantaDuration of Revolution of Planet around the Sun (Orbit)Budha (Mercury)87 days, 23 hours, 16 mins, 22.3 secs 87 days, 23 hours, 15 mins, 43.9 secs38.4 seconds more in Surya SiddhantaShukra (Venus)224 days, 16 hours, 45 mins, 56.2 secs224 days, 16 hours, 49 mins, 8.0 secs3 minutes 12.80 Sec. less in Surya SiddhantaMangala (Mars)686 days, 23 hours, 56 mins, 23.5 secs686 days, 23 hours, 30 mins, 41.4 secs25 minutes 42.10 Sec. more in Surya SiddhantaB?haspati (Jupiter)4,332 days, 7 hours, 41 mins, 44.4 secs4,332 days, 14 hours, 2 mins, 8.6 secs6 hours 20 mins 24.20 sec. less in Surya SiddhantaShani (Saturn)10,765 days, 18 hours, 33 mins, 13.6 secs10,759 days, 5 hours, 16 mins, 32.2 secs13 hours16 mins 41.40 sec. more in Surya SiddhantaSource: Astronomical treatise ‘Surya Siddhanta’ in the 8th century.[2] [3] [5] [15] [16] Findings of Table-3: The oldest astronomical treatises ‘Surya Siddhanta’ computed the diameters of the earth, moon and the distance between the moon and the earth in the 8th century CE without the use of modern instruments, which vary a slightly in comparison to modern computation. The computations of duration of revolution of Planets around the Sun were also correct with slightly variation. The treatises ‘Surya Siddhanta’ has been taken now as guidance in astronomical filed.8. Hours of a Day: Brihath Sathaka in the 6th century (lived in Ujjain, M.P.) operated with the divisions of the time of a day into 60 kalas. Each kala was equal to 24 minutes. [Total Minutes of a day = (60 × 24) minutes =1440 minutes. Total Hours of a Day = (1440 ÷ 60) hours = 24 hours]. The smallest unit of time (3 × 10-8 second) is surprisingly close to the life-spans of certain mesons and hyperons. The age of the universe is 8.64 billion years. Both figures are fairly equal to the modern day measurements. [5]IV. REMARKS1. Maximum astronomical study was developed in the Vedic period when the human in the rest of the world believed that the sun moves around the earth. The truth has been discovered by Copernicus in the 16th century and Galileo in 17th century. 2. Most of the astronomical calculations in ancient India were nearby accurate when there were no modern instruments. 3. The information of nine planets in the solar system was first discovered by the ancient Indians. 4. Most of the intelligent persons were Brahmin (higher caste). They lived either in temple or in Gurukul (School in ancient time). The Muslim ruler demolished most of the temples and educational institutions and converted some of them into mosque. 4. The Nalanda University founded in the 5th century CE at Rajgir (Bihar), the world’s most ancient university, where many foreign students studied, was an international university of worldwide reputation destroyed and burnt by Marauding Turkish force led by Bakhtiyar Khalji at the end of the 12th century. The oldest university in the world was Takshashila (Taxila) University established around 1000 BCE at Taxila in Pakistan. Both the two universities were the oldest universities not only in ancient India but also in the world and both were the centre of higher learning especially in Astronomy. 5. The human civilization of other parts of the world came to know about the enriched astronomical studies in ancient India. Some studies were carried by foreign invaders and translated into many languages. Some astronomical studies of ancient India might have been documented in their name or the ancient Indian astronomical studies are utilized as the source of their success. If their astronomical studies are enquired, then it may be seen that the source of their studies were the origin in ancient India.V. CONCLUSIONAncient India definitely was the centre of Astronomy. India could reach at the highest position of development in the world if a separate school of ancient knowledge would have been set up immediately after independence. The main function of this school would be to search, utilize and preserve the ancient knowledge with the help of Sanskrit language specialists as most of the scripts were written in Sanskrit language in our ancient religious books such as Srimad Bhagvata Gita, Purana, Vedas, Upanishad, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other epics. The subject specialist would try to explain the Sutra (Law) and its application. Our glory has hidden in our past, which might be brought in to light with some innovative ideas to restore our lost position. In support of ancient Indian knowledge, the opinions of Albert Einstein, (prominent scientist of 20th century) are:We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made. - Albert Einstein.[4] When I read the Bhagavad Gita and reflect about how God created this universe, everything else appears superfluous. - Albert Einstein. [4] Commitment:?I would not like to hurt any person. If any gentle person wants to verify the truth, he/she can do with the help of the following references.?Dedication:?I have dedicated this article in the name of Lord Sri Krishna, Who governs the universe and enlightens the whole world through His science.Acknowledgment:? I acknowledge the kind suggestions of Dr. Ram Krishna Mandal, Associate Professor, Department of Economics, Dera Natung Govt. College, Itanagar, India.REFERENCES1. C. Sagan (1980). Cosmos. Ballantine Books, New York.2. Ebenezer Burgess, P. Ganguly, P. Sengupta (ed.) (1989).?Surya-Siddhanta: A Text-book of Hindu astronomy. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American Oriental Society. pp.?26–27.3. Richard L. Thompson (2007).?The Cosmology of the BhagavataPurana. Motilal Banarsidass. pp.?16, 76–77, 285–294.?4. Singh, Dilbaag (nd): “Indian Treasure of Knowledge: Through the Ages” accessed from dated 07.07.20205. Vidya, R. (2001): “Science in India: Past, Present and Future”, November 18, 2001 (folk.uio.no/ravindrv)Websites [6]. (accessed on 24.07.2020) [7]. [8]. (accessed on 24.07.2020)[9]. [10]. by Robert Priddy, Retired Professor of History of Philosophy at University of Oslo.[11]. [12]. ().[13]. search?q=what+is+tropical+year&oq=what+is+tropical+year[14]. [15]. [16]. ................
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