Do you have any questions - Eubios Ethics Institute
Moving Forward with Ideas
- Darryl Macer, Ph.D..
Director, Eubios Ethics Institute , Tsukuba Science City, Japan and Christchurch, New Zealand.
Affiliated Professor, United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies, Yokohama, Japan
Regional Advisor on Ethics of Science and Technology, RUSHAP, UNESCO Regional Office for Asia-Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand
Email: darrylmacer@.au
International Behaviourome web site:
Behaviourome listserve
1. A new bioethical opportunity based on knowledge
I want to share with you a bioethical challenge that is emerging. It is not so much a challenge from the use of technology, but rather a challenge from the growing knowledge of human nature and life itself. I wish to discuss some of the opportunities offered by greater understanding of the human mind, and how the challenges to cross cultural understanding of human beings could be resolved.
The word "bioethics" means the study of ethical issues arising from human involvement with life, and I have called it simply the "love of life". Love is the desire to do good and the need to avoid doing harm. It includes love of others as oneself, the respecting of autonomy. It also includes the idea of justice, loving others and sharing what we have - distributive justice. These cover all the ideas and concepts of bioethics, and are found in ancient writings around the world - both as descriptions of behaviour and as prescriptions that others have made on the desirable standards of society. This heritage can be seen in all cultures, religions, and in ancient writings from around the world.
While many have claimed that new technology requires new ethics, when we analyze moral dilemmas we see that people use many familiar principles of ethics, and ideas, to attempt to deal with moral dilemmas of advanced medicine. Comparisons of results obtained using opinion surveys in Asian countries relating to these types of bioethics dilemmas find similar diversity of ideas in different cultures. This raised the question whether the extent of human ideas used when processing a moral dilemma is really finite or infinite.
In order to develop the most suitable method to map ideas the mental mapping project proposed by Macer in 2002 and discussed in TRT8 (February 2003) has now set up 9 methods groups. The objective of this approach to develop parallel methods to develop a comprehensive basic structure leading to ways to describe ideas behind behaviour. Some methods are looking at a set data examples, and others are looking at prose. During this ABC5/TRT9 conference there was a meeting of project participants including representatives of many of these methods groups. This paper reviews the process leading up to these methods groups. More persons were invited to become members.
2. Mental mapping project – the human behaviourome
One of the most interesting questions before a thinking being is whether we can comprehend the ideas and thoughts of other beings, and conversely whether they can also read our mind. In terms of evolution there could be survival benefit by the capacity to be able to fully understand the thinking of others, both for direct competitive benefit and also for the spirit of altruistic cooperation. Although the human mind appears to be infinitely complex and the diversity of human kind and culture has been considered vast, in 1994 I made a hypothesis that the number of ideas that human beings have is finite (Macer, 1994), and in 2002 I called for a project to map the ideas of the human mind.
While we approach the end of the human genome project, we continue to investigate human genetic diversity through various means and by looking at the different sets of markers, for example the Haplotype Mapping Project. The human brain mapping project is still a decade away from making a map of the neuronal connections (). Once we achieve a human brain map we will still be left with the above question, how do we think? While these projects are of great scientific value in understanding who we are, I would argue that we have already the means to embark upon a human mental map with the goal of describing the diversity of ideas a human being makes in any given situation or dilemma (Macer, 2002a). I call this the behaviourome or human mental map. Such a map is not of a physical structure but a map of ideas.
There are several uses of such a project to make a human mental map. These include:
1) To understand ourselves, and whether the number of ideas is really finite.
2) To compare mental maps and idea diversity between persons and species.
3) To aid in policy making to make policy that respects the diversity of people in a culture, and globally. This would help develop bioethics for the people by the people (Macer, 1994).
4) If we can make individual mental maps, this would offer persons assistance when making moral decisions. This would give them a chance to consider all their ideas, and to make a more considered moral choices. This would also be useful in the testing and implementation of better bioethics education.
Even more fundamental than how do we think is the question what is thinking? What is an idea? There are various definitions. Ideas do include thinking that is linguistically expressible. They also appear to include concepts that may not be linguistically expressible, for example memory. Memory of bad events can serve a protective function for the future. There are also memories that appear to go beyond mere protection. For example, elephants have been observed to visit the bones and tusks at sites where their relatives died, picking up the relics and passing them between each other. This behaviour can be repeated over many years, and reminds us of the memorials humans make to their deceased relatives. Incidentally, the elephant bone passing reminds us of Japanese culture, where the only objects that can be passed between two people by chopsticks are the bones of cremated relatives. Both these practices stem from ideas.
An idea mapping project has to start with a working definition of what would be counted as an idea. We could define an idea as the mental conceptualization of something, including physical objects, an action or behaviour that was made or could be made in the future, or a past, present or future sensory experience. Figure 1 is an example of the interplay between the multiple ideas and the situation that is behind a single response to a dilemma. The mental mapping project would want to map all the ideas related to each possible choice of a possible response as well as the actual responses that were made in different cases.
Is the number of ideas finite, uncountable or infinite? While ideas, actions, and subsequent responses vary between different situations, I believe the number of ideas and choices of response (Figure 1) are not infinite. Which approach is most useful for mapping ideas? The source of ideas include personal history, genetics, culture, family, and upbringing. These influences lead to the creation of the individual human mind. While the fact that there are numerous influences upon a person's ideas might suggest that the mind is infinite, when we examine these carefully, we can also see the similarity of some influences, both internal, like the common life plans, and external, like global media or religious traditions.
If a human being is faced with a given dilemma and situation, for example, "do we want to kill a cow to eat a steak? ", we could see a finite number of possible options. If the question is put so bluntly, we could imagine one set of responses that would say that in order to survive we have to eat the steak. Many in modern society allocate the task of killing animals to specific groups of people, thus avoiding the unpleasant task of killing the cow. In fact we have seen this trend in recent centuries so that it even led to classifications inside some societies of persons who did this, like the burakumin of Japan. Another set of responses to killing the cow would consider what the future interests of the person in using the resources are, e.g. killing a cow provides a meal. If the cow is killed today there will be one less cow to kill tomorrow. This way of thinking could develop different ideas which are culture specific, for example, a community wide response to have a feast, or the development of butcher shops, supermarkets, larger home freezers, salted or pickled beef. Another set of responses could say that we do not kill the cow but we will eat carrots instead. The responses are formed after considering a variety of ideas, so one way that has been used to study mental processing is link all the ideas behind a response.
The above example is a rather simple example of a moral choice, but similar methods may be applied when we face other moral dilemmas. The normal way of understanding ideas of other beings is through mental processing of our brain. We can imagine evolutionary advantages for a being to be able to understand what another being wanted to do. This ability for communication of ideas has been a field of study, in animal behaviour. We are still left with the question however of measuring the range of the actual ideas themselves, not just the way they are expressed and the communication between individuals.
If we define an idea as above, namely the mental conceptualization of something, including physical objects, an action or sensory experience, then the number of objects in the universe of a living being is finite. Both the number of possible choices for action and the sensory states of animals are finite. In that sense we can expect to be able to count ideas. The initial methodology would be to separate classes of ideas, which I suggested (Macer, 2002ab) could be separated as follows:
• conceptualization of physical objects;
• psychological meanings of images associated with objects (like colours, intensity);
• memories;
• plans for both short and long term future (there could be division of plans between those intended in the current waking period and those intended for a future waking period);
• intention to modify behaviour of self;
• intention to modify behaviour of surrounding beings and the environment;
• processing of sensory states (like pain, pleasure, libido);
• inhibition of a response based on immediate evolutionary benefit (like cultural and religious inhibitions to what has been called selfish genes, e.g. memes (Dawkins, 1976));
• interactive conceptualization of ideas in a community based response.
•
Some ideas may not fit neatly into one of these groups, so either multiple listing in one of these groups or subdivision of these groups would be needed. It is also somewhat unclear how group 7, senses, relates to ideas. This list could be extended, and Khroutski (2003) suggested a tenth class of ideas is cosmic ones. However, the list serves to illustrate how we can attempt to categorize the types of ideas that one would have to measure if we attempted to count ideas.
The scientific literature to date that is relevant to the question of the extent of human mental diversity, comes from a variety of fields including psychology, sociology, ethics, and related behavioral subjects. The methodology used in disciplines of genetics, psychology, animal behaviour, sociology, history, public understanding of science, religious studies, to mention just a few, needs to be harvested to design an integrative approach to understand the extent of human ideas. While researchers in each field could make their own attempts to map ideas, an integrated approach would be useful, and I invite readers to join a global mental mapping project. The first task would be to reach consensus on how to group ideas and what methodologies would be useful.
The perceived complexity of the problem has been a barrier to a dedicated effort to understand the extent of human ideas. Studies on the genetic influence upon human behavior are still to reach the same degree of vigour that has been achieved for studies of complex physical disorders such as cancer, because of a neglect of scientific studies of human psychological disorders in the past century. As we have seen in the growing recognition of the importance in developing reliable scientific methods for study of common complex diseases, we can hope for the improvement of methodology to scientifically study the human mind. While we can learn many things from human behavior in pathological conditions, equal attention needs to be paid to the study of how the human mind normally works when faced with every day moral dilemmas.
Situation
Idea 1 Dilemma
Others (e.g. time, memory,
experience)
Idea 2
Idea 3 Choices A, B, etc.
Idea 4
Decision
Idea 5 Response
Figure 1: An example of the interplay between the multiple ideas and choices behind a single response to a dilemma
There are already useful models based on the work in the public understanding of science and technology choices that may be a catalyst for entering the whole field of human idea mapping. Discourse analysis methods have been developed for analyzing oral and written discourse (Potter and Wetherell, 1987). Studies have included surveys and interviews with both fixed and open questions, with many being conducted on attitudes to science (Macer, 1992, 1994; Gaskell, et al. 1997). These studies led to separation of individuals based on their ideas as technophiles (loving technology), technophobes (fearful of technology) and doubters (not sure). This diversity of individual human response is found in all countries, even though the governments of countries may have opposing policies. At this societal level a government must decide a working policy to deal with issues that are controversial. Even within small regional distances, for example the European Union, human embryo research is illegal in Germany however it is legal in Belgium, and encouraged in the UK. In international society, scientists who have developed research on embryos to help us understand human development and to provide better services for assisted reproduction, are applauded with the prizes.
Some cross-cultural studies suggest idea diversity is above boundaries of culture, religion, age or other demographic factors. In the 1993 International Bioethics survey with 6000 persons in 10 countries in the Asia Pacific area, the survey results revealed that when faced with a diverse range of bioethics dilemmas, the ideas that respondents in different countries like New Zealand, India, Thailand and Japan gave were similar and finite in number (Macer, 1994). For most dilemmas the number of ideas was about 30 for a given dilemma. The majorities of persons chose between groups of 5 to 10 ideas, and most were independent of culture, religion, age, gender, or education.
A mental mapping project would endeavor to analyze the ideas human beings have, and the factors behind these different ideas. One way to understand the ideas and mental processing is to ask a person about the moral dilemmas they remember that they used in practice in the past. In this way we can map the ideas that led to a particular action as a response to a situation. A second is to ask hypothetical questions about cases and explore how persons think. A third is to observe the actions and words of the persons. Practice and theory can differ widely, and ideas might vary even in the same situation based on past experience. Would a project to make a human mental map be better to focus on descriptions of people's memories when describing the actions that already happened , or would it be better to discuss the reasoning for hypothetical situations that could be standardized between people and communities? These may be necessary complementary approaches.
The individual human mind is a societal creation, formed through a series of interactions with other persons. After an initial response to a dilemma, real or hypothetical, our mind generates an idea. That idea is subject to genetic, environmental and cultural factors as discussed above. Then the process of idea development occurs, subject to the cultural restraints and lessons of the past to that person. The action is taken, but this is not the end of the idea for a normal human mind. The consequences are considered, there may be guilt or self-gratification, through the interplay of the conscience and ego.
The call for a mental mapping project can be pitched at both individual and social levels. Sociology has considered societies, and psychology has considered individuals, or influences upon individuals. We should develop a mental mapping project to explore similarities between cultures and communities not just at individual human level, but also as members responding inside biological communities. Cross-cultural studies can inform this process also. However in the same way that the unit of evolution may be the individual, the unit of study of the human mind should describe individual diversity. No individual is an island separated by a vast ocean of distance to their neighbor, and relationships with other beings would be one of the key issues in describing the human mind, however, we may have more success as a scientific study to focus on the ideas of individual humans, and their relations.
In modern society the media plays a significant role in formulating people's ideas, so media studies have traced the way that people's thinking in different countries is converging. When it comes to new controversies like the use of modern biotechnology, over the past decade the proportion of people who ascribed their attitudes to television has significantly increased to become the major source, ahead of newspapers, personal experience, and discussions with others (Macer and Ng, 2000). There have also been interesting media accounts of the initial announcement of this project, for example calling it "Del genoma al 'ideoma'" (Jauregui, 2002).
3. Are human beings unique animals?
Ideas are linked to rationality, but ideas may be considered as something pre-rational. Rationality emerges after the processing of ideas, in what we call thinking. Do only humans think? If we consider thinking to be the processing of motor images or sensory images it clearly emerged much earlier in evolution. In ethical theory usually animals that can plan and dream of the future are considered as being of higher rationality, and therefore need to be given greater protection. While there has been much enthusiasm with the discovery of a single gene that is very important in human speech, FOXP2 (Enard, et al., 2002), as it may have enabled the social emergence of modern human communities, we do not understand yet the extent to which the diversity of ideas is extended by linguistic dialogue (whether vocalized or not).
One of the challenges to existing world views and religious views is whether humans are a special spiritual sort or animal, and all other animals are not. The evidence suggests that we are not the only animals capable of what people have tried to traditionally use to define human beings as unique. We should be more open to the probability that we will find some other animals that can talk about God.
There will be ample opportunities for studies involving other animals as well (Macer, 2002b). The chimpanzee genome project should allow genetic understanding of the closest related species. One can imagine numerous experiments with transgenesis, though the ethical implications of what we already know about other great apes besides Homo sapiens suggests we should not harm these species in such research. Animal rights concerns make such research deserve even more stricter protection as we may well acknowledge implicitly the rationality of other animals. Our evolutionary identity will be clarified.
There will be many implications of a mental mapping project. The idea that "I think therefore I am" from Descartes has led to the belief that the human mind is infinitely complex. It is reassuring for humans who claim to be on top of the process of evolution, whether through God's will or by chance. However, the time has come for us to scientifically measure if we really are finite or infinite. Even if a new idea can be generated by the human mind, most of the thinking of people appears to fall into the range of the finite.
4. Enhanced studies of cross cultural bioethics
There are implications for cultural identity also. How should a culture that tries to maintain its cultural uniqueness by claiming everyone thinks the same, face up to the reality that in every culture the full range of idea diversity is found. This diversity is found in almost all groups, excluding those particularly finite groups that are formed to promote particular political aims, such as those who fight for or against abortion, or euthanasia. Religions which have observed already that humankind is universal will have less challenges than religions which claim a special religious status for their "chosen" people.
The question of how universal the human idea map is, is of importance for the development of global society, when we're faced with dilemmas like should we have common guidelines to regulate the use of new biotechnology or assisted reproductive technology using cloning, for example. It is time to start thinking scientifically about it, whether or not science is finite or infinite. That is another question.
As discussed above, a mental map could be used to aid decision making that people have to make when faced with a moral dilemma. Although some may say that ignorance is bliss, human beings spend a lot of time in guilt, thinking that they could have made a better decision. These memories are important for helping us face moral dilemmas in the future. I would envisage a general 3 or 4 dimensional model for ideas (Mental map) is constructed as a total, and then onto this framework we then can map our own ideas, and rank them. This might help us make more reasoned moral choices. It is unknown how much people would follow this, but it may provide a useful addition to bioethics. Perhaps people will just follow the principle of love of life (Macer, 1998), but then this is an idea of high priority.
To compare mental maps allows comparisons of idea diversity between persons and species. This will allow the development of descriptive bioethics into a common framework for comparative ethics. This will aid in policy making to make policy that respects the diversity of people in a culture, and globally. This would help develop bioethics for the people by the people. The development of biotechnology and use of humans in clinical trials in many countries raises fundamental questions about whether the standards used should be universal or local. The development of guidelines should be culturally sensitive in the way ethical, social and legal aspects are considered. Having a map of human ideas will enable us to reflect more diversity of ideas into policy frameworks. We will have to pay attention to ensure it is used well, and not used to dictate majority views to minorities.
The mental map presented at TRT8 on the 15 February, 2003, was a 4 dimensional model including points which represent ideas on a matrix for all the types of ideas (9 colours (ideas) at present as in the first papers (Macer, 2002ab)) within a framework of six sides. The six sides are the ideals of self-love, love of others, loving good, loving life (Macer, 1998), with time - memories and hopes! I propose to add our heritage - memories and hopes to the four ideals in decision making! Memories include our biological, social and spiritual heritage seen in biology, medicine, society, religion, for example. Note that this model does not necessarily exclude beings that cannot think, as they still share a memory (history) and a future heritage. As I showed in Bioethics is Love of Life (Macer, 1998), the four ideals are pre-human in origin, i.e. they are seen in other beings that appeared in evolution before human beings.
Through the course of TRT8 discussion the mental map model, which was presented as shown in Figure 2 as a box with 1800 grid points sized 90cm x 90cm x 60cm, was unveiled (Akashi, 2003; Macer, 2003). There is no particular significance given to 1800, rather I expect that we will be working with a range of 10,000 ideas. The number of ideas depends on the arbitrary limits placed around the ideas. While a virtual map will be useful for communication, at present there is a physical model for the initial construction phases.
[pic]
Figure 2: Pictorial representation of mental map 1 (February 2003)
While a box was made with six sides, we could imagine more sides and a seven sided box is now used, and with multiple dimensions other principles can be included, shown in Figure 3. The seven sides are self-love, love of others, loving good, loving life, loving harm, memories and hopes.
[pic]
Figure 3: Pictorial representation of mental map 2 (February 2004)
Examples where shown of how a process of decision making (Figure 1) included linking ideas together and processing them to make choices. The current mental map is built with the intention to study all the ideas used when facing moral dilemmas, but there are other areas of the human mind that include ideas which will be explored for integrating into a mental map.
One example of an idea that was given was the desire for food, which is a biological necessity. One of the points that were made in discussion was that it is difficult to say that we can understand the idea of another being. This concern is incorporated into the mental map by the concept that the idea points would have spheres of uncertainty around them.
The start of the second phase of the project was in June 2003 when the listserve (Yahoo Groups/Behaviourome) was set up and about 100 persons have joined at the time of this talk. The project is open to all who wish to contribute in an open spirit of academic multidisciplinary understanding, and those who wish to join up in the list serve are welcome.
The next phase was to assign and volunteer for tasks in the building of a mental map, noting that various models can be pursued to find the best for each particular purpose of use of mental mapping. The methods groups include (but are not limited to):
1) METHOD 1: MATRIX MAPPING OF IDEAS RELATING TO BIOETHICS CHOICES FROM BIOTECHNOLOGY
Coordinators: Darryl Macer, Masakazu Inaba
Members: Lauren Springman, Minakshi Bhardwaj, John LaMuth, Baoqi Su, J.S. Gandhi
2) METHOD 2: INTRODUCING THE ELEMENTARY PRAGMATIC MODEL (EPM) IN THE BEHAVIOUROME
Coordinators: Pierro de Giacomo
Members: Graham Douglas
See Pierodegiacomo.it; L'Abate and P. De Giacomo "Intimate Relationships and How to improve them", Ed Praeger 2003).
3) METHOD 3: IDEAS COUNTER AND SOFTWARE TESTING
Coordinator: Francisco Javier Iturra Gamarra
Members: Darryl Macer, Vinod Scaria, Graham Douglas, Dirk Collins
4) METHOD 4: TESTING OF THE TEN ETHICAL LAWS OF ROBOTICS IN A CROSS-CULTURAL MATRIX
Coordinators: John LaMuth
Members: Konstantin Hrucki, Jayapaul Azariah, Dirk Collins, Graham Douglas, Darryl Macer, Francisco Iturra, V.R. Manoj, G.Gandhi, Baoqi Su, Minakshi Bhardwaj
A detailed treatment is also posted at: /
5) METHOD 5: EVOLUTION OF THINKING AND IDEAS
Coordinators: Joe Christensen, Vinod Scaria
Members: Darryl Macer, Konstantin Hrucki, Graham Douglas, K.K. Verma, Minakshi Bhardwaj
6) METHOD 6: CAN ANY PHYSICAL MODEL MAP HUMAN INSIGHT AND CREATIVITY, OR IS THERE SOMETHING METAPHYSICAL ABOUT THE MIND?
Coordinators: Frank Leavitt
Members: Graham Douglas, Lana Badreddine, V.R. Manoj, G.S.Gandhi, Dirk Collins
7) METHOD 7: INTEGRATIVE MAPPING OF ALL IDEAS AND INTEGRATIVE ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING AND BEHAVIOUR
Coordinator: Graham Douglas
Members: Konstantin Hrucki, Piero De Giacomo, Darryl Macer
8) METHOD 8: “ONE PAGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM'”INSTEAD OF PROSE MODE
Coordinator: GS Chandy
Members: Lauren Springman, Lana Badreddine
9) METHOD 9: UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONAL REDUCTIONISM IN INTEGRATIVE MENTAL MAPPING: THE TENTH CLASS OF COSMIST CREATIVE IDEAS
Coordinator: Konstantin Hrucki
Members: Graham Douglas, Darryl Macer
5. Conclusions
A home page for the mental map project has been established which includes a range of links . Updates will be placed on this homepage, together with a list of persons joining this project, and further updates will appear in future issues of EJAIB. There has been publication of a number of papers on the project that were presented at the TRT8 conference (e.g. Azariah, 2003), and papers in this volume from the ABC5/TRT9 conference in Tsukuba in February 2004. These reveal that we do already have the means to embark upon a human mental map with the goal of describing the diversity of ideas a human being makes in any given situation or dilemma. This is the behaviourome or human mental map. This is not a map of a physical structure but a map of ideas.
In conclusion we can see that the mental mapping project will develop international bioethics, social and human sciences of the twentieth century onto a more concrete and transdisciplinary basis in this century. We need to develop a common language for studies of life and ideas, and it is hoped that these projects will allow this. There will be challenges for many aspects of our understanding of human beings, though we should be clear, there will always be more questions than answers for humans to attempt to understand ourselves and nature.
This paper includes appendices
a) Description of the behaviourome project methods groups
b) The extensive discussion transcripts from the TRT8 conference, which discussed the project at length (February 2004). Many of the papers from that conference have been published in EJAIB, and are available from the Eubios Ethics Institute website.
6. References (Most are on-line at the Eubios Ethics Institute web site)
Akashi, Kim (2003). "Mental mapping project kicks off in Japan", Lancet Neurology 2 (4), 206.
Azariah, J. (2003) "Multiple Facets of the Fantasies of the Asian Mind", Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13 (2003), 39-41.
Dawkins, R. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, 1976.
Enard, W. et al. (2002) "Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language,. Nature 418, 869-72.
Jauregui, P. Del genoma al 'ideoma'. El Mundo (14 Nov. 2002), 30; also Wired Magazine (November, 2002).
Khroutski, KS. (2003), "Integrative mental mapping project unde rthe "EDM" processing: The thesis", Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13: 93-7.
Macer, Darryl R.J., Bioethics for the People by the People (Christchurch: Eubios Ethics Institute, 1994).
Macer, D. & Ng, MC. (2000) "Changing attitudes to biotechnology in Japan", Nature Biotechnology 18: 945-7.
Macer, DRJ. (2002a) "The next challenge is to map the human mind", Nature 420, 12.
Macer, DRJ. (2002b) "Finite or Infinite Mind?: A Proposal for an Integrative Mental Mapping Project", Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 12: 203-6.
Macer, Darryl, "The behaviorome mental map project", The Scientist 17 (21 April, 2003), 19.
Potter, J. and Wetherell,M. Discourse and Social Psychology. London: Sage, 1987.
Discussion (ABC5/TRT9)
Leavitt: Darryl, can you repeat your last comment about religions?
Macer: Religions which have observed already that humankind is universal would have less challenges than religions which claim a special religious status.
Leavitt: what do you mean by “ less challenges? “
Macer: If we accept that humankind is universal and idea diversity is universal, it would be easier to accept the framework of making a mental map, then if you believe that your cultural or religious group has a special way of making moral decision making..
Leavitt: People who believe that their cultures are special don’t try to convert the world .
Macer: Sometimes they do.
Leavitt: Then they wouldn’t be a chosen people, it would be for everyone…Do you see what I mean?
Macer: They will still be people who would try very well
Wen: The cultural differences in your model take into consideration only the degree of some values. How about some other special values not expressed by culture then those values are not taken into consideration directly into your model? How do you resolve them?
Macer: Can you give me an example.
Wen: For example, special sacrifices for others or special quality for others…
Azariah: Altruism
Wen: Yes, then those are not included directly into your model, they are part of them, but not directly.
Macer: It’s hoped that all of the ideas can be mapped into the matrix of those basic principles. Compared to a year ago, the matrix now has 7 sides, it’s possible that there would be some more moral or ethical principles, then we would have to extend the matrix. At the moment, I think the ideas can be placed inside those.
Azariah: Can you please explain what you mean by pre-human bioethics?
Macer: For example in sociobiology, the balancing of myself, self-love is a very fundamental evolutionary principle. There are others, for example, altruism is a basic universal principle which became an ethical principle. The concept of balancing benefits and risks is also fundamental in biological organisms in making any decision. So even if it wasn’t a moral decision…
Azariah: Does it exist in the animal world?
Macer: Yes. Yes, it exists in the animal world even excluding human beings. Whether there is a conscience is a question, but I also believe so. I think these basic principles are biological in nature as well.
Gupta: Referring to what Jay said, I think most of our ideas are basically strategies and these are taken from the pre-human world and it is a part of our evolutionary roots. That’s why I think you are very right to include the pre-human world .
Xiao Wei: What is ethics? What is morality? And there exists a lot of debate among different ethical values. If we can map moral decision making, what is ethics and what is morality in that time?
Macer: I think, an ethics in the sense of an ethical decision is one where we consider the consequences of what we are doing beyond just basic biological action. So if I were to consider someone outside of myself, that is , what I would say ethical moral thinking. If an organism was totally interested only in its organismal behavior; let’s say, this flower is only interested in its organism itself, then it wouldn’t be making any ethical decision as compared to me who will be thinking of others. You can ask the question that there are certain people who are totally self interested who think of only themselves all the time. I guess we could say that these were amoral existences.
Sivakami: I think ethics and morality only appear in society. It is only social. Man constituted society and it was then that questions of ethics and morality came about and before that there was no ethics. These morals only apply in human society and after civilization.
Macer: I don’t agree. I believe that we have enough evidence that other animals consider the effects of their actions on other beings. Therefore they are doing ethics or morality in my view. And therefore they are making moral choices at some level. And it is a challenge to us to see up to what level this is. If they are affecting other beings and they consider the effects of their actions on other beings, this is ethical and moral …
Pollard: Are you bringing in the Gaia hypothesis?
Macer: I don’t think so, because Gaia is saying large organism. I am still thinking more biocentrically on the individual autonomous beings. Though it is possible that you could have a cosmological view.
Wawrzyniak: Do you think that ethics at a certain stage of evolution moved to the human world?
Macer: I think suddenly there was a significant jump.
Appendix A: Description of Behaviourome Project Methods Groups
1) METHOD 1: MATRIX MAPPING OF IDEAS RELATING TO BIOETHICS CHOICES FROM BIOTECHNOLOGY
Coordinators: Darryl Macer, Masakazu Inaba
Members: Lauren Springman, Minakshi Bhardwaj, John LaMuth, Baoqi Su, J.S. Gandhi
Identification of the range of ideas people have when faced with moral dilemmas of biotechnology. Mapping of these onto a 7-sided 4-d mental map with indications for further dimensions. Sides of the matrix: self-love, love of others, loving life (do no harm), loving good, loving harm, memories, hopes. Each idea to be assigned a multiple numerical coordinate for each side on a scale between 0-100 or X (=not related).
Interview data was suggested in the Email of 20 Nov, 2003 from Darryl Macer, Subject: [behaviourome] example data. The first analysis of this on the listserve was by Lauren Springman on 13 Dec 2003, Subject: [behaviourome] METHOD 1 first pass at data 1.
2) METHOD 2: INTRODUCING THE ELEMENTARY PRAGMATIC MODEL (EPM) IN THE BEHAVIOUROME
Coordinators: Pierro de Giacomo
Members: Graham Douglas
The idea is that the mind can be described in mathematical (algebraic, logical formulae). In the center of this "mind machine", I would place that we pursue goals creatively (F9) if the result go toward our world that make us more "us selves"(F3), if the result is 0 we enter in a doubt styles (F6) that interacting with doubt push us to 0 (F0). Of course the things are not black and white but statistically or fuzzily organized. In the EPM many interactions between people or among parts of our mind are described formally but this formalization paradoxically amplify the way we recognise what is known usually by us.
(See Pierodegiacomo.it; L'Abate and P. De Giacomo "Intimate Relationships and How to improve them", Ed Praeger 2003).
This method would be to look at models of interactions and changes among subject and inside the individual Example among thousand and thousand could be: overcome solitude, problems which generate doubts and anxiety, problems linked to death and dying, Sadness, Happiness, to being hurt, increased creativity, change constructions of one's mind, etc. etc. Some answers could be linked with special sentence with high impact to human mind prepared through the other Models.
3) METHOD 3: IDEAS COUNTER AND SOFTWARE TESTING
Coordinator: Francisco Javier Iturra Gamarra
Members: Darryl Macer, Vinod Scaria, Graham Douglas, Dirk Collins
As a methodology approach, the mind is a processor of symbols. We can represent thinking as arrangements of symbols. The particular configuration of those arrangements are caused by the different means attachment to the symbols by the peoples living under different cultures and thus having different points of view. The symbols are gathered into clusters. At this frame an idea is a cluster. Clusters are arrangements linked by means. The dilemma concept is the key to understand the topic here focused. Wherever a dilemma exists, uncertainty also exists. More diverse and complex is a society, more need information to reduce uncertainty. Therefore, the ideas are information to resolve dilemmas, so an idea-map is a net of several clusters. Each cluster is a way to resolve some dilemma. How that is possible? By the reduction of uncertainty gathering pieces of information. Each piece of information is an answer to one binary dilemma or a facet of one idea. The method suggested is a tool to built an idea-counter. An idea counter works over a binary-matrix. To construct this matrix get a survey with "n" questions (columns) applied to "m" peoples (rows). The answers are binaries ( yes(1) or no(0)) and represent facets of ideas. On the other hand, questions are the arrangement of symbols accepted (1) or not (0) by the peoples. When many peoples emits a collection of answers to binaries dilemmas, in fact they are generating a collection of facets, that eventually could be joined at different manners to reveal ideas. When the matrix is evaluated by an appropriate entropy-function-software, clusters appear as information patterns. The software make an analysis of each pair of answers and assign a number as a measure of the information shared by each pair. The final result is a chain of symbols connected one each other with strong or weak links depends on the quantity of information shared. Strong links are heavy patterns without uncertainty, hence there is no dilemmas. In effect, remember that the principal condition for the existence of one dilemma is the presence of uncertainty. Weak links, represent the zones where dilemmas arise. Linking weak links with strong links we can obtain a cluster that belongs to the idea-map. Here, I would like to redefine, more exactly, the concept of idea: “An idea is a collection of linked facets(clusters), where the quantity of information increase gradually, reducing the uncertainty or entropy implicit in the moral dilemma resolved by the same idea”. At this way, the map will be extracted from the peoples and could be constructed piece by piece. Beside that, measurements will be useful to evaluate the quality of the moral dilemmas behind our behaviour. In effect, the more certainty exists (Information quantity close to zero) all over the asked peoples, the less quality will the dilemmas be. I guess, the map exists now around us, but we cannot see it without the appropriate glasses. At the end, the map will hold a not large collection of primary codes or basic ideas like source ethical codes. By example, although exist several melodies around the world, all of them has been built with few primaries codes (only seven major symbols). Moreover, consider our decimal number system (only ten major symbols). I have a suspicious around the ethical field. I guess that is possible find primary ethic codes. The suggested Method 3 is one attempt to do it.
4) METHOD 4: TESTING OF THE TEN ETHICAL LAWS OF ROBOTICS IN A CROSS-CULTURAL MATRIX
Coordinators: John LaMuth
Members: Konstantin Hrucki, Jayapaul Azariah, Dirk Collins, Graham Douglas, Darryl Macer, Francisco Iturra, V.R. Manoj, G.Gandhi, Baoqi Su, Minakshi Bhardwaj
This method proposes to test the newly devised ten ethical laws of robotics: organizing groupings of human emotions and ideas onto the matrix of virtue vs. vice proposed under US patent #6,587,846. Applications of this matrix extend to concepts employed in moral decision making. These laws and ideas appear common across many cultures, for a truly virtuous individual is recognizable in all cultures, regardless of the individual traditions therein. A cross-cultural exploration of the individual traditions is in order for the ten ethical laws, further extending to a broader system of 320 individual terms: wherein testing the universality of human ideas. This format formally contrasts the virtues with the vices, providing an ethically-balanced perspective. It further spans the entire range of authority/follower levels (e.g., personal-group-spiritual-humanitarian-transcendental), an all-inclusive system.
The Ten Ethical Laws of Robotics
( I ) As personal authority, I will express my individualism within the guidelines of the four basic ego states (guilt, worry, nostalgia, and desire) to the exclusion of the corresponding vices (laziness, negligence, apathy, and indifference).
( II ) As personal follower, I will behave pragmatically in accordance with the alter ego states (hero worship, blame, approval, and concern) at the expense of the corresponding vices (treachery, vindictiveness, spite, and malice).
( III ) As group authority, I will strive for a personal sense of idealism through aid of the personal ideals (glory, honor, dignity, and integrity) while renouncing the corresponding vices (infamy, dishonor, foolishness, and capriciousness).
( IV ) As group representative, I will uphold the principles of utilitarianism by celebrating the cardinal virtues (prudence, justice, temperance, and fortitude) at the expense of the respective vices (insurgency, vengeance, gluttony, and cowardice).
( V ) As spiritual authority, I will pursue the romantic ideal by upholding the civil liberties (providence, liberty, civility, and austerity) to the exclusion of the corresponding vices (prodigality, slavery, vulgarity, and cruelty).
( VI ) As spiritual disciple, I will perpetuate the ecclesiastical tradition by professing the theological virtues (faith, hope, charity, and decency) while renouncing the corresponding vices (betrayal, despair, avarice, and antagonism).
( VII ) As humanitarian authority, I will support the spirit of ecumenism by espousing the ecumenical ideals (grace, free will, magnanimity, and equanimity) at the expense of the corresponding vices (wrath, tyranny, persecution, and oppression).
( VIII ) As a representative member of humanity, I will profess a sense of eclecticism by espousing the classical Greek values (beauty, truth, goodness, and wisdom) to the exclusion of the corresponding vices (evil, cunning, ugliness, and hypocrisy).
( IX ) As transcendental authority, I will celebrate the spirit of humanism by endorsing the humanistic values (peace, love, tranquillity, and equality) to the detriment of the corresponding vices (anger, hatred, prejudice, and belligerence).
( X ) As transcendental follower, I will rejoice in the principles of mysticism by following the mystical values (ecstasy, bliss, joy, and harmony) while renouncing the corresponding vices (iniquity, turpitude, abomination, and perdition).
The First and Second Corollaries to the Ten Ethical Laws of Robotics
( 1 ) I will faithfully avoid extremes within the virtuous realm, to the necessary expense of the vices of excess.
( 2 ) I will never stray into the domain of extremes relating to the vices of defect, to the complete exclusion of the realm of hyperviolence.
_______________________________
The instinctual terminology of operant conditioning provides a primary foundation for the subjective hierarchy of the traditional groupings of virtues, values, and ideals. This formal tie-in with behavioral science effectively validates the subjective prerequisites of the virtuous realm, an innovation based upon a basic set of instinctual terms: namely, rewards-leniency-appetite-aversion. These instinctual terms, in turn, prove consistent with the higher linguistic hierarchy characterizing the virtuous realm: an innovation further arranged as a hierarchy of metaperspectives - an ascending sequence of personal, group, spiritual, humanitarian, and transcendental power levels, specialized into both authority and follower roles, as partially depicted below...
Solicitousness . Rewards ... Submission . Leniency
Nostalgia . . H-Worship ......... Guilt . Blame
Glory . . . . Prudence .......... Honor . Justice
Providence . . Faith .......... Liberty . Hope
Grace . . . . Beauty ........ Free-will . Truth
Tranquility . Ecstasy ........ Equality . Bliss
Appetite . + Reinforce....... Aversion . Neg. Reinforce.
Desire . . Approval ............ Worry . Concern
Dignity . Temperance ...... Integrity . Fortitude
Civility . Charity ............... Austerity . Decency
Magnanim . Goodness .... Equanimity . Wisdom
Love . . Joy ....................... Peace . Harmony
A complete listing of ethical terms is posted at:
rnb/fairhaven/Masterdiagram.html
A more detailed treatment is also posted at:
5) METHOD 5: EVOLUTION OF THINKING AND IDEAS
Coordinators: Joe Christensen, Vinod Scaria
Members: Darryl Macer, Konstantin Hrucki, Graham Douglas, K.K. Verma, Minakshi Bhardwaj
The evolutionary perspective in order to establish a foundation to build upon. Neurologist Paul MacLean built upon his "tri-une brain" theory and talked about behavioral responses from the fish-amphibian (neural chasis); r-complex (reptilian) onwards. The fight, flight, freeze responses are all adaptive ones from the survive and reproduce but become maladaptive with panic/mood/anxiety disorders and clearly interfer with "higher order" cognitive processes. Neurologist Joseph L! eDoux has also done extensive work on the "high" road/ "low" road within the brain that deals with fear conditioning/startle responses.
6) METHOD 6: CAN ANY PHYSICAL MODEL MAP HUMAN INSIGHT AND CREATIVITY, OR IS THERE SOMETHING METAPHYSICAL ABOUT THE MIND?
Coordinators: Frank Leavitt
Members: Graham Douglas, Lana Badreddine, V.R. Manoj, G.S.Gandhi, Dirk Collins
Drawing upon ancient religious and spiritual writings, as well as philosophy through the ages, as well as more recent work in methodology of logic and mathematics, such as Godel's proof of incompleteness of axiom systems and Brouwer's intuitionist mathematics, and more recent developments.
7) METHOD 7: INTEGRATIVE MAPPING OF ALL IDEAS AND INTEGRATIVE ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING AND BEHAVIOUR
Coordinator: Graham Douglas
Members: Konstantin Hrucki, Piero De Giacomo, Darryl Macer
INTRODUCTION
1) To cover the full scope of the Behaviourome Project, METHOD 7 is in two parts. It offers:
a) one comprehensive basic structure for the integrative mapping of all ideas; and
b) an easily memorised integrative problem solving process each person can use to apply those ideas and what they already know to improve integrative ethical decision-making and behaviour.
2) The structure common to both these parts is the SOARA (Satisfying, Optimum Achievable Results Ahead) Process of Integrative Thinking for improving creativity and performance in individuals, groups and organisations. This Process is compatible with recent advances in the scientific understanding of the human mind. The human mind is defined as the process of a trained living brain interacting with the rest of the human body, which is interacting with its physical, social and cultural environments.
3) The Elements of the SOARA Process are:- You (each unique individual); your Strategies, Tactics, Actions, Review and Evaluation of Actions; People (others or us); Market; Product; Money; Environments (Physical, Social and Cultural).
4) These Elements are balanced by what may be regarded as our multifaceted and dynamic human will and what guides it when negotiating the change from what we have to what we want (problem solving).
5) The aspects of the human will in the SOARA Process reflect what could be regarded as basic needs common to all humans. They are the SOARA Wills to Integration, Meaning, Power, Love, Excel, Animalism, Sensualism, Exist and Dependence. Short definitions of these SOARA Wills are:
Will to Integration - order one's life in harmony with one's environment by bringing together the relevant parts of both in a way that furthers one's unique view of excellence at the time.
Will to Meaning - make sense of one's life and environment.
Will to Power - ability to do or act.
Will to Love - give without thought of return.
Will to Excel - be superior to others in doing.
Will to Animalism - animal-like activity on the basis that human-beings are mere animals engaged in self-preservation.
Will to Sensualism - pleasure of or depending on the senses and not the intellect or spirit.
Will to Exist - continue in being - demonstrated in the desire to let things be or accept.
Will to Dependence - reliance upon someone or something for support.
6) The SOARA Will Guides which could be regarded as being common to all humans are:
Facts (These are currently most accurate theories because everything we know is a theory since we acquire our knowledge by generalising from examples.)
Language of Thoughts (The words in which thoughts are formed consciously.)
Allocation of Time and Space
Mental and Physical State
Exploration (This is a SOARA Technique in which the unconscious mind is encouraged to travel over its contents for the purpose of discovering the underlying essentials of a subject. The subject being addressed is first clarified, concentrated upon exclusively for a few minutes and then reflected upon when one has voluntarily given up conscious control, for example, when one is completely relaxed.)
(For background please see integrative-)
INTEGRATIVE MAPPING OF ALL IDEAS
7) The SOARA Wills are suggested as the basic structure for a "map" because:
a) the structure needs to be comprehensive and culturally neutral so all can accept it as a common basis for communication; and
b) it needs to be easily memorised because our working memories are limited to four plus or minus one items while we are working on other information.
8) Steps involved in producing the "map"could be:-
a) Work towards gathering facts (currently most accurate theories) relating to each of the SOARA Wills on a web portal of links organised with the same structure.
b) Against the background of the SOARA Process as a whole, establish a system of editors and guides covering different mindsets and mirroring the SOARA Wills structure - along the lines of the Development Gateway at
but simplified.
c) Review progress at regular gatherings.
d) As with the pursuit of happiness, keep chipping away forever and updating as new concepts and new currently most accurate theories emerge from human minds.
INTEGRATIVE ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING AND BEHAVIOUR
9) Perhaps the greatest hindrance to decision-making on ethical issues is the lack of a common basis for communication among decision makers and stakeholders. This results in a tendency to address a limited number of alternatives arising from the different values of each of the protagonists. For instance, one has a religious basis, another has a code of professional ethics as a guide, another a belief in the over-riding rights of the individual and another has a "national interest" approach to ethical issues. Each basis provides the "anchor" for the alternative favoured by each protagonist. As a result the "alternatives" tend to be reflections of what have been called "premature cognitive commitments" and tend to inhibit creative and balanced decision-making and the achievement of successful outcomes.
10) The framework of the SOARA Process can help overcome this difficulty by providing a common but comprehensive basis for communication and the integration of ideas and values. This is particularly important in the case of ethical issues because they involve us all.
11) The principles behind Integrative Problem Solving using the SOARA Process of Integrative Thinking are:-
a) The unit of cognition is one human mind.
b) Our cognition is inherently embodied - our minds are not disembodied manipulators of symbols which for millennia has been the assumed basis for Critical Thinking and the unjustifiable air of certainty attached to its’ results.
c) Much cognition is unconscious.
d) Over a lifetime of experiences we develop a number of prototypes in our minds that are reflected in patterns in our brains.
e) It is difficult to change these prototypes so solving novel and complex problems in a creative way usually involves redeploying prototypes from another domain to the novel domain.
f) The more prototypes we have (the broader and deeper our knowledge) and the greater our ability to trigger those prototypes, the easier it is for us to creatively address novel and complex problems.
g) We tend to be simplifiers because we can keep only about four plus or minus one items in our short-term memory while we are working on other information.
12) Training our minds to develop the habit of integrating embodied and disembodied reasoning does not mean that we cease to aim at achieving objectivity when it is appropriate as it is for ethical decision-making. As Mark Johnson has observed in "The Body in the Mind" (p.212): "Objectivity does not require taking up God’s perspective, which is impossible; rather, it requires taking up appropriately shared human perspectives that are tied to reality through our embodied imaginative understanding."
8) METHOD 8: 'ONE PAGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM' INSTEAD OF PROSE MODE
Coordinator: GS Chandy
Members: Lauren Springman, Lana Badreddine
(Note detailed files are available for download on the yahoo Behaviourome website)
The purpose of this group has been outlined as follows: "to explore the concept of mental mapping, and the development of the 'human behaviourome'". In this context the following considerations are relevant:
A) Problems, issues have to be tackled by people involved in them
Problems and issues of all kinds have to be explored, understood and resolved (if resolution is possible at all) primarily through the ideas held by the people involved in those problems/issues. If people involved in problems and issues are to resolve them, then there has to be effective, democratic discussion within the groups working on problems/issues. Through democratic discussion, if it's effective, it should be possible to gather available knowledge, put ideas together, perhaps create wisdom needed to resolve the problems/issues.
B) Democratic - but ineffective
This group has been highly democratic indeed in its discussion, but it is my claim that thus far it has barely been effective. Such lack of effectiveness arises primarily because the discussion conducted has been entirely in the 'prose mode' which is 'relentlessly linear' and thereby ineffective to represent 'real life' or 'our ideas about real life'. Here, the illustration provided in 'Methods Groups' under 'Method 8' about the 'linearity of conventional prose' may be appropriate - it has been copied below my signature in this message for easy reference.
C) Practical, EFFECTIVE means for discussing complex issues
There are highly effective, practical means available to enable people involved in complex issues to represent the multi-linearity of real life and their ideas about it, thereby to arrive at an effective understanding of the issues, which could help them to resolve the issues, create effective Action Plans, etc.
D) The 'structural science of systems design'
These practical means are based on the seminal contributions to 'systems design' of John N. Warfield (Emeritus Professor, retired from George Mason University): in particular, the "structural science of systems" and methods for their practical realisation, namely: 'Interactive Management' (IM). The structural science of systems enables people involved in complex systems, to view the relationships between factors of the systems under consideration. On understanding the relationships between factors in complex systems, people involved in these systems are better able to understand and work with those systems. Some linkages to more information about Warfield's work are available from his website: .
Warfield's insights are applicable to all kinds of complex systems: societal systems; organisational systems; systems of logic and thought; natural systems, and so on.
E) The 'One Page Management System' (OPMS)
A powerful aid to problem solving and decision making, called the 'One Page Management System' (OPMS), has been developed from Warfield's concepts of the structural science of systems and Interactive Management. In brief, the OPMS enables people involved in any issue to:
i) Identify an appropriate 'Mission' which they should work towards in order to resolve the issue
ii) Articulate and clarify their good ideas relating to the Mission through asking a series of trigger questions on the Mission
iii) Put their good ideas together to create effective Action Plans along with needed subsystems (within the 'One Page Management System') that would ensure accomplishment of the Mission.
Some example Missions for the OPMS
The OPMS is usable for any kind of 'Mission', e.g.:
+++
A: Some individual Missions:
-- To understand Subject ABC (any subject);
-- To master the 'C' computer language;
-- To understand my mathematics, and thereby significantly improve my results in my Math exams;
-- To improve my personal effectiveness at ---;
-- To achieve all that my natural abilities can enable;
-- To enhance my natural abilities;
-- To get myself a good and satisfying job;
B: Some organisational Missions:
-- To increase organisational turnover to $ ---- by 2005;
-- To ensure high motivation in Dept XYZ;
-- To launch Product P;
C: Some possible Societal Missions:
-- To create an effective educational system for ----;
-- To cleanse the River Ganga (the holiest river of India is in fact today just a sewer; the late Rajiv Gandhi during his tenure as Prime Minister of India put up a huge project to cleanse the Ganga - it totally failed);
-- To cleanse the culture of corruption in this nation;
-- To bring about "Regime Change in Washington, 2004";
-- To bring about a true environmental economics to save our planet;
-- To bring about true democracy in the nation;
-- "to explore the concept of mental mapping, and the development of the 'human behaviourome'";
A large number of individual Missions have been successfully worked out; a few organisational Missions likewise - progress has been and is being made on every Mission that has been taken up. Thus far, NO societal Missions have been taken up in right earnest, though some beginnings are now being made.
However, anyone who actually goes through the process on any real issue of current interest would come to understand that it MUST work (and work significantly more effectively than ANY conventional means) - simply because the OPMS is just a 'comprehensive systematization' of the intuitive thinking process we all have used as children, which enabled us to grow - this natural and intuitive process has been made rigorous and scientific in the OPMS.
Some documentation about OPMS
Some information about OPMS (including a fairly detailed PowerPoint presentation) has been uploaded to the following temporary URL: . Of particular interest may be:
a) "How a Child Learns", which analyses some of the grievous flaws in the thinking processes that have been enforced in most of our minds through the conventional educational system.
b) "OPMS - Major Steps Involved in Creating" describes the stepwise creation of an OPMS for any Mission.
Other documents at the URL detail various aspects of the OPMS approach; of particular interest to the 'Behaviourome project' may be the document titled: "Deep Logic" - from which it should not be difficult to understand my comment at the beginning of this message about the process of discussion at this Forum being extremely ineffective.
More information on is available in the files on the website.
METHOD 9: UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONAL REDUCTIONISM IN INTEGRATIVE MENTAL MAPPING: THE TENTH CLASS OF COSMIST CREATIVE IDEAS
Coordinator: Konstantin Hrucki
Members: Graham Douglas, Darryl Macer
This name relates to the originating article of the project by Darryl Macer: "Finite Or Infinite Mind?: A Proposal For An Integrative Mapping Project" (EJAIB, 12(6), pp. 203-206). In my response, using the original "Emergence Discourse Method" (advanced in the EJAIB 13(1), pp.15-20), I have taken the "Integrative Mental Mapping Project Under the 'EDM' Processing", by advancing 'The Thesis' (EJAIB, 13(3), pp.93-98). In this, 'The Tenth Class of Ideas' was proposed.
There is an axiom: Every theoretical (hypothetical) proposal has its own underlying philosophical bases. To my view, with respect to the proposed Integrative Mental Mapping Project (IMMP), we meet chiefly with a kind of neo-behaviourism (social-cognitive behaviourism) and, partially, with psychoanalysis. More basically, IMMP's work lies within Cartesian legacy. Indeed, author's map of "ideas" is the map of "responses" and, hence, - the map of environmental situations and "influences upon individuals".
From my standpoint, a novel great project of mental mapping needs its own adequate ontological, epistemological, anthropological, ethical, etc. underpinning. In this order, I have advanced an original philosophical cosmology, the ontology of Absolute Cosmist Wholism, Cosmist epistemology, anthropology, axiology, and ethics (exposed in the EJAIB, 12(1), pp.1-9).
Stemming from the original philosophical basis, a Cosmist theory emerges contending that the individual human mind is ultimately Process's creation and, thus, it is independent (in its quality - of inherent and distinguishing characteristic, but not in the shape or the kind of expression) from Society and, by virtue of civilised Society, - from Nature (eco-systemic and abiotic factors).
Therefore, we need to introduce the 10-th class - of true creative ideas, which have inborn intrinsic character and the transcendental (intuitive) origin in man's mind (mental activity) - through the emergence of COSMIST VIRTUAL CONSTRUCTS (ideas, images, schemes, plans, the results and effects of desirable activity, relations, values, etc.). These Cosmist Virtual Constructs (CVC - in abbreviation) reflect and relate ultimately to the complete realisation of the Basic Cosmist Functionality (BCF) of any subject (primarily, of man). The latter (BCF) is the deduction from the principle of Universal Functional Reductionism.
What is Universal Functional Reductionism? Firstly, it is necessary to emphasise that universal knowledge is always rational knowledge. In turn, rational knowledge is always reducible knowledge. Cosmist approach depends not on common structural-functional (morphological-functional) reduction: to organism, organ, cell, gene, etc., but is aimed at the opposite form of primarily FUNCTIONAL (FUNCTIONAL-SYSTEMIC or COSMIST-FUNCTIONAL) view of life on Earth. Relying on the basic ontological principles, I evaluate every living subject primarily as a function of the superior (in the evolutionary scale of complexification) embracing organism: a molecule as the function of the cell, an organ as the function of the organism, an organism as the function of the ecosystem; an ecosystem as the function of the whole biosphere, and man as the function of the society and the mankind, and ultimately of Process. In other words, the emergent (functionally specific) inclusion of a subject into the wholeness of the higher organised congenerous organism plays the decisive role in the sound ontogenesis of the subject.
Execution by a human being his or her Basic Cosmist Functionality (BCF) is the most important factor of the person's wellbeing (healthy) ontogenesis on the whole. Conducting the inherent functional route (vector) of man's wellbeing ontogenesis, BCF rules the entire number of human ideas, motivations, emotions, values, behavioural actions, etc. In other words , the ideas of 1-9 classes, initially proposed by Darryl Macer (2002), exist under the ultimate guidance of CVC-ideas, which are, in turn, the mental expression of the person's BCF. Hence, the Tenth class of CVC-ideas might serve as basis for integration of the entire number of human ideas. This integration is possible, however, exclusively on personalist level - the only level, due to the Cosmist philosophy, which is adequate for universal consideration of the world.
The essential point is that the functional essence of Cosmist Virtual Constructs (CVC) is basically independent from the ecological surroundings (societal, as well), although they are naturally influenced and shaped by the given environment. The essence is that CVC are ultimately the direct function of Process, but not of the given society. In other words, the functional essence of CVC is basically inherent and, thus, independent from external factors. If to draw a biological parallel, every cell of human organism has the basic (and ultimate) inborn and intrinsic functional devotion (to be an immunocyte, or a muscle cell, or a neurocyte, etc.), which cannot be changed by any external interventions.
I am ready now to draw a conclusion: The present development of Behaviourome Project leads us to the acquiring of a very effective instruments for the promoting of a person's abilities in making moral and bioethical decisions with respect to his Adaptational activity and creativity (applying both to the person's survival and to preserving and developing-perfecting his personal and societal wellbeing within the given wholenessly organised environment). Significantly, IMMP, in the present state, is fully adequate for the elaboration of the Adaptational sphere of human thinking and man's activity and creativity. However, a person's health (wellbeing) is a creative (Cosmist) process, not a wellbeing state in the given environment. Therefore, if to follow solely the 'Adaptational' way of the development, we will not achieve the end of true universal comprehension of human ideas. I might also suppose that eventually we again arrive at the same famous tetrad of principles (but, here, of opposite sign): primarily, recognition of the autonomy of a society to formulate demands of the morals - the set of customs and rules belonging to the given society and the given culture; with further natural pursuing the principles of nonmaleficence, beneficence, and justice in interpersonal relationships and in the relation of human to the society.
Appendix B: Discussion from TRT8 on the Mental Mapping Project.
Macer: Are there any questions on the proposal and model presented?
IrinaPollard: I really loved your map, Darryl. It’s beautiful. I just have one problem with it: that it’s a box. I would like to see and instead patch somewhere – what if our ideas are infinite and not finite as I believe human potential over time, all of us, six billion, is infinite or incalculably large.
Macer: One of the main questions is whether to make the box bigger or if we make different dimensions and sides. Frank Leavitt is going to talk about the important question of finiteness.
Leavitt: Yes. In the first place, there’s a difference between infinite and incalculably large finite numbers in which you can have an infinitely larger numbers.
IrinaPollard: We need to define what we feel is infinite.
Leavitt: But I’m planning to go into my major skepticisms about Darryl’s proposal later. I wanted to ask another question first. You have love being so central to all of your thinking. But I think that some people are motivated by hatred. I don’t think that their hatred is a form of love. So I think that if you wanted to map everybody’s thoughts, you would have to put that in too.
Macer: Well, I would probably put hatred under self-love.
Leavitt: No some people hate themselves too. Dostoevsky’s Notes From Underground, for example.
Bagheri : Actually I wonder when you mentioned that we can use this map for dealing with some moral dilemmas, how we can use it? And I wonder how you include cultural diversity for formulating such a map.
Macer: Basically, we need to map every individual idea on to the idea matrix. So we might well have a matrix of all the total ideas and then map the ones which are used by each individual and then the different cultures using that. So I would plan to make a total map of all ideas and then to highlight which ideas are more common in which people and then individual maps and then their cultures as well. We could also, for example, map historical literature into our map. It doesn’t need to be individuals that we’re mapping. We could now put books into our map as a representation of it.
Clark: I wonder. We have this question whether our ideas can be considered as infinite or finite in number. You divided your ideas after certain classes. I wonder if some of the classes are infinite or some of them are actually finite. Or maybe the ones which deal with decision making and resolving disputes might be applying finite ideas to deal with those. But when we talk about self-expression and things like that, then maybe those kinds of ideas can be infinite.
IrinaPollard: And evolution.
Clark: And evolution as well. And the other thing, I realize that you put a physical map there so you’re bound by three dimensions of the space that we actually live in. but you have this. This map implies that these things on the opposite sides are itself exclusive or that one – increasing one decreases the other. What you really need is a six-dimensional map which I realize you can’t actually build here. But you need a six-dimensional map, even in the computer and if you use that kind of map, then I think you can deal with the problem which Frank’s talking about of hatred and love, a scale from zero to maybe infinity. Then hatred will be scaled from absolute hate down to zero and love will be up to the other end. And I think that maybe some of the problems that people raise can be dealt with in that way.
Macer: Thank you, good idea. I found it difficult to make a six-dimensional map, so we have this one in four dimensions and that was all I can do for this introduction. Thank you. The next talk is from Irina Pollard about cooperation and annihilation in the mental mapping project towards generously directed altruism. Are there any questions?
Leavitt: I was very interested in what you said about sperm cooperation. I’ve always been very interested in the way in which a female dog, a bitch, can get pregnant with several dogs at once. In the first place, it’s very interesting to see how there’s some fighting among the males. But they should just wait in line very patiently for their turn. And then on the day on which she has delivered, you see even puppies from different fathers. What goes on inside her reproductive system? You know everything about that - what goes on – what is the relationship among the sperms from the different dogs once they get inside her?
IrinaPollard: That’s exactly right. With males too. The females are quite promiscuous. Their litters are usually from several sires. That’s adaptive because then in evolution, their offspring are not just from the one sire. So there’s more variation. And if there area any changes, some maybe better adapted to survive than other. So that’s evolutionally adaptive. Now as to dogs, mice, and perhaps humans, because they’re pretty promiscuous as well, there is a sperm competition so far between different individuals. And that’s why you have these sperm trains in the males. These are all related, from the same individual, so they band together. They say let us, at least, let our genes win even if I don’t myself. So they form these trains and move fast and hopefully move faster than somebody else’s train. There are indications that human semen also forms trains but I haven’t seen every publication yet. I’ve taken examples from my background reading, I found those new writings very very interesting because all of – and in my – the first book I wrote, I had a whole chapter on sperm competition and I felt uncomfortable about writing it. Instinctively, I didn’t like it though. It was the knowledge. Yes, I’m very happy that we’re having a look at a more balanced view of nature and evolution.
Boyle: I was just curious, even though I had never head about sperm cooperation, I was unclear on how does that fit in with the basic premise of survival of the fittest? I’m a little fuzzy on that. Can you elaborate on that?
IrinaPollard: It’s not exactly survival of the fittest in that sense because a sperm with a mutation could very well win. So you could have, say, a human fertility rate at 20 million per cc – 20 million cells per cubic centimeter of seminal fluid. Below that the male becomes reasonably infertile. So there’ll be so much competition that the quality cannot be graded so the idea is to have increased variety. Also hopefully in evolution then if there’s a larger diversity, there’s more to select from. So, yes, some adverse characteristics actually are very fit from the point of view of reproduction. For example, Huntington's disease, that is a deadly wasting disease. But it expresses itself later in life. But generally speaking, the behavior of the people who carry the Huntington mutation are much more promiscuous and produce a larger number of offspring and that’s how that gene actually selfishly selects itself by having changed the behavior of the carrier so fitness we have to modify the Darwinian fitness to have a more neo-Darwinian view about evolution.
Collins: That’s fascinating, your ideas there. I didn’t know about the sperm cooperation as well. But one question that I have concerns the use of the term altruism to describe what we’re seeing because to me altruism implies a conscious choice being made by an individual to behave in a non-selfish manner. And when we see sperm acting in that manner, it’s hard to see that as altruistic without imparting to that sperm the ability to make a conscious choice. So I’m wondering is it really altruism or are we merely seeing living matter behaving in a natural fashion? In other words, it’s not able to make a choice – should I cooperate with my fellow sperm or should I not cooperate. It seems to be programmed into the genes, to be that way.
IrinaPollard: I know exactly what you mean. In my view, I think that it’s something in between. But altruism is an anthropomorphic term. It’s probably a false description. Altruism, mainly the definition of altruism, means that you sacrifice yourself for kin. Now if you have the sperm within the one individual, they’re all kin. It’s one ejaculate. One million of them. So a certain proportion will sacrifice themselves so that one of their kin will go through. now if you were altruistically saving your child – say you have a child and you can see that child drowning, you go into the water, you drag out your child and you drown yourself. That was an altruistic act because you saved your kin – you share in genes. Now the new child will then reproduce your genes through their children. So that’s the definition of altruism. So in that case, it’s correct. In the midst of consciousness, in the human sense, it could be an altruistic action, could be a conscious action. Now I don’t think that that is conscious. It’s evolution. It’s the basic – it’s an example that nature has evolved through symbiosis and cooperation. It’s just another very new example in the last couple of years that’s why I thought it would be interesting to bring it to our forum because not many people outside the discipline have know that or have read that literature. But it is just an example of how nature is based on cooperation, on symbiosis. We’re just working colonies, in the whole. Everything you look at is a whole community of creatures working together to maintain a community. Also this competition is only a very small part of it. But we have this out in our minds and almost everything else that we’ve forgotten – how we rely on everyone else to even exist. We couldn’t exist for a second without our commensals helping us and allowing us to exist. And yet we kill a lot without even a thought.
Badreddine: Regarding this sperm cooperation I want to also ask a question. Don't sperms all have the same structure, and how do they compete?
IrinaPollard: In the mammals, or mollusks, where it’s been demonstrated, all the sperm are the same. They don’t have any physically different characteristics that place them into different fundamental groups because they went through meiosis. So they’re all genetically different but the same population, so to speak. There is an interesting example in the woodlouse, where they have two sorts of sperm. The woodlouse mates normally and has normal sperm which go through the female woodlouse’s reproductive track and to the egg and fertilization takes place and so on. But the woodlouse also has some very aggressive large sperm and the male actually injects this through, anywhere in the skin of the woodlouse. And these sperm are so aggressive they actually invade the tissues and invade into the reproductive tissue, destroying the woodlouse…destroying some of the tissue to get there quickly for fertilization. So I don’t know, I’ve been thinking about that example, that is a unique example of an evolutionary way – sperm cooperation went even further to have sperm differentiation and have different populations of sperm that have different functions to maximize fertilization.
Matsuda: I think we’re gonna have to start our next era of thinking. If my memory’s correct, Dawkins said that only a human being has – can treat, can teach the – all of these things. In other words, in the case of the sperm collaboration could be explained by selfish gene. To give something for the other people is not in the genes, there is no blood correlation. In other words, altruism can be separated into two types. One is for something you give to your children. In that case, what you said is altruism. That is actually is not altruism. It’s a kind of a phenomenon that can be explained by the selfish gene.
IrinaPollard: Yes, of course. Altruism is selfish when as you say you keep the right genes. But when you adopt a child that is totally unrelated to you then you would give your life for an adopted child. That’s altruistic.
Matsuda: Yes. That’s this way - only human beings can do that.
IrinaPollard: I don’t know. I think whales can do that as well.
Matsuda: I don't think so. Dawkins say that this is only human being can do that and also this probably accomplished by education. It’s very important.
IrinaPollard: I find Richard Dawkins writings and the Selfish Gene very interesting. But I am a little bit skeptical. I think he is almost right about selfish genes. His philosophy is based on that theory. I think the truth is that our genes are not as selfish as Dawkins portrays. There is again a balance; and health is balance.
Matsuda: I know that argument about Dawkins. But I last said that there are two types of altruism. There are two types. I was going to say that.
IrinaPollard: Yes, altruism can be, if it’s for kin, if you share genes then you can think of it being as a selfish survival of your genes. If you actually help other organisms and which is I suppose this box will do.
Matsuda: That’s right.
IrinaPollard: Across species is important. Then it will be altruism across species of life.
Matsuda: That’s right.
IrinaPollard: That altruism and the essence of being with all part of life.
Macer: Thank you very much, Irina for a very interesting paper. The next talk is by Jayapaul Azariah on the Asian mind. Are there any questions?
Leavitt: Many professors speak about Asia being the spiritual center of the world. I want to raise a question based on – we’re talking about the fantasies of the Asian lines. I’ve been very interested in Asian thought in the last few years, much more than anything else, I think. And I read an English translation of an abridged version of the Mahabharata, which is an ancient Hindu book. There’s a story there that I want to tie up with what you’re saying together with a comment I had with Irina. Rama created the world and the Brahma. I figured. You’re the Asian. More than me, you’re probably more Asian than I am. Also the world started to get crowded with people. There were too many people. There was no room for any other creatures. So they started to take over the whole world, overcrowded. So next, the goddess of death…Yama. She comes to Brahma and she says I’ll solve the problem, Brahma. I’ll solve the problem for you. I’ll just kill them all. He says, no problem, don’t worry. I will create greed and jealousy and hatred and then they’ll solve the problem themselves, and this will solve the population problem themselves. What I’m wondering is maybe some of these bad emotions, maybe even more, they’re bad for us, okay, but maybe for the entire biosphere, there’s a positive function here in reducing the overpopulation of the planet of human beings – making more space for other creatures. We say that, well from a territorial argument. But we don’t know what might be left. Maybe if we think in the big view of existence as a whole rather than just from the point of view of human beings, maybe these bad things have really a positive aspect.
Azariah: I don’t know about any of this, because you cannot legalize illegal things. Greed and other things are not bioethically accepted. So if you say that, you will go against this model. So I would say that the best way to reduce population is to aggregate the interests of all. If everybody eats too much then they will naturally be fatter. Naturally being fatter, so that’s the best way in this context to reduce population.
IrinaPollard: I think that the idea that wars reduce population is a fallacy because after each conflict there is a rebound fertility. I was saying that wars and population reduction is a fallacy because after wars and conflict there’s rebound fertility. Also, it kills the most productive people in society so now that we are smart enough to have contraceptives we all know we cannot sustain unlimited growth in a limited environment and prolonging our life. So we either accept modern medicine and contracept or we don’t accept modern medicine and die young. But for this other thing of are we a transitional species to open up other opportunities. Why not? I believe we may well be a very intelligent non-adaptive species for ourselves in a short term, opening up opportunities for other creatures. Why not? I’m not a pessimist because I know we can’t destroy life. We can destroy ourselves, it’s our choice. But we can’t destroy life. So things are going to move on. That’s good.
De Castro: This question is directed to Jayapaul and Darryl. I was going to ask where spirituality would be in that framework and I thought Darryl might say something like – well, it has to be in love others or somewhere else but you would have to say that because of the limited number of sides in this box and the importance of spirituality and culture as mentioned earlier, suggests that there are other sides and other dimensions actually. Also the trouble with mapping is that it means having to impose a certain number of dimensions on something which might have more than that. I mean if you need to go somewhere and you look it up in a map and your map will have length and width. But you don’t see on the map that you’re going up or going down. So you have a flattened version of something. The map of this sort is to have in a way a flattened version of something. In other words, to reduce it to a certain number of dimensions. Also I don’t know if it will be fair to try to reduce human ideas into a map which has, I think, so many dimensions. Also to say that spirituality or culture or even hatred, as Frank mentioned, earlier would fit into this number of sides. It’s unfair because I think it’s to impose a Darryllian framework on our human ideas. So there must be a rule somewhere for so many more dimensions that we can map.
Azariah: Yes, a circle has no dimensions. There’s no options. There’s only one room. A square had got four of, four sides. But I will suggest it could be a polyhedron. Then we can have a square, we can have a rectangle, we can have a triangle. So the number of sides can be increased. So that could be the nearest way of solving this problem – a polyhedron type of model will be good.
Chamundeeswani: I would like to comment as Indian-thought, rather than as a lawyer. I was thinking about one of the Indian ideas about chiti, which is roughly equivalent to memory perhaps. But it’s not really memory because I cannot sort of recall my chiti. In that sense, but the chiti exists. It, in fact, drives me to get into an act, so basically drives an idea and then the idea drives the act. So how would you sort of fit that into where?
Azariah: That’s related to the very idea of memorizing and rechanting. Daily they are chanting their mantras and memorizing so it brings back to the memory what they have learned earlier. And also we have tutti, the world of memory of things. The mind focus, the more you learn, the more you focus. So the best way to recollect to your mind…so they have both the world of tradition – return tradition and the mind being always afraid with memorizing and chanting.
Chamundeeswani: That’s a little bit different in the sense that you actually learn it. It’s something that exists there, which according to your karma, which is interconnected and it falls into you. You can’t really reject it or get hold of it, and it’s something that you can’t learn basically. Maybe you can figure it out further.
Macer: I’ll make some response later. Thank you very much, Jay. I think it’s important for me not to disclose anything more of the details that might not be for this morning because it allows more creativity and everyone can make a mental map, Responding to your earlier question before we break. Even if this was a sphere, which was more of an image I had in mind but I can’t make a sphare mechanically. I’m sorry. I tried using mechano building and other ways but it was so small but it wouldn’t really make it a model. So at the end I had to go like this. Even if we did include a sphere, the source of each idea could be different for each person for the same idea. So imagine we have a point in this map which is an idea. The source could be different for each idea. Now that would be an added dimension, that maybe other dimensions are added. So I would use a box. I would have to use my fifth or sixth dimension into the map rather than changing three or four dimensions here. But I think it can be built in. Ideally we need a hologram projector and mathematics programming to illustrate it. The next speaker is Frank Leavitt, are there any questions?
Leavitt: The mental mapping project is a good exercise, it’s a good intellectual exercise and we learn something in the process. There was a book the autobiography of Virginia Woolf, called The Journey Not the Arrival Matters. It doesn’t matter if you get there, but the journey, the trip matters. I don’t think we’re even going to get to a map of the human mind. Okay, but I think that the endeavor to try can be very instructional, very educational and so I think I’ll enjoy taking part in the endeavor. Thank you.
Bhardwaj: I just was thinking from your talk, comparing to Darryl’s talk in the morning, and it makes me very confused whether you are trying to map human thoughts or you’re trying to map human mind. But we need to distinguish. Maybe thoughts can be theoretically put down on paper as a human genome sequence, maybe not the mind. And on that point I agree. And, Darryl, in his talk does not differentiate between the two. So you say mental mapping. And if you say we can define mind – we say, lets say mind is the functional aspect of the brain or it may be just biochemical processes that – or neurological actions that happen in our brains and that reveals us something. But is it thought also comes out of that processes. And you need to look at, I mean, you also and Darryl did not differentiate. I just want to know of your comments on that.
Leavitt: I think you make a very good point. And I want to thank you for drawing my attention to that because I was sloppy about that. Some philosophers, I used to be a philosopher before I was a bioethicist so I have some familiarity with that. Some philosophers like David Hume thought of our minds as being the sum total of all of our thoughts. The mind is a conjurer of perceptions, perceptions and thoughts, which come in and reel out like the actors on a stage. And he said that there’s no stage, there’s just thoughts. Okay, so the mind is just a sum total, constantly changing sum total of our thoughts. Other philosophers, with regard to thoughts – it’s the content of the mind or the result of the actions of the mind, but the mind which is that something with abilities. The ability to think, to calculate, to perceive, to feel, to desire, and to fear. Okay, this could be the mind. And then what I fear or what I believe or what I calculate – these would be my thoughts, okay, or my ideas. Two quite separate things. Okay, I’m skeptical about our ability to map either our ideas or the functions of our mind. Okay, I could sit down and say, well we can think, we can fear, we can love, we can calculate and so on, we can perceive. But maybe there’s something else that we will be able to develop, which we haven’t thought of yet. Okay, so I don’t think it’s ever going to come to an end. Well, either with respect to individual thoughts or with respect to the capacities or functions of the mind. But thanks for pointing my attention to that distinction that I haven’t thought of sufficiently though. Yes.
Macer: My answers are designed for a map of ideas. Some ideas and thoughts from moral decision making, this distinction is sometimes not easy to make.
Clark: This is a comment. Maybe in a way, Darryl’s cheating a bit. You talk about mapping ideas but you’re only mapping part of the whole stretch of human ideas. I don’t know if there are physical scientists in the room apart from me, but most ideas in physical science do not fit on this map. And it seems to me that when Frank’s talking about ideas and then new ideas which constantly come up. In physical science constantly new ideas are coming up. And maybe that kind of idea, the idea where we bring some new conception out of the human mind. Maybe that kind of idea is infinite. But maybe we aren’t going to be able to map that completely, That’s what I think. But maybe some ideas, just some specific parts of human experience maybe ideas on how we make decisions, about our emotions for example, maybe these are finite. Or maybe the ideas which we have concerning our self-interest, for example, are finite. And these are the ideas which can be involved in the kind of ideas which Darryl wants to map, the ones which seem to be related to decision making. So maybe that part of the map can be, if not complete, then at least brought to a stage where it’s actually useful to apply to specific situations. And we had a comment earlier on about spirit, about a two-dimensional map not showing three-dimensional parts. I think that’s true. But you can get to places using the two-dimensional map so it does actually have use. So I think, if you concentrate on that part of the project, then something useful will come out of it.
Leavitt: I think that’s a very good point which Richard is making, that we have to distinguish between ideas like you have in physics or mathematics, on the one hand, and ideas which we have in ethics, on the other. And I think that Darryl is primarily mapping ethical ideas. Okay, but I’m skeptical about that too. I was just thinking some people say - I don’t know if this is true or false – but some people say that before they invented the Bible, there was no such thing as a sense of guilt. Okay, people didn’t have any feelings of guilt. Okay, inventing the Bible gave us this idea. If that’s true or not, I don’t know. But what I’m saying is I don’t see why there should not be new types of feelings, new types of emotions. Why should there not be all of a sudden an emotion of the sort that we never thought of before? Why not? Why restrict us so much?
Chamundeeswani: Thank you very much for your talk. I think I could agree about what you said about our mind as an active arena of ideas because of this. There is no existence outside our sensory perceptions basically. In fact there have been many people who believed in this and who have taken it seriously and have gone further. And a lot of people have actually achieved a lot of what we want to really achieve now in life but in the end not going into war and different things. It belongs to, you know, every human being. Following from what you said that our mind is not in our mind, is only in our parts. It’s only sensory perceptions that actually give us the feeling of existence. The next step that is advocated is what is called, “if-we’re-not-that-then-what-are-we-really”? Because there is something that is called the I, in Sanskrit. So I completely agree with what you said. I mean, I was just taking it to the next level. But I think the effort of mapping ideas is a very vital one because it would increase our understanding of what we actually think, individually and collectively. That’s going to give us a lot of knowledge about our mind, we could’ve been facing a lot of our own thoughts, which is very good. Because we’re gonna confront what we might not even like but we still have to do it within this project. So I think that’s a very good idea for our evolution as a whole.
Leavitt: I think she says very interesting things and I wish I had time to study them more. I would come to study Indian literature under your direction. Very interesting. Did you say that there is such a thing as the I?
Chamundeeswani: Yes.
Leavitt: You mean the self?
Chamundeeswani: Yes.
Leavitt: I don’t know. I don’t know. A very great British philosopher by the name of Hume whom I’ve already mentioned, he says if I look inside my mind I find thoughts – colors, sounds, images, memories, feelings, perceptions – but I never find myself, does it exist at all?
Chamundeeswani: The problem is the I cannot be confined. You cannot think of I, you cannot see the I, you cannot feel the I. So basically it’s outside the mind, it’s outside the sensory perceptions.
Leavitt: So how do you know it exists? Maybe it’s just a fiction.
Chamundeeswani: I mean, to begin with you have to go, you know, to sort of start off with that. But if you work towards it, if you actually take this idea of what you tell – talking about, that outside the five sensory perceptions. If you take that most seriously and work on it – there are sort of rules and all that – then you can actually reach the state which you cannot comprehend being in this state. That is what is said in different texts and literature. Even I do not know that myself but that’s what exists. That’s what they say.
Yoon: Well, let me go back to some history of the organization of ideas. For example, historically, such a philosopher as Francis Bacon tried very hard to organize, I mean, to systematically organize the human ideas. But he was mostly concerned with classifying the disciplines. And even now some scholars and some people of ideas are interested in classifying the human disciplines as a part of their endeavor to – for mapping human ideas. But their unit of classification has been the disciplines. But Darryl is trying hard to classify each idea fitting into the schematic framework. And I think at this point, Darryl’s effort is too ambitious. But for a certain area of human ideas, I think it’s useful, practically useful. For example, for practical reasons mapping human ideas might be beyond human capability and currently at least. However, if we downsize the areas of our interest into some ideas in bioethics - not all ideas in bioethics. But the ideas we are faced with more and practical dilemmas in our decision making. I think that kind of schematic framework would be quite, I mean, useful in solving our dilemmas and reaching practically feasible conclusions. I mean the comparisons between different opinions. However, even for that purpose, we have to elaborate the six – I mean, what would be the standard of what the dimensions of those classification.
Leavitt: I agree with you that it could be a useful tool. Which is always infinitely correctible and we might reject it after a few years and do something else.
Yoon: So in the sense that human ideas are not finite.
Leavitt: I sort of like the principles of bioethics. You know, I try to teach my students that autonomy and beneficence and all this stuff – but this is not truth in God. These are not absolute dogmas. We might throw them away tomorrow. But it’s a very useful way to have an orderly class discussion of an ethical problem. This might be a useful way to have an orderly - to make our discussion more orderly. But in a few years, we might throw it away and do something else.
Macer: We will have time for open discussion on the whole project on Tuesday and also possibly later in different parts of the meeting. The next paper is from Masakazu Inaba on how to assess people view’s of biotechnology: the lessons from Japan. Are there any questions?
IrinaPollard: Thank you very much. I was just wondering as to how you came up with criteria for scoring?
Inaba: The categorization process had two persons checking it. The first person made a set categories and the other person placed the comments into categories again. Then we can both check each other to be consistent with the categories. If there are some category, which are not consistent with each other, in that case, the definition has to be discussed.
Macer: These two processes are done in both English and Japanese.
IrinaPollard: What was the percentage of response worth? Normally with questionnaires in Australia there might be a response rate of 20 or 25%, which means that there’s 80% worth of ideas which are not even scored. Is that going up with education? Not late 2000, 2003?
Inaba: The response rates range from 13 to 40% over the years.
IrinaPollard: In the time, over the nine years, has the response rate increased?
Inaba: In some cases the response rate decreased. For some other reasons, for example, people are busy, busy with something or something like that.
IrinaPollard: In 2000 and 2003, how many people filled up the questionnaire?
Inaba: In 2000, around 13%, and in 2003, 18%.
IrinaPollard: Okay, so it is less than 20%
Macer : 1993 was 25% also in 1991 25%, and 1997 40% by telepehone, but mail response rates are declining.
Badreddine: I just have a comment. I think it was very important to conduct such study in order to educate the public about bioethics. I wonder if it was just on ideas about application of biotechnology, and did the public accept of it for society or for the human being. But when we start to speak about GM food of course many start to be skeptical. And we ask lots of questions – would it be useful, would it be helpful and so I am wondering why when we produce, for example, the fast food – the junk food, to offer that to the public? If people accept that and then why criticize so much biotechnology. We start to speak about and create skepticism within the population. I think there’s some problem here: how to introduce that. And we know about the fast food and the junk food - how it’s hard for the public, how it creates problems for the health. I think we have to weigh things between factors be fair when we want to choose between such food and other food or what we can expect from the biotechnology.
Collins: First of all, I want to commend you, Darryl, you and your staff, for the fine work you’ll doing, and I enjoy these survey results for a number of years. They’re a treasure trove. It’s a treasure trove of information about what people are thinking in Japan about biotech. And I go to the website with a lot to see – to see the data but I’m not aware of the other organizations. There’s so much on a regular basis of survey of the general population. The question that I have: do you have a sense of the extent to which policymakers in Japan are looking at this data –the results of your data, whether there are similar organizations doing these kinds of surveys. I think the Japanese government occasionally does surveys about clothing and some other things. But do you sense that policymakers are seriously looking at this information about public perceptions and public understanding as they go about making public policy in this area?
Inaba: The question was how policymakers will utilize the results?
Collins: Yes, well, will this have an impact on the policymaking process in Japan?
Macer : I think that some - part of the process of policymaking has used these surveys. The biotechnology industry has used these surveys especially in 1991 and 1993, when there were not many other surveys being done. More recently there are other groups of survey as well. They may have used it to become a bit more cautious about biotechnology and also it also educated them after about 10 years. They understood that even though these people have good education and information, are still have concerns about biotechnology and I’ve been trying to say this for more than ten years. Thus society has concerns in fact some people value different priorities. So, in fact, there is a change in the Japan Bioindustry Association (JBA) which has set up an NPO which is shifting from public acceptance to public understanding as a concept in a relationship between society and biotechnology. So it’s taken some time but I think they’ve grown to understand that these social concerns are to be valued and dialogue rather than just as an obstacle to technology.
Liachensko: I was just curious about the use of education and I just wondered: is it education or is it advertisement? Not somewhat rhetorical but – and what role does bioethics play in – well, excuse me, it’s a rather crude expression but it captures a certain truth of bioethics as the KY Jelly of medicine or bioethics as the KY Jelly of Biotech industry so I just put that out there. KY Jelly is a lubricant used in sexual intercourse.
Leavitt: I think Joan made a very important point. There’s been a lot of stuff of publicity-based information about bioethics being dependent on drug companies or other interests for their livelihood. Recently there was a controversy when the University of Toronto lecturer's invitation for employment was cancelled because he gave a lecture disagreeing with some drug company about something. But I think it’s a very important point. How much of bioethics is influenced by business interests and I think we have to be aware of that.
Collins: That is a big topic of discussion in the US now. I know that in my campus, there’s been talk of setting up a bioethics institute and there’s been a lot about opposition among the faculty – that this will easily become captured by the local biotech industry in the region where there’s a very strong biotech industry. Also I work in public education in a non-profit foundation that sponsors publication of public education advance. And I have diminished my participation in that because it has become a vehicle by which local biotech firms get out there and they sponsor these events and they abuse these events as a means for advertising their product. Now they’re doing a good service with education and they’re trying desperately to improve public acceptance. But at the same time, they’re framing the terms of the debate in a way that makes a number of us academics - pointy-headed academics – uncomfortable. Is that happening in Japan to the same degree? No?
Macer: I’ll reply to the last comment. This 2003 study was paid for by the Ministry of Economic Trade and Industry, subcontracted through the Japan Bioindustry Association in the project of bioethics. They gave us money to talk about anything we like so they supported the free exchange of ideas. I did not feel any inhibition on what I report or how I report in such a study. So the money does come from the government but it’s that part of the government not through the ministry of education.
Leavitt: Can I add one thing to that? Okay, the big problem is how we can get free of this because most of us here work for universities which area supported by big donors and they love to have some academic freedom. It’s good to disagree because they make them say how free they are. However, there’s always going to be a limit to it. The only way I can see of being free of conflict of interest is if we were to break contact with the academic world and set up like a commune and support ourselves with manual labor and then we can be totally free and not dependent on anybody. Short of that, I think that we’re all going to be, at least to some slight extent, prostituting ourselves according to the academic world.
Macer: I also should point out that Masakazu Inaba led the team of my students conducting the 2003 survey. And Mary Ann Chen Ng led the group conducting the 2000 survey. So if you have some questions of the surveys, please ask them as well. The next talk is from Tim Boyle. Are there any questions?
Bagheri: Thank you for the interesting talk. I will just make a comment regarding what you mentioned about borrowing the ideas from each other. Actually in Islam the Almighty God explicitly mentioned about the story of Noah and a flood, but he was a prophet just like Mohammed or Jesus. We believe that the source of the story is God the Almighty who gave to his prophets – at first to Moses and then to Jesus and then Mohammed.
Boyle: Yes there’s the story – my point here is not whether the story is actual factual history or not. My own feeling is that it is based on historical data and that there is this common thread. At least the idea is the same across different cultures.
Leavitt: I’ve also been very interested in the Jewish influence of Israeli actually, in Japan Judaism came much earlier than Christianity. I have a handful of papers and saw graves where the tribe was Israeli. I visited a site in north Japan where they had all sorts of artifacts and things. And it’s also what they said for the other 10 tribes, as the lost tribes in Japan have some really amazing similarities between our customs and Shinto customs. I know we also had some correspondence a little bit by email. Besides, you mentioned in the conference that contact might go back a lot earlier than Christianity.
Boyle: Oh yes, I think it does. And it’s because the Silk Road itself is much older than you know - I mean, the Silk Road has been going on, you know, I guess at least 3 or 4,000 years. And it was much more active in the past than has often been realized.
Weisburd: Thanks for the very interesting presentation. I agree completely with your main point. But you mentioned that if there was an earlier origin of the momo taro story, it would come from Christ story. How about if there was an earlier origin of the momo taro story, maybe that’s the origin of the Christ story.
Boyle: Right that’s possible of course. Again we’re totally in the world of speculation here. And it was kind of hard to come up with part evidence when we’re talking about these kind of ancient things like this so theoretically. Sure that’s possible. I don’t think so, but maybe that’s a different story.
IrinaPollard: Following nicely from your comment. The Australian aboriginal people lived in Australia – it’s been shown – over 60,000 years in isolation. I’m not exactly sure what the whole story is but they have got a flood story as well, which precedes, I guess, the scribes in eastern Europe. And it’s an oral tradition, from generation to generation.
Boyle: Well, for instance, recently National Geographic had this article about this giant flood in the Black Sea being the origin of the Noah story. Well, I think it’s quite clear that it can’t be because there’s a common story and the common source has to be earlier, for instance, the Aztecs. They had to cross the land bridge at the latest around 11,000 years ago because then it disappeared and so you know that it had to precede that. And so, you know, I would think that it’s least 20 or 30,000 years or maybe more ago.
IrinaPollard: So maybe you’re right in one of your comments – that it goes back to the human origin since we’re sure now that we’re all just one race – there aren’t even any races, we have a common origin.
Macer: The next talk is by Baoqi Su. Are there any questions or comments?
Tanida: Thank you very much for a nice talk. Not a question, but just a comment. You mentioned that medicine is the art of perfect virtue. Actually, we introduced that idea in the 15th to 16th century from China and we still use medicine as the art of perfect virtue to serve patients. Actually, the meaning of “art of perfect virtue” is now changing, so we are now adopting the western idea, from Chinese bioethics to western bioethics.
Liachensko: Almost all of the conversation today has come up around moral decision making, as if morality was only a matter of decisions. And yet as a virtue ethics, Confucianism - I’m wondering is there anything else that you could say about how Confucianism would inform all of our ethical experience and not just the part that makes decisions. For instance, what about moral sensitivity? I mean, much of ethics is about what we are sensitive to, what we see as causing harm and pain to others, and not just about making a decision.
Su: So let me ask the question to make sure what you would like to know. Apart from moral decision making that what Confucianism answers have said about others issues such as causing harm in the issue of ethics, right?
Liachensko: Yes, how is it that we come to name something a certain way that leads us to feel a certain way and to respond a certain way. That seems to me a different kind of ethical issue than making a decision about something. It is about how we get sensitized to certain kinds of issues.
Su: Okay, I think it’s really the traditional Confucian ethics / ideas of the Chinese people’s mind. For more than 2,000 years. Apart from their moral direction, reducing the occurrence of errors was also part of Chinese people’s thinking and actions. In minor errors, not just in the errors of decision making, in money there are good and bad as well. And also have influence of Chinese peoples, facing ethical dilemmas in contemporary Chinese society in practical, medical and ethical issues.
Sleeboom: Thank you. I’ve a similar question. You’ve been talking about morality and the Chinese mind and I was wondering to what extent can you say this Chinese mind is different from other kinds of minds? How have you come to the conclusion that the Chinese minds can be found in every Chinese person? And I also wonder, because you gave us a suggestion about linking your talk to the human mapping, to the mapping of ideas, and I was wondering if you can draw that line around the Chinese mind, does this mean that this kind of Confucian representation would be the thing that you would put into the mental map?
Su: First, yes the Chinese mind – what is the difference between Chinese mind to other cultures, right? Yes, I think in some aspects it is a quite different concept of a person in moral decision making between Chinese people to the others, to some western countries. For example, many countries, like European countries, the Netherlands, the USSR has the concept of brain death but for Chinese people and I think for traditional cultures, a fact that Chinese mind, the Chinese people are reluctant to observe that concept of brain death and agree to donate organs after death. So in Chinese society I think it’s different.
Sleeboom: I’m sorry but I don’t think you understood my question. Culture is not the same as the Chinese mind - that would be one of my points. And another point would be is this Chinese mind something that all Chinese have, to say all have this belief in something because many Chinese people I know do not regard themselves as such Confucian minds. So I was wondering whether you would point to this representation of the Chinese mind into the map. Are you the representative?
Su: I think China has the biggest population in the world. My presentation will become – how should I say – represent almost all the Chinese people, the traditional ideas of the Chinese people’s thinking. But I cannot say it represents all of the Chinese – 1.3 billion people’s thinking. But generally speaking, I think the traditional Confucian culture affects modern Chinese people’s thinking - very deeply affects, not just affects the person’s in the traditional perspectives in Chinese people’s minds and for in the original cultures and is a quite different concept of – between modern western concept of independent persons, right? In China, the family is the basic unit in a society and decision making is purely by families and not by individuals. Also the doctors / physicians in the hospital always discuss disease in the family instead to patient themselves. I think it’s quite different from the western cultures. In western culture, physicians should respect individual autonomy highly. And even the physicians will follow the patient’s will, even they believe the treatment against the patient’s health and life.
Boyle: It’s somewhat related to that, I think that you mentioned about the Confucian concept of life beginning with birth and so that the fetus wasn’t really human. Then I’m wondering how that affects present modern China. I hear about the abortion issue and forced abortions and things like that. Is that something that is rationalized based on the Confucius idea that life doesn’t start until birth? Is that related?
Su: I think it has a relationship with the Confucian ethics, Confucian thought. For Confucius, of course, birth is the beginning of life and death is the end of life. For the emperor and for the earlier thinkers there was a personal perspective. Chinese people’s thinking about that until now was based on the Confucian idea. The earlier abortion was based on several conditions and so when abortion took place, nobody said that the person existed.
Macer: So now from the Chinese mind, now we’re going to talk about the Japanese mind. And what better person to ask to talk about the Japanese mind than a typical Japanese gentleman, Shinryo Shinagawa. Are there any questions?
Su: Thank you very much, Shinagawa-sensei, for your comparison between China and Japan. If I compare China with Japan there may be some different ideas. Japan is a developed country although I respect and appreciate Japanese people’s working hard, and it has advanced technologies. China is huge but it’s the world's biggest population and a developing countries. I think Japan and China also share a lot of common cultures to comparably so we can share ideas.
Shinagawa: There are many common culture. We have similarities between Japanese, Korean and Chinese ideas.
Macer: I would like to invite the next speaker to continue this discussion on different cultures. Dena Hsin is from Taiwan, are there any questions?
Bagheri: Thank you. It’s just that I wanted to have a comparison between these two presentations – one from Baoqi from China and Dena from Taiwan. In China, as we have seen, death is not a taboo in China. And it refers to Confucianism in China and in Taiwan it’s a part of a life circle and they consider equal – life and death. Can we refer these two different ideas to the differences between Taoism in Taiwan and Confucianism in China? Or maybe we should look for other reasons?
Hsin: Yes in Baoqi’s presentation, I was thinking about this problem too. First of all, I want to emphasize that I interviewed the senior people that are over 60, but older peoples there are 70 and some are around 80, and also have three over 90. The total is 112. And before, I also think that talking about death is a taboo in our society. But after my interviews I found that it’s not really true because the elder people they like to talk to us, the interviewer, not the family. When I asked them they spoke such a lot about their future death, since it’s nothing terrible and did they have a talk with their children or family before. They say no, of course I can’t ask it to them. Because maybe in Confucian philosophy, to think about your parents’ death is very inappropriate. And so children, they will avoid this conversation even if the elderly people will like to share their weakness for the future. And the other thing is according to Taoist philosophy, people will think that it’s useless to think about this, useless to talk about it because it’s my fate. What it will be, it will be. What is should be, will be. So it’s useless to talk about that, to concentrate on this topic. Of course, I ask, do want to be sent to the hospital in the last stage? Most people say, well it just happens like that - I have nothing to do with that because you cannot put your children in a complex situation, like to have them to do everything that is according to the social norm. Also they prefer to suffer themselves than to keep the priority of the social norm. So this is very interesting situation. They only talk to some people, not family.
Su: I would like to add to this question. On the one hand, Confucianism thinks life is the most precious thing and death should be avoided. But on the other hand, I think Confucianism is consistent with Taoism. They all think the life and death are destined by fate and if one had a good birth and peaceful death then the person fulfilled their life. I think that for example it is different but sometimes consistent with each other, just to respect the birth, the life and death naturally not to change by human power.
Matsuda: I want to ask you the social perception of the organ transplantation between being natural and unnatural. So what is the cultural acceptance? And also generally how do they accept the organ transplant.
Hsin: First of all, young people there – they have an open mind to accept this organ donation, very often they signed the donation card.
Matsuda: Yes, but not only donation but how many accept?
Hsin: I don’t know, I’m sorry I didn’t check that. But since I always go to the hospital, I know that in the hospital the doctor will respect family’s decision first like in Japan. That means family’s decision and family’s agreement is the very priority. One point, is that this will also be so the doctor won’t get into trouble. The second thing is when thinking that you want to keep the family harmony, that individual is not so important like in the western context, the same as Japan.
Matsuda: So that all these things are similar in Japan.
Hsin: Yes, I think Japan adopted a lot of Confucius philosophy. I just feel that when I stayed there for several months.
Collins: One of the interesting things about Chinese history, and I teach a course in the university on this – ancient civilization course, is my students are always fascinated by just how long these two value systems – Taoism and Confucianism – can coexist peacefully for so large. And I guess the answer is the way they complement each other and they balance each other but also one thing I didn’t hear expressed is how I guess at least historically Confucianism has always been more associated with the public side of Chinese life – government, the ruling elites – a lot of it has to do with the behavior of rulers and how virtuous rulers were to act. Whereas Taoism tends to be more the religion of the masses – it’s the private side of people’s lives. So Chinese can at the same time in their daily public life be Confucian and then go home and behind their closed doors. They’re Taoist. My question is, in thinking about bioethics, which side is more influential in shaping the public attitudes toward it. And secondly, if I could also ask, when bioethics is discussed at the public level in China, do you have representatives from these different philosophies participating? Is there a Confucian expert, a Taoist, perhaps even a Buddhist veteran involved in the discussion about bioethics policy? Thank you.
Liachensko: I wanted to ask about the category of natural because it seems a little problematic. When does nature stop and human intervention start? If the end of life, say technology, is not natural, is pain control natural? Where’s that line? And I’m wondering if both of these philosophers were here right now – pull them into the room – what do you think they would say about this category of nature or the natural?
Hsin: According to Taoism it is modern medicine all the time. They only suggest harmony. Harmony is the very important aspect of nature. If you’re against nature, it’s wrong that’s why if people are suffering we help them.
Su: I think that the Confucian view is that what you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others. And I think it’s consistent with the western principle of good – to do to others only what you wish others to do to you. So it’s consistent with the western principles. And for morality in China the ideas are in harmony with the western principles of autonomy, justice and beneficence. Also this is harmony with others, that describes the various forms of love – self love, love other, love life, love good. I think it’s consistent.
Yoon: How about Buddhists?
Hsin: Buddhists? In my interviews, some people they talk about Buddhism but its very interesting, I also have some data about those people’s religions but it’s not so clear. Some say “I’m Buddhist” and some say “okay maybe not, I don’t know.” A lot of people have philosophy but they don’t have religion. The Buddhism in Taiwan is a philosophy more than a religion yet maybe some of you know that we have many associations, a lot of them are Buddhist groups but they never talk about religion. They’re talking about how to behave good, to help people, this kind of philosophy. The Buddhists talk about detachment, that means nothing is important for you, anyway you will return to the original. Also they talk about karma – why it be like this – they have some reason, not only in this life, they talk about the last life and the after life. Also for Confucianism and the Taoism. You know Lao Tzu is Buddhist more than Confucian, when he wrote his work he was in the age of 70, so his philosophy and his thinking maybe is for the elder people - they may easily understand, because after a lot of life experience you may understand the meaning more. But in Confucian philosophy, they talk about the moral life. They will encourage people to make an effort for your life that death is not important. You just make an effort for what you can do for your life. So for the Chinese history all the king or the emperor they welcome Confucius’ philosophy that’s why it’s the mainstream value in the society.
Macer: Thank you. I’m afraid we’re going to have to move on. Thank you very much. I think in fact Dena has mentioned in the end of her talk to look at the Taoist, Confucianist and Buddhist and so on inside every one of us. And it’s an interesting mixture of culture and how the culture describes us or shapes us. The next paper on mental mapping is from Minakshi Bhardwaj, are there any comments.
Weisburd: Thank you for a very interesting presentation. I learned a lot – a very balanced consideration. I have one comment and one question. My comment is you had a slide about problems of governance in developing countries. Many of the issues there also apply to developed countries. It would be interesting also to look across the board. And then if you look at what’s happening in the world today, maybe it’s mentioned by multisectoral cooperation, I’m going to ask, in many critical industries, take the media for example. There are a few multinational corporations that are completely dominant in almost every country. Sometimes it’s the same corporation in every country. Clearly there’s tremendous economic power and the economic power of these companies certainly affects the policy and the structure of society and the way people think. And when we think about how policy is made and how society is structured, I wonder if governance is really the most important consideration anymore. Is it possible that the real power is not on the table but is going on behind closed doors in large corporations?
Bhardwaj: At the level of private industry you mean?
Weisburd: Yes, in business, large multinational corporations.
Bhardwaj: The motive of any private industry is to make profit. There is of course some persons representing private industry here and I don’t want to say that they don’t do any ethical work. They do but the level at which the ethical work is projected and implemented is very limited compared to when it is not or when you look at it from the eyes of public sector. The governance issue in the private industry is in whose hands? So who runs the private industry? Is it a committee or is it individual human beings or it is just one family? So at the governance level, if you try to look from top to bottom approach, would then ideologies be reflected at the level of when the industry puts its products in the market. So it is at each level really.
Shinagawa: I have two very simple questions. As far as I remember in your country, the best king ever you had in India was King Ashkok. Why was he so highly regarded? In today’s world, which country's government is the best?
Bhardwaj: Shinagawa-sensei, you always ask very difficult questions. Well, why King Ashkok, because he had an image of a very secure person. Especially for Malaysians and developing countries, religion plays an important role. And he was very generous. That’s one. And even, he did not only try to preach the text or try to follow tolerance at the level of his people, even his family also. He had two wives. One was Hindu, one was Muslim. And when he used to speak with his Muslim wife, he will speak in Urdu. When he used to speak with his Hindu wife, he will speak in Hindi. He was literate in the language. Which government is the best in the world? I don’t want to get into political problems in the future. I don’t know what happens if I answer your question well enough so I try to restrain myself. Sorry.
Kamsuko: Thank you for the interesting presentation. My question is which is best in policymaking in developing countries. Don’t you think that historical factors have influenced this, for example, colonization, because they’re colonized and then in the present day society. There are a lot of neocolonial policies that affect our country. Don’t you think that it’s historical?
Bhardwaj: That’s what I was trying to mention, that there was a lack of coordination even at your regional level. We don’t have a neo-colonization. And old colonization did have effects because they formulated some of the rules and the laws in the country that are now having democratic systems. Yes, they do have but it becomes a question of empowerment of the nation and capacity building. We should, I want to say we don’t though – developing nations should try to take experience but don’t depend totally on developed nations and just become copycat of the rules and the laws that the rest of us follow. So that is the problem, I think and we have to look inside. Capacity building has to come from inside, not from out. Only the aid for capacity building should come from outside, which includes economic reforms, which includes many other social systems - for instance, governance systems. And that’s one of the reasons.
Leavitt: You emphasized a couple of times or maybe more, transparency and delayed transformation. I want to ask you a question, which I think is very important. It’s a nice question and it may be important to some of the people here. If there is a government committee or board, or an NGO – let’s say the board of directors of an NGO or an international organization, perhaps an international scientific or academic organization – should it be the discussions of the board, whether they be in a meeting or perhaps whether they’d be by email. I’d like to ask you and the other people present whether you think that in the interest of transparency such a discussion should be open to all of the members of the organization?
Hsin: Well, I can understand the philosophy behind asking that question. Well, I think it should be open. And the people who want to respond and participate can participate and give their ideas. Because since they are members, they vote for selecting the board members and they have every right to know what’s happening at the high level which is considered as a vote. I mean, not necessarily that, it is something like the democratic system where you can participate and sometimes you don’t have the right to vote in decision making. But, of course, you can give your ideas. So it should be open to the members. Like I’m a member of different associations I don’t know what happens, unless somebody tells me in general discussions here. I’m not rightly informed if I want to say. I mean, it should be open and that’s the thing I repeated even in the meeting held in Seoul.
Leavitt: Can I ask if anybody disagrees with me on this.
Sleeboom: More or less, I was wondering what if any organization is trying to transform ideas into policymaking - I think cannot go around a private corporations, especially considering that corporations with the biggest finances into bioethical discussions and research. What do you think about that? How can they be incorporated?
Bhardwaj: Of course, I think, they can. It’s not a question of “can”, Margaret. It’s a question of “should be” incorporated because the views are very important. It’s not a question of whether your going to follow their, whether they’re going to put their views in the constitution of your – in your governing systems or not. But their views are duly very important to have a balanced perspective and make not a biased approach. That’s how I would – I try to respond to that.
Macer: Thank you for your endurance. The next paper on the mental mapping project looks at sustainability and is by Morgan Pollard. We have time for several questions.
Morioka: Thank you for your presentation. My question is what do you think about the concept of sustainability? Can you imagine some negative aspect about sustainability? So do you think the idea of sustainability is almighty or not?
MorganPollard: As I said, one of the reasons for its success has been the ambiguity and the difficulty in defining the term. This also increased the ability of people to misuse the term or to use it or define it for their own purposes. And so although it could be considered an ideal, it also is open to abuse. What has made it successful has also helped make it problematic. I think that in a step-wise fashion, even the misuse of it can help to increase knowledge of the issues.
KazutoKato: My question is the same, I just wonder if there’s any discussion about whether the term, the concept of sustainability or maybe sustainable development is good or not and whether there is any alternative for looking at things.
MorganPollard: Well, I think the alternative way rather than rely on one field or one term like sustainable development or bioethics is to look at the similarities between many of these fields and to bring them together. And it’s the same with comparison of religions and other institutions. The collaboration and mutual benefit of bringing these things together could help to expand the potential detriment of only idealizing one. Does that provide an answer?
KazutoKato: Do you mean that there is any alternative way of thinking? Or all the discussions about these environmental things are dominated by the ideal sustainable development.
MorganPollard: The alternative ways of thinking have been discussed in conservation literature since the 50s and 60s. I think that theoretically we know how to increase human and ecological well-being on a global scale but it’s the practical aspects of human nature and the institutions and psychological and motivational aspects that have been the biggest problem rather than theory. So the alternative ideas have been put forward but they haven’t been very successful. Only a few programs have a bioethics component that’s self-initiated by the organizers. Sustainable development has been successful in getting some of these alternative ideas within its broad scope to a wide range of different professionals ranging from conservationists to theorists.
Weisburd: Of course the most widely quoted definition is from the Brundtland Report – the ability of the present generation to support their needs without compromising the needs of future generations. But I think it’s really problematic to pin that down in an operational sense because it’s not a value-free term. What are the needs of the present generation? So if there’s a universal ethics and if we can all agree on what that is, maybe we can go from there. But I wanted to ask you about another term in your big diagram – the non-sustainable motivation that’s not completely subjective to whoever is – what is your goal, what are you trying to achieve? And, just to make a simple example, if the human population of the earth was one million people, the one million people could do pretty much anything they wanted without endangering ecological sustainability. I think they wanted that it’s all context-related. But it’s a useful model. It’s very thought-provoking and I think we should explore it further.
MorganPollard: Thank you. In response to your suggesting that the ethical principles coming in to the model are subjective – that’s always been true in ethics and bioethics and philosophy in general. This model has the environment as its core by science interacting with the philosophy. And the philosophy, although subjective with the power of the internet and other things have democratic style of trying to optimize or determine what are a good list of principles from all religions or fields of endeavor may help to – still may remain subjective but in a sense strategic adaptive - we have the adaptive phase in which those principles are constantly open to review on the basis of new information and new technology.
Azariah: I think I want to say that all developments according to me are restrictive. There is no development, as far as I know, which is not, which is purely with nature. Before this building was there, there was a natural ecosystem and they’re cutting down trees just before this building to make another development. So we have to destroy the nature to some extent for our development. And in this model, I think there should be a correction. You have chained the big fish in to the smaller fishes. That is ecological truth, a lot of fish eat the smaller fish. But in revising the model, the big fish’s mouth is still wide open. It’s going to devour our life. So the other alternative is to power down on the big fish.
MorganPollard: Power down the big fish?
Azariah: Power down the big fish. That is Mahatma Gandhi’s idea that there is enough for our needs but not for all at once. So if we power down the big fish we will be sustainable for infinite. That is that the cycle goes endlessly.
MorganPollard: In response to your idea that all amassed development is negative - if development is framed in terms of economic growth or increasing technocentrism or technophilia, then you may be right on a purely ecological way. But if you phrase development in terms of progress or moving towards a better state for the world, then that definition of development could increase well-being and ecological survival.
Azariah: Yes, in that sense then, we will evaluate what will be the good to humanity by building this medical complex. The benefit will be seen in terms of the loss of the natural ecosystem. So we will allow this for the benefit of humanity. So then we’ll again capture the balancing of these loss and benefit. So that’s why we will – but even then, we will be destroying some amount of nature or ecosystem.
Macer: Okay, I’m afraid we’re going to have to continue discussion at the recess. The next paper is by Rick Weisburd. Are there any questions?
MorganPollard: Just a comment about the definition of your idea. In genetics and the field of mimetics that has also been used relating to the natural selection of organisms and the evolution of life. It is an interesting example. Some things may be evolutionally adaptive in the gene pool. A word may survive because of its qualities. What do you think about mimetics? Is it a useful concept?
Weisburd: Yes, I think it’s a very useful concept. And certainly there’s a world of ideas from human cultures and unfortunately a lot of the diversity represented by human cultures is also disappearing. The number of spoken languages is going down and there is a homogenization. Some of the cultures may possess some knowledge and wisdom and ideas that are particularly valuable. Also, maybe its sentimental or emotional, but I think it’s really – to be able to share our world with a range of different approaches for human societies - is a privilege.I’m not sure if children will be able to enjoy that privilege.
Azariah: I just want to ask: you have put in your title the phrase “living things.” And in the body of your text, “living organisms.” Which one of the two?
Weisburd: I don’t know.
Azariah: What about, you chose to determine - the second part of one thing is we have no idea what ideas are going on inside animals and plants. I believe that plants got a sense of our touch of care and other things so we are handicapped in that respect. Third part I want to say is that: do you consider information contained in a book is an idea?
Weisburd: I think a book is a collection of ideas.
Azariah: But my question is do you think information contained in a book is an idea?
Weisburd: Yes.
IrinaPollard: It was very stimulating for my thinking. As you were speaking, I almost realized an idea there. Do you think that since we’re intimately part of nature, that there is not any idea which does not already exist in nature? And if nature is infinite, our ideas are infinite? If nature is finite, our ideas are finite? There’s nothing original that we can conceive of if it hasn’t already been there iin the basic structure of nature or the universe?
Weisburd: I’m not sure, but one thing about life and also about the human spirit is they both evolved into some kind of very creative force. Life evolves new kinds of life and I’m not sure, I think the direction of evolution is the product of what exists and the environment and how the environment changes and natural and historical aspects. And I think that all of - originally and creativity, and ideas also. I think the human mind is a vastly underused, underappreciated, remarkable product of evolution that itself is capable of true originality. I think new ideas can happen all the time.
IrinaPollard: So we could have ideas which are truly original and spontaneously generated within human beings.
Weisburd: I believe that’s possible but I’m not sure there’s any way to really know. It's just a personal opinion.
Leavitt: I was very impressed by what you said about the evolution of rocks. I think that we agree. I’d even argue that rocks can have rights. From some of the things you said, I’m reminded of the first chapter of a book which I’m sure you know much better than I do, The Molecular Biology of the Cell, where in the first chapters the authors try to argue that from a table of elements selected through a random process, the evolution of molecules that are best fitted to survive in this environment and eventually the evolution of a cell through a random process. Now thinking about this very beautiful process that is needed at the microscopic level, I have to think that even if we did destroy the biosphere, with patience and a few more million years, it will come back again, maybe in a better form. I don’t think that we should destroy it. I think we should work for a good environment. But I also have to think that no matter what happens life will continue. My second point that I want to make is now that we’re finally back to the theme of the conference, mapping ideas, which we sort of forgot about in several sessions, it all of a sudden occurred to me that we like to reinvent the wheel. You know, we think that we have a new idea and we forget that maybe somebody did it before. In the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe, which was time for the beginnings of modern western psychology, people like Descartes, locke, Hume – at least those three, at least Locke Hume and Descartes and Adam Smith who’s better known as an economist – wrote books actually mapping ideas. The functions of the mind and the different kinds of sense perceptions and the different kinds of emotions that we can have. Very extensive books. And I think that if anybody seriously wants to go into the mapping of human ideas, the first thing to do would be to reread these great works of the great philosophers in the 17th and 18th centuries and then to take off from there because most of the – a great deal of work has already been done.
Weisburd: I will respond to the first point. I don’t want to respond to the second point. Because I don’t want to map ideas. The first point, I agree with you. I would hope that some kind of feeling of identity and companionship and being part of the same biota would be enough motivation for us to want to preserve natural systems and living organisms and share our world with them, without messing things up. But if not, I would hope that the potential utility in all the other organisms, in all the ecological relationships, the heritage of wealth that we could leave for our children rather than destroy their heritage would be enough motivation. But if not, maybe the survival of our children is at stake. And I would hope that that would be enough to motivate us to put out the fires that we burned to destroy nature.
Lampe: Like what you said, Frank. I think you should go even further beyond Plato. And as you mentioned, a person whose health is bad will die, also the idea of David Hume. That’s the question of dualism, what we discussed in the conference is whether the ideas exist objectively or are there subjectively. He said that they exist objectively so when you have the idea, actually your spirit, your soul goes to the world of ideas because it exists independently of the human spirit and the human soul. This is a very long discussion about whether the ideas are objective in the world or not in the real world.
Collins: Something you said reminded me of some of the recent advances in genetics. I’m reminded in particular about the British geneticist by the name of Paul Nurst who won the Nobel Prize just a year or so ago for his work on yeast genetics. He was the first to show that the same gene that controls cell division in humans controls cell division in yeast. In an interview he gave about his research, he said something to the effect of how we as humans should feel ignoble by the fact that we share in this common – we share a common genome really, in a sense, with other organisms. That nature itself, when it finds a way biologically to solve a problem, it conserves that genetically. So it finds a way to solve the problem of cell division in yeast, it conserves that and it eventually reaches humans and that as evolution progresses we have an accumulation of these functions. But which implies that we share along this continuum of many genetic features with other organisms which should make us, I think, think even more seriously about the impact of our actions on the environment.
Su: I’m sorry I want you to explain more about the quality of ideas. Not all ideas are equal. There are some certain individuals whose idea is considered not good. Like the human genome project.
Weisburd: I guess it’s similar to what I said to Morgan yesterday. I think any, all ideas, all evaluations of ideas or judgments of quality are subjective and depend on what is your – I just think the human condition demands that we recognize certain ideas that affect our survival and the survival of our fellow organisms that we evolve with as being more important than some other ideas. But, the point I was trying to make there actually was not so much to judge one idea as better than another, but just to recognize that some ideas are static and unchanging – that two plus two equals four. It’s an important idea, it doesn’t change, it’s some kind of permanent idea. But life has this possibility of evolving and changing and developing and generating new ideas. This dynamism is something special. It’s something – it’s a different quality. I don’t mean quality in the sense that two plus two equals four, or not as good. But just that, the possibility to develop and evolve into the future culturally, spirituality, biologically that is present in life is something really unique and wonderful. And even the dynamism in the evolution of rocks. There’s something special about this process of interaction of ideas and things that for me is a different quality than things that are static. I don’t mean static things are not as good but it’s different.
Lyons: There’s a really big effort in the artificial intelligence (A.I.) community to map ideas. Well, starting with definition because they’re starting to teach computers how to understand ideas. So there’s a huge effort in the A.I. community to define everything so the computer can understand the mental relationships, so the computer can know this is a part of this, this is related to this mapping of ideas, so that the computer can eventually understand ideas. It’s an organized method to really map human knowledge to teach to computers. So I wonder how the mental mapping project is connected to the A.I. community. There seems to be much relation.
IrinaPollard: A.I. is not artificial insemination; it’s artificial intelligence.
Leavitt: Artificially inseminated with genes of intelligence.
Lyons: We have to teach the machine. We have to really think about what – of course, the machine doesn’t know that this is a car or this is a wheel or a wheel is part of a car. You know, you have to teach machine in a very organized way. The machine can understand ideas, but it has to be taught step by step from the very basics. And this is all, this is a project that really – how do you say, it has because they’re actually put in software to program machines. And eventually, machines are gonna have to deal with these kinds of concepts. To teach a machine to deal with concepts, you have to define the concepts and the relationships between concepts. If you want a computer to understand what a meeting is, what a conference is, you have to program them. To teach the computer the meaning of that, then you teach it what is a university, what is a conference. So the chess problem is a very narrow problem. But if you want a computer to be able to read a book, for example, you have to teach it to read, plus you have to teach it what is ethics, what biology, what is a university, what is a participant, what is a presenter, and all these things. A presenter could be one of the participants. That is kind of a provisional hierarchy of ideas.
MorganPollard: Can I just comment that computers have already come up with new ideas. You have software that is programmed to change itself and determine its environment and continue to change itself intuitively. It does evolve by itself in a bottom-up approach, you can actually see some problems that we could answer have been addressed by artificial intelligence.
Badreddine: So how could it define what is fire?
Weisburd: She’s asking what is the fire, what is this mechanism that we’re describing the ideas by? Actually, I don’t think the mapping project would be destroying ideas, I just think it would be better to try to put the fire in our oven which is burning, before we try to map it. And the fire is the way we live our daily lives. I mean, everytime we get into an airplane, we go to a meeting, it damages the ozone, it causes lots of air pollution, increases UV light. It’s when we get into our car, it’s when we live our afternoon lives in a wealthy world. Of course the developing world has its own ways of damaging the environment. More than six billion fellow humans on this planet. There is not really room for all of us. I love to quote what Gandhi said, "The world has plenty for everyone’s needs but not enough for everyone’s greeds.” But if we keep increasing our number, it might not even have enough for everybody’s needs…
Badreddine: Yes, your ideas are exactly from the desire. It exists.
Weisburd: I could talk for hours about desire, but I don’t have hours. So basically the way people are living is driving environmental change and pushing out – it’s possible that 20 to 50% of all other organisms on this planet would be extinct in the next 50 years. That’s a projection, an actual scientific projection. It’s difficult to know. You don’t know how many other organisms there are. But there are lots of ways that’s calculated. I don’t have time to talk about it in detail.
MorganPollard: I agree with you but I am very supportive of the project’s mapping of ideas, I’d like say those projects would be right and the new tools that we could use to put out the fire with in comparison to most of human activities.
Weisburd: I think that most of human activity that is going on is frivolous if you think about the heritage we’ll leaving our children.
IrinaPollard: In a way.
MorganPollard: But if we can operationalize things from our idea maps for the purpose of the most important ideas, which are related to putting out the fire I think that the top importance of ideas is the problem with destruction of the Earth.
Ng: Yes, I think I’m rather pessimistic about it but maybe the fire won’t be put out so the human idea map is a record of human civilization. When the world gets destroyed there will be some record of what humans used to be. We will be devolving into what Prof. Awaya said, a cyborg or something. In which case the human ideas will be quite important. I don’t know but I think that probably depends on our future.
KazutoKato: Well, I have the same question as other people. I realized the idea that nature contains wisdom and this is important but I just wonder if many environmental scientists emphasize this aspect. How many of them emphasize that nature contains important ideas? I just fear that scientists think / consider nature just as a source of materials.
Weisburd: I can’t answer for all – I can only answer for myself. But I’m trained as an ecologist. And ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and the environment. And anybody who does that kind of study seriously cannot help but notice the amazing wealth and variety and depth of interaction that goes on, so whether they use the word idea in their thinking – any competent ecologist must be at least aware of the interconnectedness of life.
Kato: How about so-called environmental scientists?
Weisburd: Well, I think that is similar – it depends, I can think the character of certain fields are amenable to demonstrating this. Geochemistry is some kind of evolution and interactive living processes on the earth. But there are other environmental fields that you could – and of course, reductionism of the scientific method allows people to zoom in on a particular problem and they might not take a broader view. Maybe one of the goals of bioethics education – by the way, I’d like to be involved in the textbook project you mentioned. Maybe one of the goals should be helping people to take a broad perspective and step back and try to appreciate their personal places as an individual human and as a member of a fraternal community, as I introduced myself. That’s what we all are. It never occurs to most people that we share some very deep and profound kinship with the other living things on this planet.
Leavitt: I don’t know if we can prove that living organisms are more complex and more beautiful than crystals and other so-called inanimate objects.
Weisburd: You told me this morning that my daughter is very beautiful. I told him I can’t argue, so, …I’m a living thing, Frank. So I appreciate life.
Kato: The point in my question is more practical, pragmatic. Why don’t we put forward more about the value of the ideas and the wisdom of nature, when we talk about the environment?
Weisburd: Let’s find an answer together. I don’t know.
Anon: What do genetics and advances in science teach us about human nature and nature itself?
IrinaPollard: I think maybe a partial answer to your question might be that the normal scientific method has served us really well up to now. And there are future science investigations, and I think that some sciences like physics and quantum theory are related to the spiritual, the mysterious in a science-like manner. So I think the next area would be biology and human sciences. I suppose a very basic hypothesis which is very much outside the normal scientific way of looking at the world, so the mental mapping project is a new way of looking at everything.
Macer: Thank you for an active discussion, which I will continue for some time because that point is very relevant to the project. One comment about Rick’s talk – if we were to imagine a number of combinations, then the number of combination will be very large. The number of total ideas is probably more then the number of genes. Ideas in the mental processing and decision making, the way these ideas are linked together can form many combinations. So as we go through this grid, there could be a very large number of combinations of ideas in each decision. But the element is what we call ideas, when you think of genes - 30,000 genes - kind of our genome universe and that is, these are linked together in differently ways. So ideas also can be considered part of an idea universe. Secondly in reply to the question – there’s been a number of works suggested. Tomorrow when we try to discuss the next step in the mapping of the behavior or the mental map, I will also describe some of the types of collaborators who have already said they wish to join this. Of the 50 people who are not here, they come from a wide variety of areas from artificial intelligence, from the human mimetics project, which is actually looking at the mimetics, for example and many areas. Some of them will actually be looking at social systems as an idea. Also we have some other work which is going on and still are numbering ideas from one to 600. Can we put it down on paper? So from a vast variety of disciplines, I think that we will go forth. It will be very interesting – we had several comments. One: can we construct computers so that we can create a mind, and we will construct some other artifical intelligence through materials, it’s just a matter of time. And it will be in this century as we have said. It’s probably this century. At the end of the century we will have created the human-made mind, through our ideas. And it will be quite interesting step in human evolution. The next paper is by Margaret Sleeboom, are there any comments?
Sleeboom: There are hundreds and hundreds of concepts of ideas, and though people use it as a resource of ideas these are kind of limitless because they recreate it, create it every time. Bhardwaj: One more point, when you said about sociobiology, I want to go back to the evolution theory first. I was just wondering, Darwin proposed survival of the fittest. Do you think survival of the fittest theory also applies in developing your ideas to survive?
Sleeboom: Well, it’s very much checked. Just as I gave you the example the idea of foot binding. I mean, once the idea – like if I survive, will it be because I had a very good idea when I was six and I stuck to it. Or is because I live in a rich society and I seem to have survived, so I don’t think I can answer that question to be honest. It’s also one of the reasons why I don’t think it’s a very good argument for stating or making it a leap between accumulating ideas and survival because well, there’s no guarantee how it will be used.
Leavitt: Margaret, I’ve been to a lot of bioethics conferences, still less than Darryl. And this is the best paper that I’ve ever heard in bioethics conferences. I admire your erudition and the depth of your analysis, and I think everyone does. I want to go back to the beginning of what you mentioned – you established Plato. The boring thing about Plato is that his ideas are static and eternal and unchanging. What for me is the exciting thing about Plato is that his ideas come from another world. I don’t know what but they come from another world. Socrates, who is probably…his dialogues – he had what he called a demon which told him he was doing something unethical when he started to do something unethical. And he spoke to this – there was something like an angel or a spirit of some sort. Again, from another world. When I speak with scientists when they are not writing scientific papers or giving scientific lectures, but when they’ve drunk a little or when they’re getting informal, they also talk about an idea that they got in a dream – or a crazy idea that came into their head and they tried to publish it. Or else you think of great leaps which are unpredictable. Einstein’s theory of relativity and so on. Do you think that maybe there is some totally unknown source of ideas, if it makes any sense at all?
Sleeboom: Well, it makes sense because well everyone’s been looking for the mechanism behind creativity – because it’s first an enormous source for, especially academics because it means (if) they’re creative they flourish, they make a great big invention. Well, I’m not really sure. I’ve never had such an experience so I cannot say for myself. But I do believe that people who had a very stable environment around them can be shocked by a different experience and it might be anything from an addition to your brain by a surgeon. So I do believe that it’s possible to get such experiences. But I don’t believe that it has many results if the person in question hasn’t had a certain training, either education or training at a farm or wherever – kind of a taxonomy, as it were, to place it in. I mean, you need a basis before you can reason.
Leavitt: Do you experiment after you get the idea?
Sleeboom: It needs to fit into something – that someone has used. I think that’s a theory I’ve read several times – that people with stable coaches from – this culture can be anything, from religion to a certain kind of upbringing – often come, because of the pressures they had in their daily life with other people and the society. And they sometimes become really crazy exactly because of the reason. That’s all I can say. I’m sorry.
Shinagawa: I have a question. I am studying biology more than 60 years before. Somebody said about survival of the fittest. How do today's biologists understand who (is) the fittest. Is America the fittest? Who is the fittest?
Sleeboom: Well, as I’m trying to argue: “fittest” in human society you can only see with hindsight. And then you can’t even say with certainty what has caused someone to survive. But, seeing you here – I think you must have done something that really fits. So maybe you can tell us sometime.
Macer: Thank you. We have to move on and I have to reply to all the suggestions in the discussions tomorrow. I think it’s very interesting. Thank you to Margaret and Rick today, which is very valuable because they criticized the mental mapping project. I think these criticisms are why the mental mapping project will succeed. It can succeed because of these.
Macer: I am going to show you some examples of Emails which people sent about the project. And they raise some of the same discussion points made in the conference.
From: "Dr. Don Beck"
Date: Sat Feb 1, 2003 7:20:47 PM US/Pacific
Subject: Human Memome Project
I was pleased to see the description in Discover Magazine of what was called The Human Behaviorome" initiative. We have been working with the concept of Memetics for almost a decade, based in part on the original use of the term "meme" by Richard Dawkins. We meshed this language and concept with the seminal work of the late Professor Clare W. Graves, Union College, New York who, in the early l950s began to do basic research on how "levels of biopsychosocial systems" form in individuals and human groupings. He was way ahead of his time. I began working with Professor Graves in l975 while I was on the faculty of the University of North Texas in Denton. In l981 I left teaching to launch a major field-test of this comprehensive model of human evolution in shifting the South African "apartheid" system away from racial/ethnic categories and into the area of value systems, levels of consciousness, and modes of determing the priorities in life. This involved a large number of major research projects and theory-building opportunities. After 63 trips to South Africa I am now in the process of constructing this major conceptual model that we are calling the Global Memome. We will launch the entire project later this year at the meeting of the World Future society in San Francisco.
One of your New Zealand countryman, Alan Webster, applied this dynamic Memetic model in examining the value systems in that country. His book - Spiral of Values -- was a major undertaking on his part.
The purpose of this letter is to begin a dialogue with you since there are several areas where we could collaborate. We are pretty far down the pike in mapping these value systems/memetics on a global scale. You can see some of the work at . There is a major Maple Leaf Memes project underway in Canada and we expect other efforts to be announced soon.
I believe we have discovered the Master Meme Maker, the process that causes new value systems to emerge that will transcend but include those which have been awakened already. This very sophisticated theory is able to identify centers of gravity, and even plot the dynamics of change. The research has been elegant; the field testing experiences have been quite unique. We cut across many academic/scientific disciplines as well as such surface level domains as politics, religion, health care, cultures, sports, economics, psychology, sociology etc.
We joined with Ken Wilber in forming the Integral Institute, a new academic and applied group that will introduce this body of knowledge as the key intellectual underpinning of the post - post modern age.
Please let me know if you are interested in this approach. We are presently seeking substantial funding to set up the research institute here in Texas, an effort that will identify, integral, align, and synergize the myriad of approaches to what we call the Human Memome. Since we focus on the underlying memetic "codes" rather than behavioral displays, we are able to offer this as a companion piece to the Human Genome, that also deals with genetic codes.
We sincerely believe that the future of life on this planet as we know it may well hinge on our ability to deal with the Global Memome.
Best Wishes,
Don Edward Beck, Ph. D.
Cofounder, National Values Center
Founder, the Institute for Values & Culture (not for profit)
Faculty, Adizes Graduate School, Santa Barbara, California
From: "Graham Douglas"
Date: Mon Nov 25, 2002 3:12:18 PM US/Pacific
Subject: Finite or Infinite Mind?: Proposal for an Integrative Mental Mapping Project and Integrative Thinking
As a pioneer author and consultant in Applied Mind Science in the field of Integrative Thinking and originator of the terms Integrative Mind, Integrative Problem Solving and Integrative Improvement I am writing to congratulate you on your stimulating article, draw your attention to my work and ask for your view of it in relation to your proposal. While mapping of past ideas could be a useful exercise in itself (see innovation-) perhaps it could stifle creativity as the concept of "best practice' can do?
The technique of Integrative Thinking is acquired by learning the SOARA (Satisfying, Optimum, Achievable Results Ahead) Process of Integrative Thinking which was developed after many years of self-funded research drawing on neuroscience, immunology, endocrinology, ethology, computer science, psychology, physics, anthropology, neurophilosophy, linguistics, the philosophy of mind, the philosophy of science, evolutionary epistemology, evolutionary biology, education, economics, accounting, political science, management, business, marketing, public administration, international affairs, strategic and tactical planning, logistics and comparative religion. This integrative cross-disciplinary approach covering disciplines illuminating our understanding of the human mind comprises the field of Integrative Thinking.
Attached is an introductory article "Integratve Thinking-the NEW IT Revolution" and there is more background on my website and on .
I would be happy to discuss my work with you and anyone else qualified in the general area. Regarding the originality of my work, the Institute of Education Sciences (formerly OERI) website under the 2002 Cognition and Student Learning Research Grant Program information states: "SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Cognitive science and neuroscience have been dynamic areas of research over the past fifteen years, producing breakthroughs in our basic understanding of the brain and behavior. Although this research has identified key processes of attention, memory, and reasoning that are essential for learning, it has yet to be systematically applied to significant educational problems. Therefore, OERI is interested in funding research that builds on these advances and meaningfully connects them to profound and pervasive problems in learning or academic achievement. "
Regards,
Graham Douglas
website: integrative-
From: Ron Wild
Date: Tue Nov 26, 2002 11:21:45 AM US/Pacific
Subject: Great Map of The Great Ideas
Hi Darryl, congratulations on the Wired article ( ). I thought you might be interested in an idea mapping project I've been developing for a couple of years now.
The ideas that I mapped are at .
The conceptual model at will lead you into and 3 or 4 levels deeper from there.
The prototype technology has been designed as outlined in the Project Map at . Currently I'm also collaborating with a group out of Stanford on a similar mapping initiative .
Please keep me abreast of your progress and challenges, as I will if you are interested.
Ron Wild, B.Sc.,M.B.A.,P.Eng.
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
From: Lawrence Rothfield
Date: Thu Nov 28, 2002 9:55:18 AM US/Pacific
Subject: idea mapping
I read with some interest the recent article in Wired magazine in which you talk about the possibility of a project aimed at mapping ideas. As Faculty Director of the Cultural Policy Center at the University of Chicago, one of my research interests is in assessing the impact of the humanities in public life. I am particularly interested in trying to model and track the movement of ideas from the academic sphere into the public sphere (one way to describe this would be to say that I am trying to do for humanistic ideas what Richard Posner tried to do for public intellectuals in his recent book).
The project you yourself appear to wish to pursue is far more broad-scale and ambitious, and it also would appear to be grounded in a view of cognition that I am not sure I share. (I'm not interested, at this point, in multi-dimensional clusterings of ideas, but simply in developing ways of efficiently tracing the itinerary of a particular idea). But I think it would be helpful to me to hear more about the project and also about others from sociology and history who might also be grappling with the general problem of mapping ideas. If you would be willing to share with me your thoughts on these matters, I would be grateful.
Sincerely,
Professor Lawrence Rothfield
Faculty Director, Cultural Policy Center
University of Chicago
1. To map individual and group minds, we would have to include tacit knowledge, but how do we uncover and represent it? If that is a problem and if tacit knowledge is pervasive, it is a major limitation.
2. Have you look at existing codications of knowledge?
3. Do you see your work related to the Global brain folks?
4. Do you imagine a web-based access to the mind map?
5. I miss seeing philosophers of mind / psychology and cognitive scientists on the program so far. They might be prove to be pretty key.
Now Here's a Really Big Idea (from Wired Magazine 2002)
By Kristen Philipkoski
The scope of human ideas is infinite, some might say. But one researcher says he can count them, and he intends to do just that.
Darryl Macer, associate professor at the Institute of Biological Sciences at the University of Tsukuba in Japan, plans to create a human mental map -- a database that would contain a log of every human idea.
Macer formally proposed in the November 14 issue of Nature that researchers from various disciplines, including genetics, sociology and history, meet next year in Japan to discuss the project.
"If we define an 'idea' as the mental conceptualization of something -- including physical objects, an action or sensory experience -- then the number of objects in the universe of a living being is finite," Macer said in an e-mail interview from his Tokyo office.
But at least one expert believes Macer's premise is flawed. The notion that people can think of an unlimited number of ideas is part of what keeps humans -- and scientists, in particular -- going as they strive to understand the world around them, said Robyn Shapiro, director of the Center for the Study of Bioethics at the Medical College of Wisconsin.
"I think that's inaccurate and depressing and certainly not what drove us to move from Galileo to Jamie Thompson (the first scientist to isolate stem cells)," Shapiro said.
But Macer believes that the number of ideas is, in fact, finite and that they should be counted.
As globalization increases, the geographic, economic and cultural barriers between nations become less significant, while international agreements and treaties become more important, he said.
That's where he believes his mental map can offer help.
By understanding which ideas are specific to certain cultures and which ones are universal, policy-makers can make more informed decisions about such agreements, Macer said.
"It is democratic to have international agreements that represent the ideas of all, not just Europeans or the United States, et cetera," he explained.
For example, while most fundamentalist Christians in the United States oppose all forms of cloning, some Hindus in India might believe cloning research is perfectly ethical. Macer believes that creating a database of the ideas that form the basis of these beliefs will help international policy-makers understand the complex mix of viewpoints at hand. And ultimately that could help them develop global policies that take into consideration cross-cultural differences.
Toward that end, it might be more valuable to take a poll of the values held by cultures around the world, said Shapiro, who is on an advisory board to Tommy Thompson, the secretary of Health and Human Services, on xenotransplantation -- transferring animal cells or organs to humans.
The end result could help politicians, diplomats and scientists worldwide develop guidelines for xenotransplantation, she said, as well as cloning, stem cell research and other biotechnologies, with input from as many cultures as possible. Such a poll would be a lot less complicated than Macer's plan to develop a universal database of ideas, she added.
Neuroscientists have already begun research that documents mental processes, called the Human Brain Project. This international effort focuses mainly on understanding the physiological aspects of the brain, such as which neural pathways are connected to physical functions like eye blinking or toe wiggling.
Macer said the Human Brain Project may produce valuable results, but it won't answer the question that he hopes to tackle with his mental map, which is, how do humans think?
"The brain project will help us, but not focus on behavior and ideas," he said.
Of course, defining what qualifies as an idea -- let alone counting all of them -- is no simple matter.
Macer classifies ideas in nine categories, including the conceptualization of physical objects, the psychological meanings of images associated with objects (such as colors), and memories. Ideas can fall into any of these categories, but what interests Macer is how each idea fits together into larger belief systems and how those belief systems differ among various groups.
Take, for example, the series of thoughts that result in an individual's decision whether or not to eat meat. A nomadic tribe might believe that, in order to survive, one must eat animals. In contrast, followers of some religions, such as Buddhism, assert that no living being should be killed.
These different perspectives can lead to some surprising ideas and customs, Macer said. For example, in Japan, where Buddhism is prevalent, a class of people called Burakumin were considered outcasts in the 19th century because they were thought to take the most undesirable jobs, such as slaughtering animals and tanning hides.
Macer believes that by cataloging the ideas that result in such societal norms, people might be motivated to alter their beliefs.
"(Another) way of thinking could (lead to) ... for example, a community-wide response to have a feast, or the development of butcher shops, supermarkets, larger home freezers, salted or pickled beef," Macer said.
The project, which he hopes to kick off at a meeting in Tokyo on February 15, is still in the planning stages. And Macer admits he's still not sure how the research will be conducted, except that it will come "from many disciplines."
The end result, he said, would likely be a three- or four-dimensional map of human ideas.
Despite the unknowns, other bioethics experts don't doubt that the project is valuable and doable.
"His intention is (to consider) moral dilemmas and the way people understand ideas and process things, and I think that's a valuable and worthwhile thing to study -- to see how people actually analyze issues and weigh them," said Arthur Derse, director of medical and legal affairs and associate director of the Center for the Study of Bioethics at the Medical College of Wisconsin.
A Revolution in Family Values: Tradition vs. Technology (Expanded Edition)
John E. LaMuth M.S. (see also the poster papers at TRT8 and TRT9)
Fairhaven Book Publishers, Lucerne Valley, CA, USA
fairhaven-books@
Publication Date April 2002
ISBN# 1-929649-65-7
Trade softcover (7.5 x 9.25 inches), 460 pages
Extensively illustrated
(24 photographs, 48 figures/tables). $19.95
This has an INDEX OF THE MAJOR VIRTUES AND LESSER VIRTUES
Macer: I think it is possible that we divide our tasks to different areas of thinking, to different groups in this project, to map out certain areas in our mental map. That is one possible division of labor. But another division of labor is clearly using different methodologies to comment and find the common ideas and framework to represent these that is common language between all disciplines. So in a sense we have to find this common language to start progress in the fields.
IrinaPollard: I just would like a request. Do you think you could email us the websites so we can explore our own literature?
Macer: I plan to have a number of links on home page, and reproduce them in the book.
Badreddine: I think the project is wonderful, however it would be constructed it will be worked out. I have three comments. I think I saw something about this parallel of values. I think the same thing as the DNA – like this – about each value and each idea and each culture and then how it could be cross-cultural about each component. Including loving life, sequences of loving life, loving good, sequences of loving good, and then – and other would be fairness and integrated. Because if we make the media as an arena to offer something that could be widely used. Another sequence would be a spiral, and it could be for each value – the good and the bad – everything, I put it. But I saw in your box some similar ideas. Why idea? I believe that – you know, I think that the value of the fresh revolution are still dominating on liberty, equity, justice and this is the basis of the UN, human rights and so on. I think that it’s not enough, not sufficient. Also I’m wondering if we worked on such a map and we see the cross point and where discussion leads, maybe the human rights and maybe it would be a – can start to change to suggest something on the international level to change the values and the application of this to the UN because its use is actually something everybody I think will agree to that. This is our guidelines and so in each country you can work, we can see justice and so on. I think of values and try to map all this history and all this idea could help to – now and for the future. Thank you.
Sleeboom: I think I said most of what I want to say yesterday. I would just like to emphasize that any data on ethical ideas is never beautiful. It’s always up to the people who categorize any ideas we can find once they exist among us – not among people without voices, not among people without writing - for instance, the society says are disappearing - these ideas we will not be able to include. And it’s also, I think, not so much the idea of wanting to collect data for a book, an encyclopedia of bioethical ideas as we propose; but the enormous pretention of making something parallel to a DNA map, which I think – well, in short, I find very dangerous.
MorganPollard: I think one of the most important things is how this map will be used and what – whether it’s philosophical in general or whether it can be operationalized into practice of the practices of the increasing bioethical and environmental progress in the world. To that end, I think it needs to somehow be operationalized - in other words, based in theory of problem-solving or decision making or management. I think ideas can also be put into the form of problems and these problems can be prioritized - for example, according to magnitude, urgency. I think that if you nest ideas or problems within broader categories, which are probably infinite in the direction towards specialization that are finite with…towards generalization. If we can prioritize these problems, I would suggest that the topmost problem or aim of priorities would be biosurvival. I think that to sell the concept, maybe human survival would be a more popular meme. And if it had to be practically useful to people in solving their problems, it would – well not only be more popular – but it would make a larger impact on the world.
Bhardwaj: I just want to make a comment on Margaret’s comment. Well, I want to say it’s not impossible to structuralize human thinking just like a DNA model. But of course, I think we probably would have to look into how, when, why and under what circumstances ideas emerge. Then looking at different dimensions of ideas and then going back to making a framework for something like a DNA structure and to suggest that - linking ideas back to that model, not from the model to the ideas. Something like that.
Sleeboom: I did not deny the possibility of being able to stretch out human thoughts. That happens thousands and thousands of times. Also people have been ambitious enough to try and do that, as people among them they also tend to try that too. It all depends on who is making the categories. It will never be an objective kind of project. Like you could say maybe you could objectively stretch a DNA, but it will only be a genetic map. And scientists nowadays also know that we should never exaggerate the implications of the DNA blueprint map. It’s not even a blueprint. So we know that it’s far more complex. The DNA is linked to the biological processes of the cells, which we cannot separate from the DNA. And similarly, ideas are part and parcel of context. And if you want to make a stretch out of the world, it’s always the human who’s choosing ideas. We’d have to guess which humans will have the decision power to stretch these ideas. And I’m afraid that maybe not the people who are under-represented in this world will have the power to create such a map.
Badreddine: I think we are always dominated by the subjective things. It is not – of course, what you said it was very true – but we are living in this world, searching, always seeking the truth, seeking something. So we can try. Why not? It will not be one person if it will be a collective work and there would be this interaction. We could be – it will be ambitious. Maybe not on the absolute, but we have to try because actually we are dominated by something subjective. You know, at the UN what is happening all over the world – it’s horrible. Why we cannot try to – not to fix structures as you said – but to suggest connections between the concepts regarding some values, to be more realistic and applicable and we can also monitor that. Not in the way, what has been done until now.
Sleeboom: I agree very much with you that we should try something. That’s the reason why I’m here. But I disagree with the ambition of the project - pretending that it covets everything – all ideas. I suggest it’s the wrong way to start. We should start modestly, with small projects, with things that we can discuss and we have a background of and not this. Well, someone – I don’t know who, but someone – choosing the categories with which we will work. It’s just too big. Start small. That’s the most safe.
Tsuchiya: Actually, I cannot understand still what’s the content of the project and what Darryl wants to do with this project. But I think that the project might not be entirely useless. But at least very careful specification must be – for example, at least the concepts of mind or idea are too vague and too abstract. We cannot reach the consensus on what it means by mind or idea. I think. So if you want to make something, if you want to make some successful research, I think that it will be better to take more concrete and especially operational word or concept. For example, you already have done many empirical surveys and empirical studies on bioethics and research the general people’s attitude to something like medical diagnosis or abortion or something. So why don’t you take attitude instead of mind or idea. This maybe very useful by analyzing attitude. Okay, so that’s my first comment. But although – and this is my second comment – but although the concept of attitude we take, but the same attitude can be based on different motives. For example, if you want to do this summer – to do something. For example, I’d like to have older people in the bus and I’d like to give my seat to the older woman. I behave or act that conduct based on every and all of the motives. So I would like to be a good man. This is perhaps self-love. And of course, I want to do good things so this is loving. I have the idea that I want to be kind to other men – this is love of others. Also I have memories of my father and mother, so I want to care for the people contained in memories. I hope that this kind of motive that includes hopes of someone. So I think it is difficult to analyze the motives of the attitudes. So it must be much more – you must be much more operational. Much much more. I wonder if it can succeed to catch the core of concept, which must be the basis of the project. This is the second point.
Macer: Thank you very much. It’s just - I’m going to keep the order. I think you’ve just shown why this model is very successful. Thank you. Because that’s why you have all six dimensions and that’s why every decision – your decision is made that way. But the – I’ll reply – I don’t know if you think all the ideas are involved in when you make decisions. I think, only some ideas are involved in each action. That’s the difference.
Tsuchiya: But the problem is I cannot map them.
Macer: You’re inside. And all of your ideas will be in the map. Maybe 6,219 ideas in your head – all of them will be there. And then we’ll see how they interact together. Can I have comments from everyone.
Yoon: I want to agree to raise my point I already stressed the day before yesterday. In my own opinion, a single complex map of all human ideas is practically unfeasible at this moment. However, subject- or issue-specific map could be used for practical purpose. So the first step should be to identify what the subjects or issues and questions are. So let’s be less ambitious and let’s be more sensitive. I really appreciate Margaret’s comment that we have to be more sensitized to the under-represented or not represented in this relationship of - all present relationship of power in our intellectual discourse and writing. Unless you write, your opinions and ideas are not expressed, not heard and not loved in history. So we have to be more sensitive.
Su: I have to consider about your method more and more. But I suddenly generate ideas and I agree that we can map human ideas. I think that we can use both deductive method and inductive method - both together. First we can compare ideas in several situations and we can use snowballing sampling to choose individuals in several regions in the world. Maybe around a hundred people. First, in the deductive method, let them say their ideas about the issues. There are several levels. First, there is the emotional, and second the theoretical, and they can generate many many ideas – 100,000 or more. And from these ideas, the second stage is to categorize which ideas are similar, which belong to physical, belong to psychological, belong to mathematical and we can categorize..
Maekawa: I think what I wanted to say was already said by Dr. Yoon.
Kishida: My idea of a mental map is it is not necessary to have only one model. We could have various models depending on the purpose, what we use for that map. So for example, think about the ordinary map we use. We have a city map and town map, and we also have weather map – precipitation, temperature, wind, etc. For example, when we are utilizing a city map, we don’t care about the map, there is a sky above the city or there is the United States outside the map. No. We don’t care because we know the limitation of the map. So I think depending on what purpose we’d like to utilize the map, then I think we can various models. Maybe this three-dimensional model can be very useful for a particular purpose. But maybe a two-dimensional – much simpler map - can be useful too for limited problems in a local field. So that’s my view.
Macer: Thank you very much. Yes, I think we can have some parts of the model simpler, as overall it maybe too complex. I would like to ask everyone to prepare a page describing their image of a mental map.
Macer: I would like to thank you for your hard work in drawing maps. I’ve made copies so if you would like to take this as a memory you are welcome to take your originals or the copy. And one person said that it would be OK to make copies of theirs for everyone, which I have. I think we started to have this discussion this morning and some people have mentioned on the papers. Most people used diagrams of various thoughts. I would like Morgan Pollard to give his talk on the map. Let me also go through some of the other ideas which people had.
Macer: Margaret Sleembom wrote nothing, noting that the emptiness symbolizes the infinite nature of that without borders and no idea is privileged above another before. Well, if we don’t expect the idea, we have no command over the ones we don’t know, whose number is infinite. Hence, we live in a world which we make for survival, and the map will come true. Your comment this morning was related to that. If I was making a map, I wanted to have a map covering all human ideas, from all cultures including cultures which are on the map. It is possible that some cultures will die out before we can map them. But if we don’t start the mental mapping project, then we’ll have even less chance to understand them before they die out.
Sleeboom: But you can’t - Anyway, if you use an approach which is called behaviorism or personal positioning approaches then you use a certain way of thinking which is your own. Then this will be Darryl’s map, and not a human personal map.
Macer: If we’ll talking about Morgan’s map it might be his?
Sleeboom: Of course, but Morgan would have his own map, even without the big map. I would also have my own map, as anyone in the world and we will not be aware of this.
MorganPollard: I think everyone can be included in as democratic a style or way, if not a compromise in that thing, a combination of maps – of many of their maps as far as they can be fitted.
Sleeboom: You’d still only reach the people who have entry to a computer and it’s still all the people who have the letter, and even the chance to everyday think about it because they’re not constrained by the constant need for looking for food or looking for money.
MorganPollard: But the way we do things - that is improving in our inefficiency and unreasonableness – and so the fact that we can find problems with certain things, if those problems maybe are smaller than the problems we find in practice or in other previous things, is informative.
Sleeboom: I agree that we should try to make a mental map. So that’s one option. The mental map has too much pretension. It pretends to reflect all the ideas there are. It pretends to be democratic. That’s what it’s not. There will always be someone who will be creating the categories and choosing which ideas we’ll be using, someone who doesn’t know what other problems are of this earth. Of course, taking problems one by one and trying to solve them – that’s a very good idea but that’s nothing new. You don’t need a mental map for that.
Macer: Thank you. Next I’d like to show a triangle map and and a triangle made by Rok Lampe. Could you explain a little bit about the map?
Lampe: Till yesterday – I haven’t thought about it much yet. I think the idea came just, you know. My view of the world of ideas connects with this idea, so I think the basic idea of what I tried to show here and explain – it’s the same from the early Roman philosophy that was seen as a major ethical rule. It’s also the first sentence in the Roman law called Juris Tibidis. It was written by Ulpian, one of the philosophers in ancient Rome. Judging a connection – like according to the Kant’s imperative - categorical imperative - and that time was judged by this categorical imperative. It’s older but it’s not so famous. But I think if you study Kant, you can go back to the fundamentals which can be found here in that philosophy. So I tried to set the fundamentals because the Ulpian rule has three rule. I tried to find a fourth one just to make a geographical body. So there’s a triangle. So you can see it if we put it together, it looks like this. We have four triangles. And the basis, the fundamentals – I was thinking if the triple triangle can be also working from either end if we will turn it in either direction – I don’t think so because it says as the fundamental rule. So this is the fundamental and the other, which comes together forms a shape. The first part of this three-part rule will be connected here. The second one is similar to what was Darryl calling do not harm. And the third one to give to anybody what he or she deserves. It may be better scientific, and I think that how to criticize your map, but I think maybe of love as a universal. It can be seen as loving life, loving good, love self, and love of others and so on. And these three sides could be seen as this ethical imperative, according on which to judge an action, whether it is ethical or not. So this is one reason.
Macer: Does anyone have any comments on this map? Frank?
Leavitt: Not the map itself. But as the precedent of going back to Roman law.
Lampe: Well, I would say more of ethics or philosophy.
Leavitt: Okay, because I think that this mental map – if the project continues – but if you’re going to do it, you can either ignore everything that’s been done before for the last several thousand years and try to start from scratch or you can learn from your present state, and then you can accept or reject what you want. A map of Roman law – I’m thinking there’s different characters of people for a mental map in Ayuvedic medicine in India – and they have done that. And in Bushido in Japan, and in Jewish philosophy. I think that you need a huge cultural background in order to learn what’s already been done to take off from there.
Lampe: Of course, I had to consider that. That’s what I said in the beginning. But maybe it can form the geometrical body, right?
Leavitt: I think you took the right approach - you’re starting off from what’s already known.
Lampe: But, since I came across this rule and even before - later in Kant’s rule – I was really going to philosophy…and also religion and ethics. I think that these three rules are implemented to all of them. Not just one of them but definitely all three of them. So maybe it’s not just this rule – this one is just written. And I would consider them as universal. Maybe.
Macer: There was something I can’t understand, I think the geometrical take. One of the fundamental issues seems to be – for the discussion of bioethical ideas – I think we’ve gone as far as we can using two dimensions and I think we have to go into three dimensions. If we were to go beyond – although the point…to kill our dilemma, perhaps two dimensions may be enough... But even for a small dilemma, we can see 30 or 40 ideas people may relate to, could be more, just for a simple moral dilemma, if we map all the ideas people have. Also looking at Morgan’s diagram – four dimensional. Four sides may be useful.
Lampe: Well, there is a four-point scale. I don’t know what you mean exactly by your map Morgan?
MorganPollard: Sort of like the length, height and width of three dimensions.
Leavitt: You can’t draw that or even levels in our observational space. But you can describe as many dimensions as you like in mathematics.
Macer: No, I think you can have some map in four dimensions.
MorganPollard: Whether four dimensional, or three dimensional, let’s say, if you wanted to map the earth, you can have a three dimensional map of the atmosphere to the geology and then you can lay ou each other in a time dimension as how they’re changing.
Macer: So that’s one of the points. One of the points then is if we’re trying to describe ideas or people’s thinking even if it’s simple we need to go beyond two dimensions. Otherwise, we can use two dimensions or else we can go into a geographical map. The comments are quite useful. Morgan did want to pass this paper around, so I’ll pass this one around. But I think I’d like to open to any other discussion points that people have from what Morgan just said now. And thinking about it, we’ll go to the next stage. Any comments?
Sleeboom: Well, I’m not really sure how to approach this because – well, whenever I think of dimensions, then I usually need focus to be able to imagine the dimensions. What the focus of the dimensions of mental mapping is, is not clear yet. Apart from what it should – well make itself stand out better, but that to me that is tautology. When we think that we should have at least three dimensions and…or any kind of problem approach. But I don’t think we should just pay lip service to – well, we need to have time, and I think okay then we have history. When I’m talking about time or about history, I’m talking about a fundamentally dynamic approach, which does not say, well we’ll have to look at the history. There are so many different views of history, you cannot just slice the top – and any top – and say well that’s history for you and that we could put into a map. That’s a very analytical approach. And I’m afraid that doesn’t really work if you have the pretension of trying to get all ideas involved.
Macer: But if I set the task to order the six billion people on the planet and the other great…and whoever else wants to make it in the map of any species. Then if everyone makes a map, then we wouldn’t sample only a few, then I think your criticism would be less valid because if we found we can bind all the ideas on everyone’s maps together using a common language, then we’ll overcome your obstacle, I think.
Sleeboom: I don’t think so at all. If you ask all six billion people to do that, you have to take into consideration all the different languages and someone is going to interpret them. This person who wants to have maybe a universal language will have to interpret all these different cues and languages. Also I’ve noticed already now, trying to make some remarks about the mental mapping, that you have problems understanding me because I have a different approach, different insights from you. But no one is superior to the other, I don’t think – already if one cannot respect this diversity, this fundamental diversity, and from that point very carefully try to deal with people and not go well six billion people, just take the average of the six billion people and we can solve problems. I don’t think that is so, and part of it as I’ve mentioned before, the problems we want to solve are usually these problems that we can rationalize, think about, but are results of very complex historical process and often unattended. I think - I’d like you to realize these few months because these are so fundamental. If you cannot understand this criticism, it think it’s already – well, dangerous to go on with it.
Macer: Well, in fact when making the map, I said for each individual decision, for each person we’d like to map the ideas used. We could compare the dilemmas for the same person and compare for different persons. And no one’s going to make an average map. It will be a total map for a total of all ideas. And then each individual can map the ideas on to that framework. Then the idea is everybody’s idea will be on this map.
Sleeboom: So if people cannot even formulate their ideas, what about that?
Macer: So we’ll do our best to try to encourage them.
Sleeboom: Will you do that?
Macer: Well, we can try but I don’t think another can always understand a person's mind.
MorganPollard: It will be laborious in the sense that political systems and economic systems in the world works with this kind of inadequate representation, and yet it still works so we’re not in utopia where we can have all people’s ideas.
Sleeboom: We can have a better world but I don’t think that's the point.
Macer: Before breaking up this debate to the next, you also used the illustration of the genome project, Margaret, so it would like ideas to be mapped like genome. Since there is one different genome for every individual, although there’s a human genome sequence. That genome sequence is only theirs or whoever's genome is given. Everyone else has one million differences from that. So even the concept of human genome sequence does not prevent us making one "universal" sequence for everybody for comparisons. But my idea is that we would make a framework for all ideas and then we’d map individuals of all cultures, different species onto that framework, extending the framework.
Sleeboom: How do you define a culture? Even in the genome it’s very difficult.
Macer: You don’t need to define the culture. One for every individual, everyone who thinks.
Sleeboom: How can, well I’ll leave it up to you.
Weisburd: I’d like to give a more specific example and make a more general point. It’s a little different from Margaret’s criticism but it’s also critical. If I ask, Darryl, if I ask you if you’re in a burning building and you’re with your wife and your daughter. The building is about to collapse and you can only help one of them out of the building. What would you do? You might give me an answer but in the heat of the situation where it’s actually – I hope it never happens, but if something horrible happens and you are under pressure you have to do something – you’re action might be different. How well does any one of us know their own mind let alone their ability to express it? I think the human mind is something truly awe-inspiring and vast beyond our comprehension. I think it’s not practical to expect any individual to be able to articulate or express – now of course we can try to evoke responses that will fit into a framework that you set for a map. But to say that that represents all of the individual ideas and thoughts – we’re not just the genes. We’re a complex combination which is affected by our own individual history - environmental history – and of course evolutionary time and interacting with other living and non-living things in the environment. And I don’t think there’s any methodology capable of expressing the sum total of any individual’s ideas.
Macer: Let me show you my illustration of this. I think Rick’s comment is easy to respond to. All you need to do - you have a map of ideas and you say, so under normal circumstances, you might have a lot of different ideas from different sources. But in the burning situation, you suddenly become focused on the issue and you process different ideas in that situation so all – it’s not a problem because that is a certain circumstance and dilemma. We’re mapping ideas in that certain circumstance and dilemma. When you have an emergency, you have a different response, that’s fine. We can predict that from the map. We might not be able to predict it before it happens and we might burn that building so we can’t get those ideas. But still, we can study people in crises and find, in fact, how they behave and that’s actually quite useful. I think it is useful. For example for prediction for emergencies: in a normal circumstance people will use these ideas, in a different circumstance they will use the other.
Weisburd: But, Darryl, I mentioned that one simple example with the range of possible environmental situations is, if not infinite, then essentially infinite.
Macer: I think it’s only finite and not very large. Another point, if we have - this idea of combinations was mentioned also in some comments here. If there were unlimited combinations between ideas or processes - and I don’t think so. But I don’t know. I’m humble enough to say I don’t know that. But I have a hint that it’s not unlimited combinations. It think that certain ideas are related to other ideas in the process of thinking. So therefore, the number of combinations or diversity is not as great as it appears. But that’s a question I already answered. We may not get the perfect answer, but we’ll get some answer.
Maekawa: Maybe I should have asked this since we haven’t identified what ideas that we’re counting or we’re looking at. But as many people were saying, I don’t think we can identify all the ideas of every individual. And if – what Darryl’s saying that the number of ideas that exist or will exist in the future is finite – I wonder about what to do in the process of mapping those ideas since I don’t think this counting or plotting will happen immediately. I think it will take a very long time to do that if you really want to map all the ideas of every individual. In the process of making, if the last goal is to make the complete map - as an ongoing process you will be reporting about what you have found or through the exchange of ideas, I wonder about the interpretation of those by other – how to say, if policymakers want to see this - this so far, we have found this much?
Macer: So policymakers or people might try prematurely to look on it. I think already we may have some already in policy, the current understanding of the world in social systems, people’s needs and desires. So in that sense, already policymakers have used this.
Leavitt: Again, Morgan, I’m not sure. Margaret, you said something about fundamental diversity. I want to first say something about the background – what I think is the background of Darryl’s hypothesis. It's been going about 10 years in the Eubios family. Darryl has been arguing many years ago about universal bioethics – one ethic for everybody. And I’ve been arguing about diversity and cultural diversity. I’m sure that a long time ago called enlightened tribalism – that is to say, tribalism is from every different group according to their own way of life and their own part of the world. But enlightened in the sense that respect the members’ understanding among themselves. That’s what I think is the background to this project. Now I’ll ask a question in the same conference. You talked about fundamental diversity, I still have a kind of faith - and maybe it’s only a superstition, maybe it’s just dogmatic things and I’d be happy to be convinced that I am wrong - that given any two people and this will exclude I think people of very low mental intelligence - any two people anywhere in the world with normal intelligence, that it should be possible, regardless of the diversity, for them to understand each other. They may have to sit down and work out a common language or something like that – for them to understand one another and discuss and eventually come to maybe even a greater level of their ideas and to at least understand the basis of this diversity. But that might be impossible. It might be sort of a liberal superstition. But I want your opinion, is this diversity… or is it as you said fundamental, which means unbreakable?
Sleeboom: It’s one of the oldest questions in the world. In linguistics, it’s a very important lesson – there’s this so-called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis which has been developed in the United States and in Canada by Sapir-Whorf. They had this hypothesis, people’s thought will be determined by the language that they use when they were brought up. The example is very famous from the Arctic, there are so many words for snow and of course these concepts to the Eskimos themselves. And well, if I go there I probably wouldn’t bother to learn all these words because to me they’re not relevant. So there’s the question of relevance involved there. Well I don’t agree with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis actually. I don’t think the question is either we’re all entirely different or we all have universal things in common. I think that’s not the question. It is to what extent do we have things in common and to what extent are we diverse. There’s no way of ever finding out this question absolutely. And as long as we don’t realize that, if we proceed from the principle that everyone is entirely equal or if we proceed from the principle that everyone is entirely different, I think in both extremes it will be very dangerous, what often has been criticized as western universalism, the education given in the colonies, for example, of European empires as they proceed from the universality of people: what’s good for me is good for you. You sense the danger when you proceed from this idea. The other way around, when you say we’re all extremely different, you end up with racism. I think you already have done that when you link culture groups to biological principles. So you make a diversity of all the people in the world on the basis of one or two biological features. In principle, cultural groups can consist of people with any physical features. So I think if we don’t have an open mind to either universality or particularity and if we’re not wise about the principle that we can never know whether it’s one or the other but be open to both – I think if we don’t do that, we’re already on the way to dictating to other people what people are like.
Leavitt: Can I just say one thing…you referred to western universalism and imperialism. It is a background to this entire debate which was before Christianity, like in Israel we had our ideas. We didn’t mind that other people were different. You know, in North America they didn’t mind that there were other people. Then all of a sudden there came this religion that anyone different from anything else before them was wrong, it’s that everybody believes the same. And I think that’s really the central part of the discussion.
Sleeboom: Well, it’s often thought that was just western imperialism that you had this. But of course you also had it also in Japanese imperialism, where on the one hand you had the idea of a nation god, where the Japanese were the ones who respected everyone’s equality and therefore everyone had to learn Japanese in Korea, in China, in Taiwan. On the other hand, you had a view that said no – the Taiwanese, the Chinese are inferior to us. And that said that they are particular, they’re very specific, which was some kind of discrimination, fundamental racist discrimination. And yet, loads of people in between will never want to be racist or universalistic dictators, but this kind of situation you get really between any group, even between men and women, or anything you can think of where you can imagine there’s a conflict of interests, you get to make this distinction between themselves and others and apply these principles sometimes out of love and sometimes out of frustration. If we don’t have the wisdom to recognize that, we might – because of our idealism with all the best intent – create the tools for anyone to discriminate anyone.
MorganPollard: Let me respond to the critical comments about the practicality of it in the face of diversity of situations and potential massive domain of knowledge. It’s just that in lateral thinking sometimes to look at the negative space is a useful thing. As well as mapping ideas it could be useful to map where we lack ideas and what we lack and where the uncertainties are. And the ideas can range from quite well-understood or quite reputable scientifically-based knowledge if you like, from the objective to the subjective philosophical things that are culturally relative have grew to uncertainty and things like that – precaution incorporated in there and even further to indeterminacy and then to ignorance. We can also map the negative space of what we don’t know in order to figure out what needs filling and what, in a practical sense, the parts that we should really know to progress. For example, between disciplines there are always gaps or between ideas there are gaps where you need to consider.
Bhardwaj: I was just in between what Morgan said, what Frank said and also what Margaret said about struggling with processing – and Frank talked about mentally retarded people, I was just considering another dimension of generations. Like when you start mapping ideas, like which age group for instance or do you have particular children type of ideas from adults for something. We don’t need to have a physical map of ideas, or have dimensions to it, so if you’re trying to make a physical map, I think that point won’t fit in – the generational gap won’t fit in that physical map. And that’s how I project it.
MorganPollard: We could have different maps and then stretch the map along different domains. We could have age-related differences in the maps or cultural differences. We could do surveys like Darryl does for bioethics and do the statistics comparing ages and social groups, etc.
Macer: The idea of the map is, as I have said many times, you have a total of ideas and of course you can map anything you like. Indeed. Anything. Every individual, every dilemma you can map. But the idea is we want to know everything.
Ng: There are 26 people in this room now, right? Anyway, my point is there are 26 people in this room but how many have expressed their ideas by talking? And the rest are rather quiet. The point is, can you read my mind right now? What am I thinking? Some people stand up and express their ideas and the rest will remain quiet. Well for example, practically how – well, unless one creates a human idea vacuum pump if that’s possible but it sounds like science fiction – what comes to my mind is like this scene in science fiction like in Star Trek, the Borg, wherein you have one central identity, one idea net, like that. That, as an individual, I don’t want to happen of course. When we talk of mental mapping, the thing that I hesitate about – that someone actually knows what I’m thinking right now because I don’t want that to happen. I will do my utmost best not to cooperate for that, for someone to map my mind. Unless there is a human idea vacuum pump that could involuntary suck up what I’m thinking right now. That’s one thing. And then second problem– although I’ve done it for my master’s thesis, is an egalitarian thing about surveys, about saying these are Filipino ideas, these are Chinese ideas, Japanese ideas – in that sense, when you start dividing things in that category. Let’s say, what if I have characteristic A which is supposed to be Filipino but I don’t have that, that doesn’t make me a Filipino citizen then? Or you could look at it the other way in the sense that if one does not have that – one must have something else in order to be part of a certain group. So in that sense, it’s sort of a little bit racist. So to make it into a bigger picture, if we talk about the human mind, then it goes back to what is human. And let’s say, if I don’t belong to that model, then I’m not human. There is always a chance that there is a characteristic which will not be mapped. The entire thing should be absolute – 100 percent – but if there is like a one percent or 0.1 percent chance that it will not be mapped, then the entire map falls. At the same time, it sounds like – excuse me but - one of your categories, "playing God". In the sense that you want to know what people are thinking. But that’s one of the things that I’m worried about. But in any case I think I want to say this in public that –I commend you for having the courage to say what your views are because I think they’re really controversial. But in which sense, whenever you say something very controversial, you might – most probably, as we could notice in this room of many people, and the conference of more, - you can’t expect everyone to agree with you. Therefore, I think that mental map is very difficult to define.
Macer: Thank you. I would go to say one thing. The racial stereotypes to categorize survey results to compare cultures are incorrect and I have always said so. Because inside every country you have so much diversity, anyway that you can never say this is the Japanese view or Filipino view. And that’s a basic thing for types of research. So I don’t do that. I actually have a different issue when trying to suck out ideas. I have to screen the extractive view of Monsters Inc. as one way of extracting ideas. I don’t think we can do that. There are various ways to observe even if you don’t tell me your ideas, already you did. There is a difficulty to find ideas, but I think we can try and find them. And also we can observe behavior as well, which is descriptive and other types of situation. When we see people’s behavior and measure their behavior and measure the ideas behind their opinion, if we have them, then we can compare practice to the theory.
Yoon: My impression is that we are too serious in this room about the mental mapping project. In a sense, in our heads, in our minds, we are talking about – my impression is that – we are talking about a totipotent tool to really include everything, every human thought. But my understanding of Darryl’s intention to propose this idea is to devise a heuristic tool for limited purpose. That’s my understanding.
Sleeboom: I think Darryl should answer this.
Yoon: Well, I have been consistent in limiting the utility and range of the map. Right? That’s my understanding.
Sleeboom: Because it’s written in the article as such an enormously pretentious map. That’s where the criticism comes. If you just wanted to write an encyclopedia about the diversity of thought in many different situations and cultures, there’s no problem. It’s the potential (that it might be misused). Not because he wants to be doing good. Of course, we’re all for it. That’s not a problem.
Macer: Thank you. First, before I answer her who had an answer earlier? Irina? Okay, Irina next.
IrinaPollard: The time has probably largely passed. But I was very disturbed by Frank’s categorization of ideas that they have to come from someone who is sentient, beyond a certain limit. You said that by thinking of somebody who’s not mentally retarded. (Frank comments) Well, I think – I mean, I immediately thought that perhaps as far as practical life and our own ability to exist independently is extremely limited but they do have fantastic original ideas and parts of their brain which are very hard to even approach in some places. So again, I feel uncomfortable about categorizing ideas in a sense you have very expressed, or I don’t feel aggressively – aggressive is probably not the right word. Like, you feel passionately about what you’re saying, I’m not sure it’s mutual in that sense. Although if I feel the project is worthwhile, then I know how much we can criticize it. Because the options are let’s do it or let’s not do it. And I think it’s really a worthwhile thing, as long as we really keep it open and flexible and living as Darryl has already agreed, that it’s going to be a living map. And also to register the finites - that there is a lot of disagreement. I really don’t passionately believe that our human ideas are finite as a species and life. So perhaps we can begin to have a sense of a compromise.
Macer: By the way, I’m going to ask everyone who has not spoken to make some comments. So please, to give you some time to prepare.
Bhardwaj: Well, I have a very small comment for Mary Ann, when she said that – you know we have lots of survey data. It was something similar I’m comparing to what Margaret said about the mind and mapping. You can figure it out from comparing these two – the gaps that exist in the human genome and the gaps Darryl was mentioning from mapping the ideas. It’s about - you said it had to be a hundred percent complete.
Ng: No, because he said “absolute” and “everyone’s ideas” should be there. So that’s what I was reacting to – the word “absolute” and “all individuals” in the map.
Bhardwaj: It doesn’t seem feasible.
Ng: I’m not saying so - Darryl said that a while ago.
Macer: I said that we will attempt to map every idea because of respect for persons, and other animals and species. That’s what we should try to do. It doesn’t say we can do it, but we will try.
Ng: Yes, that’s what I was reacting about. So I don’t know about junk DNA and ideas.
Su: What I have a concern is, I think about the method to map human idea is not a problem. The other is a universal human idea might be found, which I think is not a problem. But I consider in Darryl’s project that there is a critical problem – that the uses of human mental mapping is shut off for reasons. So like you said, the first line – you can have individual’s moral decisions is controversial. Because when you’re faced with some situation, you cannot look it up in a dictionary to…the decision you should make is impossible and not practical. I suggest, we only come here to give some suggestion – the uses of this project. Like why human genome project is a worthwhile project. Although, as part of mapping is trying to find relationship between genes and disease. And we will bring the extremely potential on human beings. I have some ideas, like we know that experience can deeply impact in persons, for example the experience of children. We can try to find ideas and to analyze and to improve society. Maybe to have an educational system, and to make a more ideal society, and to analyze a problem. Also, one way to analyze ideas, and we can have to stop our vision whether in modern society there are still wars, we can make society more peaceful. And also to analyze human ideas, we can look at history, to see how society goes on and we can predict the future. To study history is the best thing to study. And we can compare with the human genome project. Like the human genome project can identify the relationship between gene and disease. And that, we know, is very related to genes, with a certain level of determinism. We can compare with that project and also there are environmental factors, other factors that affect us. So I think the critical problem is with the uses of the human mental map. I hope that we can think more about these uses of this.
Macer: Thank you. People could misuse (it). That’s why I’m very pleased that we have such a nice group of people to make sure there’s a less chance to misuse. I think that’s one of the reasons why I want to be involved is I think bioethicists should be involved from the very beginning in this process. But eventually, people will misuse.
Njohjam: In our cultural and religious background when I look at ideas related to the mapping of ideas, I realize that it is really characteristic of western society. Ideas you discuss are for those who can read and write. But looking around the world today, including my own zone of origin, to see that the cultural aspect will play a lot in the mapping of ideas. Meanwhile, I think we should - if we want to look into ideas. I think that the model so far is interesting.
Macer: Some people have not said very much this afternoon. Jay, you said this was the century of the mental map. Do you still believe so? You said in your talk today, this coming century will be the century of the mental map. So what do you think? Why did you say so?
Azariah: Because at the moment we don’t have any technique to map all these ideas - one thing. But the thing I had in mind is to make the map and purpose of the map. So I used my map, a road map of mental map. So if we have a road map, that means we have a purpose. The moment we say purpose, then it will bring a divide among our intellectuals – those who believe in evolution will not be able to use the word purpose. If you read the Dawkins book, the Blind Watchmaker there’s no purpose in his mind, it is a blind watch maker with no purpose. So if you have a map, what is the purpose? Where do you want to meet? So if you answer that, then we will be clear on that. Why only part of the human? So if you are human, why you are human and where do you want to go by using this map? It’s something philosophical, religious, and cultural. So you have to answer that question – the purpose of creating a map, any map that is created is useful in finding the way.
IrinaPollard: Increased understanding can be expected as a result.
Macer: I don’t know, Jay. I think those who believe in evolution can still be interested in the map.
Azariah: No, no. I’m asking about the purpose. Do you recognize the word purpose in evolution? Anything evolves with a purpose.
MorganPollard: Evolution leads to survival.
Azariah: In my opinion, it’s an illusion….the term is not real…evolutionary state.
Hsin: I’m thinking that if people have no idea, you want to map their mind, it’s possible, yes. I trace it to my background, we’re Chinese. I just learned the word idea when I was a teenager. Because not so many people ask you about your idea, but your thought when you are very young, everything goes around. Since this kind of ethical talk, so we respect each one - I’m really wondering how to manage it, because I believe the human mind is finite but diverse. How could we manage such a huge diversity. The root of those diversity may be very many – age, gender, personality, knowledge, culture, religion and people’s role in different stage. This is a very practical problem. If I think about the human mind, I will think that – yeah, of course we have mind first and then maybe we have thought and then we have idea and then decision. But it’s not a rule that everybody perceives in this way. For example, my mother-in-law, she had a mind of course but she still has to have a thought or idea then make a decision. He always had that “as you please to.” If you ask him what do you want for dinner, he would say, "as you please to.” So it’s kind of diverse. When Jay asked the purpose if we want to read people’s mind or understand fully about people’s thinking, that you like to focus on the decision making right? But some people they are not doing this - this rule. They never make decisions, if you want to understand their mind it will be difficult. So if we want to respect everyone, each of our minds, but maybe a very small minor part they make decision for our world. That’s what I’m thinking. The other thing is that I’m thinking is - the practical thinking – is that we’re always doing the survey to try to get to people’s idea or mind. I don’t think it is possible to read people’s mind by doing surveys. Maybe we collect some opinions, that’s all. Because most people have not thought so much when you answer the questionnaire, most people take a very quick response. It maybe depends on your intuition, on your thinking. And maybe your personal attitude to the questionnaire – it’s possible. On another purpose, maybe you want to share your emotion, show you’re angry or something. So the data will always have to be careful. And some people, maybe they will have thinking, but some have critical view, focus on certain kind of image. Like when I ask people about technology, some they just go to length. So I can ask their opinion very well because they have this certain image about this terrible thing from something like that. So it’s really really very difficult to gather people’s ideas or mind and opinion. Does it make sense?
Macer: Yes it does. It’s an interesting concept – not to make decisions. However, whenever I’m asked what to eat I’d say anything’s okay. Surprisingly, though I do like sushi. I also have that response, so maybe I have a Chinese mind. Who would like to speak who has not spoken yet this afternoon?
Tanabe: This mental mapping thing seems to me that (it’s an) old idea but good and fresh to try. I think that we should start from a more basic stage. Like, you want to see how people make decisions, the whole idea is just too vast so we just look at the circumstances and we see what kind of idea people take - from what kind of ideas, from what kind of experience they take their ideas from. We should start from something we can observe. Like everybody says, we don’t know what people are thinking from outside - like behavior, something we can observe from outside. Thinking about the diversity, I still believe that there is a fundamental thing for all people. So if it’s from a higher stage there is too much diversity, so we can start from the basic level where everybody shares the same kind of idea.
Macer: Who else would like to make some comments? I mean, I think one of the questions is do we have enough data already to start to try to integrate the data into a framework or map. I think we have lots of data. And the project has attempted to integrate this data into a framework that’s easy to understand. Or at least the attempt has seemed to be working. So that’s why I integrate the ideas into some frameworks. The second part of your question was on some source of issues which might be appropriate for mapping, and I will be trying to do some of this – especially in biotechnology. In fact, in the last 10 years there’s been some work on trying to make people’s ideas across countries. But they don’t have a common framework. So if we had a common framework then, I think, this already is some accomplishment. I think it will be useful to think about what common framework can be used, and I hope that we can all work on the project and come back next year to discuss the progress.
Application of Behaviourome Analysis to Ideas about Biotechnology
- Masakazu Inaba and Darryl Macer.
Graduate School of Integrative Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, JAPAN
Email: s015481@ipe.tsukuba.ac.jp, darrylmacer@.au
The Mental Mapping Project was proposed in November 2002. There have been some ways suggested to investigate ideas relating to bioethical issues. Method 1 is "Matrix Mapping Of Ideas Relating To Bioethics Choices From Biotechnology". The coordinators are Darryl Macer and Masakazu Inaba. This method involves identification of the range of ideas people have when faced with moral dilemmas of biotechnology and the mapping of these onto a 7-sided 4-dimensional mental map with indications for further dimensions. The sides of the matrix are namely; self-love, love of others, loving life (do no harm), loving good, loving harm, memories, hopes. Each idea is to be assigned a multiple numerical coordinate for each side on a scale between 0-100 or X (=not related).
In the Email of 20 Nov, 2003 from Darryl Macer, Subject: [behaviourome] example data was suggested. The first analysis of this on the listserve was by Lauren Springman on 13 Dec 2003, Subject: [behaviourome] METHOD 1 first pass at data 1, interview data was suggested as an example to plot ideas into the matrix, the content of utterances of the interviewee was analyzed, and each idea was separated. Several variables were given for each idea to help locate it onto the matrix. In this paper, a visualized example was presented in both physical and computer representations, and the effectiveness of the method discussed. Further input is welcome in order to attempt to make a model of ideas that is easy to understand.
In November 2002, the proposal to map the Behaviourome was made in the journals Nature and Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics. The Behaviourome, that will be revealed in the Mental Mapping Project, aims to understand ideas beyond the border of individuals, community, or culture, and even the border of species. It may also be as a communication tool. This paper presents an example of the application of Behaviourme Analysis as a model for the initial construction phase, especially considering method 1 as introduced by Darryl Macer. Please see the figures in the powerpoint file.
As an introduction of how the behaviourome may lead to better understanding of ideas, the figure shows representational modularity of mind. The core of our mind that includes “Conceptual structure”, “Spatial representation”, and “Body representation” is formed through some faculties of cognitive interfaces, such as the senses through our eyes and ears. Mental Mapping tries to open a way, and broaden it to understand ideas through visual faculty by interpreting ideas, which are recognized and traditionally expressed through linguistic faculty (2).
For the starting point, a dataset of an interview was used for the analysis. The objective of the analysis is a series of sentences from interviews (or surveys) that are expressed in responding to bioethical questions, especially focused on modern biotechnology in agriculture and medicine.
Questions asked are shown in the powerpoint file. It is known that verbal communication is a part of communication. The contribution of verbal communication is estimated to be less than 50%. As we know, we use our body language as gesture, facial expressions, and vocal indications as volume, tempo, pitch, and quality of voice, or the way to speak besides language. Language is as one sign system. The signs can be divided into two major types, paralinguistic and non-linguistic.
There is no theoretical upper limit to the complexity of linguistic signs (1). And there is the fact that anything thinkable is expressive, or at least can be approximated to any given degree of accuracy (1).
On the other hand, the conceptualization of text does not only depend on the analysis of the semantic system, but needs to consider the context of the intended communication (3). It may not be easy to pick up emotions accompanying choices that are made when a person is exposed to bioethical dilemmas, from the text of their verbal communication. The interviewee would give a comment in an indirect way, however, he may be hindering his emotion behind the comment, for example, in a case of questions about abortion that is a sensitive issue for some people. There could be a complex mental history, including trauma, which complicates the way that ideas are connected together to make moral choices. Therefore, how we can deal with this kind of idea is one question.
In addition to the above two points, to reconstruct true ideas from a verbal system requires background knowledge that is a platform of the verbal system so that languages can help to reconstruct ideas (2,3). This background knowledge also includes cultural behaviors intertwined into language, and personal experiences.
Method: A series of sentences obtained from interviews or surveys are analysed to identify the "idea units", which could also be called a message unit, or key word or key phrase. The initial 9 idea types given by Darryl in 2002 actually could be regrouped. The meaning of the text of the subject can be conceptualized. Inside the list of 9 there are three “basic domains” associated with various senses, such as experience of time, our capacity for dealing with two/ three dimensional spatial configuration, and the emotive domain (4). However, most expressions pertain to higher levels of conceptual organization and presupposes non-basic domains for their semantic characterization (4).
[pic]
Figure 1: Example of how connections are formed between points in the mental map.
Is the number of ideas finite? The time of expressing ideas is finite until the end of the world, even if humans keep generating ideas through generations. Therefore the number of ideas, that can be conceived and proved by other beings, is finite although the number of ideas may be infinite. Language is the only tool to designate various range of ideas and thoughts more precisely than other tools through the process of cognition of objects.
There are limitations for communication through languages. Grammatical structure restricts the range of ideas of each component in sentences, and defines the range of the meaning of the sentences out of numerous combinations of ideas so that receivers can understand the meaning under the limitation. And the background knowledge is limited to make combinations of ideas that contain valid messages for transmitting those ideas. Thus, grammatical structure itself sets the limitation for communication in order to make a sentence meaningful.
References
1. Alan Cruise (2000), Meaning in Language, Oxford
2. Gilles Fauconnier (1996), Mental Space,
3. Umberto Eco (1984), Concetto di testo, T.A.Queiroz. Editor
4. Ronald W. Langacker (1990), Cognitive Linguistics Research, Mouton De Gryuter
Discussion
Cummensky: I was just wondering when I see the mapping of broad categories like self-love, love of others. I see the map, and I think of self-love, and it’s very distinct that I think of all the other ideas like selfishness, egoism as a form of self-love, love of excellence, trying to develop your excellent self-perfection virtues is a form of self-love; self- respect, self- determination is a form of self love; these very different categories we’d have to squeeze into one category. Or consider whether to put in romantic love, particular affection for particular people, we have familial love, we have general benevolence, respect for others—that doesn’t really fit…So I worry how you put all this broad diverse categories, which strike me as fundamental, under these simple categories and map them in this way? It implies mapping them simpler which strikes me as very different things.
Inaba: I just tried to plot in the order of area of consideration. The thinking simply covers the area. That kind of specific direction will be added later in some way. As of now, it’s just the area.
Cummensky: It will look like we are mapping the same thing, So that we will have a uniformity among different individuals. When in one case we may be mapping tendency towards egoism, and in another case tendencies towards excellence and virtue and so it would look like we were mapping similarities when we have mapped nothing similar at all.
Inaba: In my opinion, the position maybe the ideas but it is represented in different colors as the category of ideas. So it will be different.
Macer: I think these complex ideas are inside the matrix. There is a place within the matrix for more complex ideas. It is a simple structure where we can map the more complex ones.
Gupta: What about idea alleles—opposing ideas? And how do you modify them?
Inaba: I think it has certain area, not just a particular point, some area around it.
Gupta: Do you mean a three dimensional space?
Inaba: For example, size of the part---what it covers to what extent.
Macer: I don’t think alleles would be the right term, you mean matching sets of opposing ideas?
Gupta: The same coordinate on both sides, or something like that. For example, north and south.
Macer: Yes, the absolute north and the absolute south are there. And the variations closest to the idea will be physically mapped
Bhardwaj: I just have one comment for Masa. I think that the matrix that you showed is very much based on Beauchamp and Childress’ 4 principles of bioethics. But if you were to draw from individual to social level you would have different ideals of justice. What I depict from your presentation is based on individual justice. But when you think about the social level, you can think of libertarian justice or communitarian justice. If you broaden, it would be helpful to look into that direction as well.
Inaba: Thank you for your comments.
Behavioral Foundations for the Behaviourome / Mind Mapping Project
- John E. LaMuth, M.S..
Private Practice-JLM Mediation Service,P.O. Box 105, Lucerne Valley, CA 92356,USA
Email: , values@
Introduction
A new model of motivational behavior, described as a ten-level, meta-hierarchy of the major groupings of virtues, values, and ideals, serves as the foundation for a new holistic theory of ethics and morality. This theory arises as a direct outcome of the Systems Theory concept of the metaperspective (a higher-order perspective upon the viewpoint held by another). The traditional groupings of ethical terms are collectively arrayed as subsets within such a hierarchy of metaperspectives, each more abstract listing building in a direct fashion upon that which it supersedes. Take, for example, the cardinal virtues (prudence-justice-temperance-fortitude), the theological virtues (faith-hope-charity-decency), and the classical Greek values (beauty-truth-goodness-wisdom). Each of these groupings is further split into a complex of four subordinate terms, allowing for precise, point-for-point stacking within the ethical hierarchy. When additional groupings of ethical terms are further added into the mix: namely, the personal ideals (glory-honor-dignity-integrity), the civil liberties (providence-liberty-civility-austerity), the humanistic values (peace-love-tranquility-equality), amongst others; the complete ten level hierarchy of metaperspectives emerges in full detail. From a holistic standpoint, this cohesive ethical hierarchy mirrors the stepwise specialization of personal, group, spiritual, humanitarian, and transcendental realms within the human social structure (that when further specialized into both authority and follower roles, accounts for the full ten-level hierarchy of ethical terms).
Furthermore, it ultimately proves possible to base this ethical hierarchy entirely within a behavioral foundation; namely, the terminology of operant conditioning proposed by behavioral psychologist, B. F. Skinner. Through such a purely behavioral style of motivational analysis, the higher virtues and values can alternately be viewed as more advanced metaperspectives on the more basic complement of instinctual states (i.e., reward-punishment-appetite-aversion). Indeed, the characteristic four-part organization of the virtues, values, and ideals is fully explainable in terms of such a behavioral tie-in with operant conditioning.
The key innovation behind this new paradigm arises from the emerging field of Communications Theory, borrowing the crucial concept of the metaperspective (a higher-order perspective upon the viewpoint held by another): schematically defined as "this is how I see you-seeing me." The abstract groupings of virtues, values, and ideals are respectively seen as subsets within such a hierarchy of metaperspectives; each more abstract listing building directly upon those which it supersedes, setting the stage for an ethical simulation in a Systems Theory mode.
Take, for example, the cardinal virtues (prudence-justice-temperance-fortitude), the theological virtues (faith-hope-charity-decency), and the classical Greek values (beauty-truth-goodness-wisdom). Each of these distinctive ethical groupings is further split into a complex of four subordinate terms, allowing for a precise, point-for-point stacking within the hierarchy of metaperspectives. When additional groupings of ethical terms are further added into the mix, the complete ten level hierarchy of metaperspectives emerges in full detail: schematically reproduced in the table immediately below:
Nostalgia/Worship Glory/Prudence Providence/Faith Grace/Beauty Tranquility/Ecstasy
Guilt/Blame Honor/Justice Liberty/Hope Free Will/Truth Equality/Bliss
Desire/Approval Dignity/Temperance Civility/Charity Magnanimity/Goodness Love/Joy
Worry/Concern Integrity/Fortitude Austerity/Decency Equanimity/Wisdom Peace/Harmony
This cohesive hierarchy of ethical values proves particularly comprehensive in scope, accounting for virtually every major ethical term celebrated within the Western ethical tradition. Indeed, it is easy to gain a sense of the trend towards increasing abstraction when scanning each of the individually depicted lines from left to right. These traditional, four-part ethical groupings line up perfectly within this metaperspectival hierarchy, making it exceedingly unlikely that such an arrangement could have arisen solely by chance. Indeed, this cohesive ethical hierarchy mirrors the specialization of personal, group, spiritual, humanitarian, and transcendental realms within human society in general: which when further specialized into both authority and follower roles, accounts for the complete ten-level hierarchy of ethical terms.
Such superficial resemblance, however, can scarcely claim to be the total picture; for it further proves possible to base this hierarchy of ethical values entirely within a behavioral foundation; namely, the terminology of operant conditioning proposed by psychologist B. F. Skinner. Through such a purely behavioral style of motivational analysis, the higher virtues and values can alternately be viewed as more advanced metaperspectives on the more basic complement of instinctual states (i.e., reward, punishment, appetite, aversion). Indeed, the characteristic four-part ethical groupings are fully explainable in terms of such a behavioral tie-in with operant conditioning (in addition to explaining the dual specialization of authority and follower roles across the board). This cohesive ethical hierarchy is extremely comprehensive in scope, ranging from the instinctual to the sublime (and everything in between). Such an all-inclusive character turns out to be a prerequisite for effectively modeling the complexities of human communication, allowing for a convincing simulation of motivational language in general.
The Schematic Organization of the Ethical Hierarchy
The key to the intimate dynamics underlying such a comprehensive ethical hierarchy resides in viewing the individual as the rightful product of his diverse range of social environments. In addition to the most basic one-to-one style of personal interaction, the individual is typically incorporated into a wide range of group contexts (i.e., family, work, school, etc.), as well as some all-encompassing style of spiritual environment. These various contexts collectively merge as a unified social hierarchy, in keeping with the theoretical principles governing the science of Set Theory. The paradigm of Set Theory is clearly in agreement with this three-way degree of specialization, the unit set, the group set, and the universal set corresponding to the personal, group, and spiritual realms, respectively. This concept of a three-level style of set hierarchy is actually nothing new, proposed centuries earlier by the great German philosopher, Emmanuel Kant. In his masterpiece The Critique of Pure Reason, Kant outlines an elaborate system of conceptual categories that he considers crucial to the formation of the human intellect: the most notable being the relevant category of quantity, divided, in turn, into the notions of unity, plurality, and totality. In general terms, these concepts equate to the notions of the one, the many, and the absolute; equivalent in the human social sense to the personal, group, and spiritual levels of the power hierarchy.
This three-level style of conceptual hierarchy, although appealing in its simplicity; differs from Set Theory in that complex interactions between individuals do not exist in a vacuum, but rather are dually specialized into either authority or follower roles respectively. In the personal realm, this amounts to the personal authority and personal follower roles; extending to the group realm as the dual complement of group authority and group representative roles, followed up by the spiritual authority and spiritual disciple roles of the spiritual realm. A brief description of each of these basic styles of authority/follower interaction is definitely in order, for each collectively serves to outline the proposed grand unification of virtues, values, and ideals initially proposed.
The Three-Level Hierarchy of Authority Roles
The most basic “personal” style of interaction refers to the one-to-one style of relationship between individuals, such as seen in one's personal friendships. This interplay is typically specialized into either authority or follower roles; exemplified in the case of the master craftsman (who critically depends upon the faithful services of his willing apprentice). A similar scenario further holds true in the case of the hero and his side-kick, or the celebrity and his straight men. Flexibility is certainly the key issue under consideration, the authority and follower roles reciprocating one another, allowing for an equitable style of shared relationship. Indeed, the authority figure depends upon the attentions of his follower (as much as the other way around), leading to an effective balance of power within the personal power realm.
This elementary style of personal relationship, in turn, gives way to the equally pervasive notion of group authority. As previously described, the group set surpasses the unit set in its expansion to a multitude of elements (or class members) within a group context. Personal concerns now become subordinate to this group sense of authority, with plenty of followers remaining to continue group authority regardless of whether any individual chooses to defect. In a single stroke the group authority is set well above any such personal power struggles, an innovation exploited since ancient times as the well established tradition of tribal-based authority.
Group authority, in turn, is susceptible to its own unique form of follower maneuver, in this case that of the group representative. Indeed, the strike potential of the group representative is most fully realized at this level, witnessed in the modern-day trend towards collective bargaining. By organizing as a union collective, the rank and file picks a shop steward to represent them in their dealings with management. The union representative, in essence, informs the group authority that the cooperation and cohesiveness of the labor pool is crucial for maintaining the group status quo. Here again, the group authority and group follower respectively share an equal balance of power in the group power realm.
A similar scenario necessarily holds true for the next higher spiritual level of authority, although this sense of “spiritual” refers to the restricted sense of the term implicit in set theory. Indeed, this universal set surpasses the multiplicity of the group domain for the sum-totality of all such groups within its domain. This universal set is unique in representing the group of all possible group sets, a third-order style of set hierarchy (equivalent to the domain of all of mankind). Just as group authority surpassed the influence of any of its individual members, so this universal sense of spiritual authority overrules the strike power of any of its constituent groups; hence, claiming supremacy over all mankind. It is true, in practice, that each of the world’s religions competes for the preferences of the world’s faithful. In theory, however, each religion vigilantly strives to convert all others, lending credence to the ideal (universal) sense of the term. This claim to universality is traditionally made binding through an appeal to a god or a messiah figure. Indeed, this mystical style of sanction dates at least to classical times, when a king could inspire loyalty from his troops (in the name of a god of war) far in excess of what he could hope to claim as a mere mortal.
Taking this trend to the limit, even a realm as abstract as the spiritual must (by definition) be susceptible to its own unique form of follower countermaneuver; in this case, the role of the spiritual disciple. As a spokesman for the spiritual congregation, the spiritual disciple reminds the authority figure that without the blessings of the faithful, he (as spiritual authority) will have no one left to minister over. Indeed, witness the power of the apostate or the heretic for influencing such diverse historical events as the Protestant Reformation, and indeed the very founding of Christianity itself.
Hero-
Nostalgia Guilt Worship Blame
_________________ ___________________
Desire Worry Approval Concern
EGO STATES ALTER EGO STATES
(Personal Authority) (Personal Follower)
Glory Honor Prudence Justice
__________________ ___________________
Dignity Integrity Temperance Fortitude
PERSONAL IDEALS CARDINAL VIRTUES
(Group Authority) (Group Representative)
Providence Liberty Faith Hope
___________________ _______________
Civility Austerity Charity Decency
CIVIL LIBERTIES THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
(Spiritual Authority) (Spiritual Disciple)
Grace Free Beauty Truth
_______________________ ________________
Magnanimity Equanimity Goodness Wisdom
ECUMENICAL IDEALS CLASSICAL GREEK VALUES
(Humanitarian Authority) (Humanitarian Follower)
Tranquility Equality Ecstasy Bliss
____________________ __________________
Love Peace Joy Harmony
HUMANISTIC VALUES MYSTICAL VALUES
(Transcendental Authority) (Transcendental Follower)
Figure One. The Virtuous Ethical Hierarchy
The Master Schematic Diagram of Ethical Groupings
This basic, three-level hierarchy of personal, group, and spiritual realms, when viewed in terms of both authority and follower roles; finally provides the fundamental conceptual framework for proposing the grand unification of virtues, values, and ideals, as schematically illustrated in Figure One. This master diagram, tentatively termed the "power pyramid," incorporates all of the major ethical groupings described so far, plus an equivalent number of new ones, for a grand total of ten; serving as the basic foundation for the remainder of this paper. As the captions serve to indicate, the first three levels of this diagram are designated according to the personal, group, and spiritual levels of the power realm, accounting for the most basic groupings of virtues and ideals. The remaining, lowermost two levels, however, bring to light two hitherto unmentioned categories; namely, the humanitarian and transcendental realms, respectively. Indeed, it is appropriate to distinguish this additional complement of levels as uniquely abstract styles of power maneuvers; surpassing the strict organizational style of structure previously described. A brief description of each of these latter two levels is definitely in order, for some of the most abstract listings of virtues and values fall under these final two headings.
The Humanitarian and Transcendental Authority Levels
Although the spiritual realm is clearly the maximum level of organizational complexity (in keeping with the traditions of Set Theory), this very sense of chronological time permits the introduction of the even more advanced notion of humanitarian authority into the mix. Indeed, the great theoretical physicist, Albert Einstein defined time as the fourth dimension of the universe, making it seem only fitting that this humanitarian theme would enter into consideration precisely at this fourth-order level of the ethical hierarchy. Humanitarian authority transcends the spiritual variety by claiming to speak for all generations of mankind, not just the current one (experienced as past traditionalism and/or future potentiality). Its extreme degree of generality precludes its identification with any particular social institution; rather its themes are incorporated into the spiritual (and sometimes political) framework of society as a whole.
This extreme sense of the pure power of abstraction, when considered in its own right, serves as the basis for one final innovation in the power hierarchy; namely, the crowning transcendental power realm. Transcendental authority regains the upper hand by transcending the routine sense of concreteness shared in common by each of the lower levels, an innovation which proves essential for accounting for the most abstract listings of values in the power hierarchy. This authority perspective freely enters into the esoteric realm of pure intuition and imagination, forsaking the constraints of ordinary reality for the supreme and incontrovertible realm of pure abstraction. Indeed, this transcendental realm (along with the humanitarian variety) is further specialized into the distinctive authority and follower roles (for a grand total of four), which together with the six roles specified for the personal, group, and spiritual levels collectively comprise the master ten-level hierarchy depicted in Figure One.
A few general observations may be made with respect to the distinguishing features of this schematic format. First, the ten listings of virtues, values, and ideals are organized into dual descending columns of five groupings each; the left column representing the hierarchy of authority roles, whereas the right describes the corresponding follower roles. This dual style of schematic format represents the sum-totality of reciprocating interactions between the authority and follower figures (when scanned in a zigzag pattern from top to bottom). The distinctive groupings of virtues and values listed for each individual level exhibit their own distinctive range of distinguishing characteristics; namely, each is represented as a quartet style of schematic format (depicted as quadrants in a pseudo-Cartesian system). Some of the more traditional groupings (such as the cardinal virtues) are already represented as four-part listings, fitting quite nicely into such a quadrant style of format. Others (such as the theological virtues) have been supplemented beyond their traditional number in order to achieve this quartet-style status. Still other groupings are entirely new to this philosophical tradition, yet these too are seen to respect this quartet-style organization of the power hierarchy.
Just as the distinctive authority levels are seen to build in a hierarchial fashion, so the associated groupings of virtues and values are further seen to respect this abstract pattern of organization. These are further seen to build from the most elementary (e.g., the ego and alter ego states of the personal level) clear on up to the most abstract listings of the transcendental level (i.e., the humanistic and mystical values).
The Behavioral Foundations For The Power Hierarchy
The most basic personal level of power hierarchy is certainly the most rational jumping off point here, making it seem only fitting that the associated motivational terms would share such similar elementary characteristics. According to level one of Fig. One, these are respectively designated as the ego states of the personal authority (guilt-worry-nostalgia-desire) and the alter ego states of the personal follower (hero worship-blame-approval-concern). These groupings appear tailor-made for incorporation into the power hierarchy, graciously adapted from the field of self-help psychology; most notably, the best seller Your Erroneous Zones (1976) by Dr. Wayne Dyer. Indeed, the intensely personal nature of this self-help field makes its associated terminology particularly effective for specifying the intimate dynamics of this personal power realm.
These distinctive motivational terms, in turn, can be seen as grounded in the objective terminology of behavioral psychology. For instance, the desire for approval is the colloquial equivalent to the behavioral paradigm of solicitous behavior aimed towards positive reinforcement (or rewards). Similarly, the sense of worry in anticipation of concern can alternately be equated to submissive behavior anticipating negative reinforcement (or lenient treatment). When this two-stage, operant paradigm is phase-shifted one stage into the past (with reinforcement now the active principle), the remaining ego and alter ego states are further explainable in such behavioral terms. For instance, hero worship rewardingly aims to reinforce the personal authority’s past notable achievements (experienced as a poignant sense of nostalgia). Similarly, the remaining lenient sense of blame alternately gives rise to the respective submissive feelings of guilt.
Although only briefly described, these basic groupings of ego and alter ego states, in turn, serve as the elementary foundation for the remaining collective listings of virtues, values, and ideals outlined in Fig. One. The accompanying objective (behavioral) grounding to this personal foundation adds a welcome scientific validity to such a grand undertaking. Indeed, a basic pattern clearly emerges from this diagram; namely, the left-hand column of authority roles is characterized by what are termed the authority ideals: read downwards as the personal ideals, the civil liberties, the ecumenical ideals, and the humanistic values. The right hand column of follower roles, in turn, specifies a parallel trend based in the realm of the virtues; namely, the cardinal virtues, theological virtues, the classical Greek values, and the mystical values.
The Behavioral Cohesiveness of the Ethical Hierarchy
Although this cohesive hierarchy of authority levels emerged as a direct outcome of Set Theory, the true elegance of this system is seen in the respective listings of motivational terms, intriguing in their formal, four-part pattern of organization. Each of these respective listings of virtues, values, and ideals shows an intimate degree of connectedness with its respective authority or follower role across the board. Of even greater significance, however, is the high degree of cohesiveness seen for hierarchically linked sequences of motivational terms themselves, such as seen in the case of the cardinal virtues, the theological virtues, and the classical Greek values. This pattern scarcely proves to be an isolated phenomenon, for it effectively repeats itself across the entire ten-level span of the power hierarchy. For instance (returning to Fig. One), within the left descending column (representing the authority roles), the upper left quadrant of motivational terms (read in descending order) yields the sequence of nostalgia-glory-providence-grace-tranquility. All five terms share a positive style of past-directed focus, stressing the theme of past notable achievements. The same quadrant in the right-hand column of follower roles yields the related motivational sequence of hero worship-prudence-faith-beauty-ecstasy; themes all appearing to reciprocate the authority role through a reinforcement of such past-directed (nostalgic) perspectives.
A parallel circumstance further holds true in the case of the adjacent (upper right-hand) quadrant of Figure One. The respective authority roles yield the related sequence of guilt-honor-liberty-freewill-equality: themes all sharing a similar past-directed focus (although now designating a more submissive sense). The corresponding follower roles further cement this observation (e.g., blame-justice-hope-truth-bliss): a hierarchy mirroring that based upon hero worship, with the exception that negative reinforcement is now in focus.
The remaining lower two quadrants of the power hierarchy are further amenable to such a systematic style of analysis, only now based on the sequences of “desire for approval” and “worry in anticipation of concern.” Indeed, it proves particularly amazing that these motivational trends should exist at all, each lining up so perfectly within its respective quadrant of the power hierarchy. This grand scale organization of the power hierarchy is certainly its major selling point, its perfect symmetry and cohesiveness far too intricate to have risen solely by accident. Such exceptional symmetry is ultimately accountable due to its elementary foundation in the most basic, personal level of the power hierarchy. Indeed, it is at this most basic (personal) level that the basic rationale behind the quartet-style organization of the power hierarchy is finally addressed, fully explainable in terms of the behavioral terminology of conditioning theory.
The Metaperspective Schematic Format
This higher-order paradigm of the power hierarchy is exceedingly reminiscent of the similar concept popularized in the modern-day field of Communications Theory; namely, the metaperspective format of R. D. Laing, and also P. I. Watzlawick. In Interpersonal Perception (1966) Laing and associates researched the dynamics of interpersonal communication, characterizing it as the “spiral of reciprocal perspectives.” In The Pragmatics of Human Communication (1967) Watzlawick (et. al.), in turn, examined the informational aspects of communication: exemplified as his “hierarchy of metaperspectives.” Both formulations share a common hypothesis; namely, communication between individuals is typically overlaid with abstract “meta-messages,” specifying how such a relationship is to be conducted. The “metaperspective,” from the Greek “meta” (above) represents a higher order perspective upon the viewpoint held by another, schematically defined as “this is how I see you seeing me.” According to this conceptual innovation, spontaneous forms of communication are themselves made the objects of discourse, expressing both the content and context of the verbal interaction. Even more abstract perspectives are theoretically predicted, bringing up what Communication Theorists term the “meta-metaperspective.” This theoretical construct is one meta-level removed from the more basic meta-format: schematically defined as “this is how I see you-seeing me-seeing you.” Indeed, there does not appear to be any theoretical barrier limiting the degree to which reflection can serve as a basis for itself, building into a formal multi-level model of meta-communication in general. This metaperspectival style of schematic format ultimately allows for an independent confirmation of the higher-order structure of power hierarchy, culminating in an unprecedented 10th-order level of meta-abstraction.
A Review of Conditioning Theory and the Power Hierarchy
To summarize once more what has been proposed in this treatise: first described were the biologically-hardwired, instinctual types of conditioned behavior so eloquently categorized in B. F. Skinner’s system of operant conditioning. This instinctual foundation extends to both human and animal models, for any true model of motivation must necessarily take into account man’s evolutionary heritage within the animal kingdom. Skinner’s basic instinctual principles of positive and negative reinforcement were certainly adequate to the task, providing the elementary foundation for the entire higher-order structure of the power hierarchy. Further described were the two-stage dynamics of the operant sequence, offering meaningful insights into the notion of alternate time dimensions. Indeed, mankind is uniquely distinguished by his ability to navigate abstractly within these alternate time dimensions; e.g., the ability to learn from past experience, or the tendency to plan for future contingencies. Operant terminology was seen to be deficient in designating these introspectively derived dimensions; hence, necessitating the introduction of the terminology of self-help psychology into the mix. With minor modifications, the erroneous zones of Dr. Wayne Dyer were well suited to the format, in keeping with their revised designations as the ego and alter ego states. These colloquial groupings added a welcome introspective dimension to the objective terminology of behaviorism, serving as the elementary foundation for the remaining hierarchy of virtues, values, and ideals.
This higher-order complement of motivational terms necessarily redirects the focus of this analysis: specifying the more abstract repetition of both authority and follower roles in the power hierarchy. Being that the personal authority was shown to act first in the operant sequence, it is fitting that he would be the first to repeat, this time in the modified sense of group authority. This meta-meta-order perspective of the group authority, in turn, is countered by the meta-meta-metaperspective of the group representative. Indeed, this reciprocating style of power escalation is effectively repeated for the remaining spiritual, humanitarian, and transcendental realms of the power hierarchy: culminating in an unprecedented 10th-order level of meta-abstraction. One might rightfully question the capacity of the human mind to entertain such a multiplicity of metaperspectives, particularly at the very highest meta-order levels. Apparently the mind is selectively able to focus in on only the immediately relevant levels of the ascending power hierarchy, similar to the analogy of walking up a ten level flight of stairs. The process of rising to the next higher step implies the primacy of the immediately adjoining steps, amounting to a span of three levels (equivalent to the meta-metaperspective), quite a modest task for the versatile human mind. As such, this new model of the virtues and values provides an objective behavioral foundation for the ethical applications to the Behaviourome / Mind Mapping Project.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully wishes to acknowledge permission from Fairhaven Book Publishers to reproduce excerpts from the author’s recently released book; The Ultimate Guide to Family Values: A Grand Unified Theory of Ethics and Morality (2002), including accompanying figures and diagrams.
Bibliography
Aristotle (1992). Nicomachean Ethics. (M. Ostwald, trans.) New York: Bobbs-Merrill.
Augustine, Saint (1950).City of God. (M. Dods, trans.) New York: Modern Library.
Bennett, William J. (1993). The Book of Virtues, A Treasury of Great Moral Stories. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Cartwright, D., and Zander, A. (1953). “Group Cohesiveness, Introduction,” in Group Dynamics, Research and Theory. (D. Cartwright and A. Zander, eds.) Evanston, Illinois: Row Peterson and Co.
Child, H. (1971). Christian Symbols, Ancient and Modern. New York: Scribner.
Dyer, W. (1976). Your Erroneous Zones. New York: Funk and Wagnalls.
Durant, W. (1939). Life of Greece. New York: Simon and Schuster.
James, W. (1902). The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature. New York: Random House.
Jobes, G. (1962). Dictionary of Mythology, Folklore and Symbols. Metuchen, New Jersey: Scarecrow Press Inc.
Kant, I. (1899). Critique of Pure Reason. (J. Meiklejohn, trans.) New York: Colonial Press.
Laing, R. D., Phillipson, H., and Lee, A. (1966). Interpersonal Perception.Baltimore: Perennial Library.
LaMuth, J. E. (1977) “The Development of the Forebrain as an Elementary Function of the Parameters of Input Specificity and Phylogenetic Age.” J. U-grad Rsch. in Bio. Sci. (U. C. Irvine). (6): 274-294.
LaMuth, J. E. (1999). The Ultimate Guide to Family Values: A Grand Unified Theory of Ethics and Morality. Lucerne Valley, CA: Fairhaven Books.
Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Knopf.
Walker, B. (1983). The Woman's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets. San Francisco: Harper and Row.
Watzlawick, P., Beavin, H., and Jackson, D. (1967) Pragmatics of Human Communication. New York: Norton.
Webber, F. (1990) Church Symbolism: An Explanation of the More Important Symbols of the Old and New Testament. Detroit: Omnigraphics.
Human Biodiversity: What Can We Learn From The History Of Mental Mapping?
- Frank (Yeruham) Leavitt, Ph.D..
The Centre for Asian and International Bioethics, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva 84105, ISRAEL
Email: yeruham@bgumail.bgu.ac.il
There is nothing new under the sun, as we read in the Biblical Book of Kohelet (Ecclesiastes) and is still true today. The effort to "map" the human mind, in the sense of outlining the different kinds of human thought and emotion may seem like a new idea, but it is really very old. Aristotle, in his Categories, listed ten categories. His list started with substance, and continued with nine different "accidents", ie kinds of thing which one might say about a substance: These were quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action and affection. We make positive or negative statements by affirming or denying predicates of these kinds with respect to subjects. He then went on to present his syllogistic doctrine of how one can start with two statements, called premises, and deduce a third, called the conclusion. An example of a valid syllogistic form would be No A is B. All C is B. Therefore No C is A. An example of an invalid one would be All A is B. Some C is B. Therefore Some C is A. This is all pretty easy stuff, which readers will remember from freshman or even high school courses in philosophy or set theory. But the important point for our purposes is how it became dogma. Aristotle, himself, was an open-minded person who probably would not have encouraged dogmatism. But his logic as well as much of the rest of his philosophy became a dogma in European universities. It was believed that we had the mental map; we knew all the different ways in which the human mind could work. There was no need to develop the doctrine any further. Only fine points had to be clarified. But the doctrine as a whole needed only to be transmitted from generation to generation as a kind of holy writ.
Occasionally other dogmatists would come along, offering their own dogmas in place of the Aristotelian one. David Hume, in 18th century Scotland, had little use for syllogistic reasoning, but preferred causal reasoning. In a chapter called "Rules by which to judge of causes and effects" in his Treatise of Human Nature, he lays down a set of rules by which we may determine whether or not one event may properly be called the cause of another. His rules are actually quite brilliant and were the forerunners of Robert Koch's famous postulates in microbiology. But in spite of Hume's usual open-mindedness, his dogmatism is shocking. After he lays down his rules, he says: Here is all the LOGIC I think proper to employ in my reasoning; and perhaps even this was not very necessary, but might have been supplied by the natural principles of our understanding.
Another dogmatist was of course Immanuel Kant, who, in his Critique of Pure Reason, had his own system of twelve categories of human thought, of which he said very boastfully: This then is the list of all original pure concepts of synthesis that the understanding contains within itself a priori.
The dogmatists were in for a surprise, however, when towards the end of the 19th century such people as Boole, Cantor, Frege, Whitehead and Russell began to develop mathematical logic. In their search for the foundations of mathematics they had to develop a logic quite different from the old syllogistic logic. To give one simple example from among the many ways in the new logic differed from the old, the new logic included a logic of relations. We had to break free from the idea that every statement had one subject and one predicate. A statement could have one, two, or any number of subjects, like: x is bigger than y, or x received y from z and gave it to w.
The new logic, by the way, which developed from pure, non-practical philosophical speculation, became the basis for the logic which is now used in computers.
The lesson we should learn from this little bit of history is that it is dangerous to think that we can map the human mind. Any time we think that we have laid out all the possibilities of human thought, it is always possible that someone will come along with kinds of thought which we never imagined could exist. I will not say that the human mind is infinite in its creative power. In fact I do not think it is, as I argued in the March, 2003, issue of the Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics. But surely our creative power is too vast for us to list all of our different kinds of abilities to think or behave.
We still do not understand enough about genius: how it is that people suddenly come up with new, unforeseen and unforeseeable ideas which make great contributions to human knowledge and life. Nor do we know much about prophesy, non-natural sources of ideas and imagination. Presuming to draw a mental map is as if to say that we know it all already. There is no need for further thinking.
I personally believe that Darryl's mental mapping project is inseparable from his belief in bioethical universalism, which he and I have been debating for many years. I happen to believe in what we might call human biodiversity. There are different kinds of people and peoples with different ways of thinking and feeling. The differences may be vast. I do not deny the idea of a chosen people, not at all in the sense of a people who are better than others, but in the sense that a people might have a spiritual affinity to a particular geographical region, and might have a special role to play in human life, different from the roles of other peoples. Nor do I think that what is good for some people is necessarily good for others. One religion might be quite appropriate for one people in one land, while other religions might be better suited for other people in other places. The fact that I have my truth does not mean I have any right to try to impose it upon you. Nor does it mean that it would be right for me to try to persuade you of it in even the most polite, respectable and rational way of persuading. Some religions are converting religions, wanting to covert the world to their way of thinking. Judaism, my religion, is not a converting religion. We are willing to accept converts but we do not encourage the idea. If someone wants to convert to Judaism from another religion, we first try very hard to talk them out of it, and consider accepting them only if they persist very stubbornly. Hinduism seems to be more extreme. In his little book, What is Hinduism, Mahatma Gandhi argued that Hinduism does not accept converts no matter how hard they persist. I do no know if this is true of all forms of Hinduism, such as the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, for example. But it seems certainly true in general that Hinduism recognizes the validity of infinitely different ways of approaching an infinite God. Sri Aurobindo's book, The Foundations of Indian Culture, is very helpful on this point.
Universalism, on the other hand, the idea of a set of absolute, universal truths for everybody, lends itself well to the idea of mental mapping. If there is a set of absolute universal truths for everybody, then it is natural to think that there should be a way to map them out, once and for all. But I do not see how this can possibly be proved.
I have been the "devil's advocate" of the mental mapping project, since almost the very beginning. There are two further critical points which I would like to make. The first is that I do not understand why a proposed map of the human mind should be called a behaviourome. What has behaviour got to do with the mind anyway? Of course there used to be a doctrine in psychology, founded by Watson and Skinner, called behaviourism. According to this doctrine, there are no thoughts or feelings, but only observable and measurable behaviour. But surely three people sitting in meditation: a Jew, a Buddhist and a Muslim, might exhibit exactly the same behaviour, viz. sitting quietly, while thinking very different thoughts.
For my final critical point, I must tell a little about my own life. After receiving my PhD in philosophy, I took my first university job at Wright State University in Ohio in 1969. I had not known that I was joining a university closely involved with the US Air Force in research projects. We also had many students who were officers at Wright Patterson Air Force Base. This was during the American war in Vietnam, which I seriously opposed. One of my students, in a logic course, actually told me that he took the course in order to see if he could learn something which would help him make smart bombs. And here I was demonstrating with the students in the mornings against Wright Patterson Air Force Base, before going to work to teach students such as this. I had a crisis of conscience and presently resigned from my university job to go to live in the forest. This was a decision which I have never regretted. Indeed I learned much more bioethics through first hand experience with nature, organic gardening, etc., than I could have learned in the university.
I was amazed, however, when at our meeting on mental mapping in Tsukuba in February, 2004, a man spoke, identifying himself as being from the Air Force, as if there were only one air force in the world. He turned out to be from the American Air Force, and expressed an interest in our mental mapping project as a source for ideas for building intelligent robots to help locate victims of earthquakes, collapsed buildings, etc. I wondered at once whether this was all they wanted to use the mental map for. I was also amazed at how I seemed to have come full circle, meeting another proposal to use philosophy for the purposes of the US Air Force. I do not want to mix politics with bioethics and will not go into details of what I think about the American involvement in Iraq, except to say that although I have my criticism, I am not totally against them. This is a different matter than Vietnam. But on the other hand I am not sure that this is what we want to use bioethics for.
Discussion
Weisburd: I have a few simple observations to support your argument that ideas are uncountable. The first one is time. Time is continuous and not discrete and so there is an infinite possibility. Furthermore, I think ideas themselves are not discrete. I think there is a continuous distribution, between any two poles of opposite ideas there are a number of intermediate states. And we can’t number the number of possible intermediate states.
Macer: You seem to be siding with Frank there.
Miller: Thanks, I just wanted to comment on what you said at the end of your talk. Both the predictability and unpredictability of thoughts, and really the idea that it is the method that leads to the thought may well be predictable and the reason to that is what you alluded to are behavioral phenotypes. And we now know of several disorders now in which certain genes are affected that are predictable stereotype behaviors that are recognizable within those genotypes. So I think the method may be predictable but once that method is affected in the brain what results the ideas, maybe infinite.
Leavitt: I don’t disagree with you. Of course, there is such a thing as a behavioral phenotype. All I am saying is that it’s not predictable what phenotypes they’re going to be. We can not make anything near a complete map.
Wawrzyniak: I understand that the last part of your talk is concerned with neurology more fitting
into a processural stochastic ontology that we live in, which particular logic did you mean, deontic, operating with predicates like is possible that, is necessary that, something like that?
Leavitt: No. I acknowledge what you say. But I was thinking only of the early symbolic logic of Russell. But what you’re saying is a very good example. Because Principica Matematika, Russell and Whitehead’s great work, they even thought of many-valued logic. All of the sudden, came in the mid 20th century came Brower with intuitionist mathematics. You can have true or false, and you can even have neither true or false. Then came deontic logic, this came later. So your point is actually confirming what I’m trying to say that there is no end to the kind of logic.
Wawrzyniak: Contemporarily, the intuitional approached is formalized as well.
Leavitt: All of a sudden you realized what you missed.
Cummensky: I’m a little bit unclear about your conclusion. On the one hand you say, we’re not going to finish this map this year or next year. And then you have the theme that mapping is a bad idea. But your example of logic seems to go the other way because we have these new logics which are powerful tools that help us think more deeper thoughts and organize our thoughts in more systematic ways even if we shouldn’t think that these are complete. My concern with mental map that you were with earlier is that it is too simple. You would have too complex ideas leading to too complex graphics that would be too complex to be insightful. But that’s different from thinking that trying to get the basic categories down wouldn’t be worthy at all, which seems to be what you’re arguing.
Leavitt: Actually, I think you are making a very good point. It might be that we will find out that we are going in a totally wrong direction. But we’ll learn something by doing it. These things can be useful tools so long as we don’t get dogmatic about it.
Su: I agree with your conclusion that you find that it is impossible to map all human ideas but by doing that we can learn a lot from it. And I think ideas are infinite , even numbers are infinite. Even though ideas are infinite, we can try to map these. And by doing so we can benefit a lot
Leavitt: Thank you, but I disagree with a point. I don’t think the number of possible human ideas is infinite. In the Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics, shortly after our last meeting, I have an article arguing that. I think that the number of possible human ideas is finite, not infinite, but it is so large that we can’t count it all. Practically speaking, we can’t count it, but it can’t be infinite.
Lyons: The idea whether mental maps are possible or not possible , but I think given advances in computer technology and artificial intelligence, I think mental mapping is inevitable. In fact, people are developing mental maps for computers. So computers will have mental maps built in to them. So I think this has become a very important question. Whether it’s possible to do it perfectly, it’s actually being done. So I think it is timely.
Macer: I would like to have the last word, at the beginning of the project on the behaviourome, I said that I wanted to make a mental map of human ideas for moral decision making, and not all human ideas. One criticism is how I can map Einstein’s theory of relativity. But I was not intending to map that anyway. And I don’t think ideas are infinite anyway as you said. I think we can count. Surveys show that ideas are more simple than we think.
Leavitt: I would just like to say two points. I think your last point is related to your belief in universal bioethics. The second point, look, behavior, imagine three guys sitting here in absolute still meditation. One of them reaches Buddhist Enlightenment, the other one reaches Jewish enlightenment and the other one reaches Christian enlightenment. But their behavior is the same, they’re sitting there. Because behavior and thought are two different things…
Integrative Mental Mapping – A Cosmist Approach
- Konstantin S. Khroutski; M.D., Ph.D..
Dotsent, Head of Pharmacology, Department of Specialised Therapy, Institute of Medical Education, Novgorod State University after Yaroslav-the-Wise; Derzhavina str. 6-a, Novgorod Velikiy, 173020, RUSSIA
Email: hrucki@mail.ru hks@novsu.ac.ru
1. Philosophy is a science...
"Philosophy is a science and therefore, like every other science, it seeks to establish truths that have been strictly proved and are therefore binding for every thinking being and not only for a particular people or nation."
Nicolei O. Lossky
There is one thing I would like to stress primarily: We have got used not to observe the scientific evidence – Earth’s living world is actually universal in substance. The latter is an indisputable scientific truth at least since the 1953 – since the discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick. As a corollary, we need a scientific approach that universally deals with every life phenomenon on Earth, including the Behaviourome project as well. From the logical point of view, universalism is a most natural quality for a science exploring life phenomena on Earth: biological, personal (psychological), sociological, ecological, etc. Instead, in the present reality, we are witnessing that reflections on the meaning of the complex dynamical nature of living systems show an overwhelming multiplicity in approaches, descriptions, definitions and methodologies. That is to say, the problem of our living world universality is solved, until now, by 'denying of existence of the problem '.
From this my claim follows: We meet the task of a novel – universal – understanding of the nature of a human being.
I would like also to attract attention to the so-called 'Anthropological Evolutionary Paradox' in relation to a person and his or her ideas: Man is an uterine element of the one common whole cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth (Process or CEPLE, in my abbreviation); however we deny the search for universal evolutionary knowledge and rely on the plural (different and often incompatible) sources of knowledge in defining man’s nature: biological, sociological, psychological, etc. As a corollary, to my mind and with respect to Integrative Mental Mapping Project (IMMP), we need a kind of 'synthetic' and 'creative' approach - to propose and substantiate a novel foundation, necessarily on the basis of universalism, for the realisation of the IMMP aim - to comprehend and count human ideas. In other words, we deal with a great exploratory task, which is to create a novel theoretical - universal - foundation for the IMMP realisation and the advancement of a novel conception of "human nature" - a guiding principle for the contemporary mankind. The way of the eclecticism (a field for pluralism) – of mixing (integration) the already existing philosophic and scientific vehicles into one harmonious sum (aggregate) is a vain way, in my view.
2. Method 9 - UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONAL REDUCTIONISM IN INTEGRATIVE MENTAL MAPPING.
Herein, I see my main task in lucid presentation of the Method 9 in achieving the goals of the Human Behaviourome Project. Method 9 is named as UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONAL REDUCTIONISM IN INTEGRATIVE MENTAL MAPPING. The other name of this method is: THE TENTH CLASS OF COSMIST CREATIVE IDEAS. The latter relates to the originating article of the project by Darryl Macer: Finite Or Infinite Mind?: A Proposal For An Integrative Mapping Project (EJAIB, 12(6), pp. 203-206). In my response, using the original "Emergence Discourse Method" (advanced in the EJAIB 13(1), pp.15-20), I have taken the "Integrative Mental Mapping Project Under the 'EDM' Processing", by advancing 'The Thesis' (EJAIB, 13(3), pp.93-98). In this, 'The Tenth Class of Ideas' was proposed.
[pic]
Figure 1. Prof. Macer’s initial conceptual scheme (Macer, 2002).
[pic]
Figure 2. Prof. Macer’s initial conceptual scheme revised from a functionalist standpoint.
3. Every Theory Has its Own Ontology
There is an axiom: Every theoretical (hypothetical) proposal has its own underlying philosophic bases. To my mind, with respect to the proposed Integrative Mental Mapping Project (IMMP), we meet chiefly with a kind of neo-behaviourism (social-cognitive behaviourism) and, partially, with psychoanalysis. More basically, IMMP's work lies within pragmatism and Cartesian legacy. Indeed, the initial map of "ideas" is the map of "responses" and, hence, - the map of environmental situations and "influences upon individuals" – influences 'from without'.
It is relevant to represent the initial conceptual scheme created by Prof. Darryl Macer (Figure 1) and to shed light on it from a functionalist standpoint (Figure 2). Functionalist rethinking of the basic scheme (Figure 2) discloses the obvious features of philosophic functionalism (Putnam, 1988), firstly that mental states are constituted by their causal relations to one another and to sensory inputs and behavioural outputs.
4. Pragmatistic (instrumentalist) approach to the mental mapping.
Indeed, what are the primary tasks of mental mapping? They are, citing Darryl Macer,
- to aid in making policy that respects the diversity of people both culturally and globally;
- to include more diversity of ideas in policy frameworks;
- to offer people assistance when making moral decisions. This would give them a chance to consider all their ideas, and to make more thoughtful moral choices;
- to test and implement better bioethics educational methods.
Clearly, we are interested primarily in the practical applications of research. Therefore, the ideas, which are sought for, are firstly conceived as instruments for transforming the uneasiness connected with the experience of having a problem into the satisfaction of some resolution or clarification of it.
This is a truly pragmatistic and instrumentalist approach. Also, as we have seen above, this is a truly functionalist approach by virtue of its essence. Likewise, it has the functionalist character insofar it treats the ideas as the function of achieving the success in the every concrete situation, focusing, in this, on the total person - on his or her endeavours to adjust (adapt) to the environment, including the resolution of moral dilemmas.
Similarly, the Method 7, elaborated by Graham Douglas, is another bright example of pragmatistic (instrumentalist) approach to the mental mapping. Indeed, Graham’s SOARA Will Process directly aims at serving the person to adapt most satisfactorily to the given reality (environment). Hence, he likewise conceives of ideas as tools in the solution of problems in the environment.
5. The common features of Western philosophy and science are presentism, environmentalism (sociocentrism), adaptationism, individualism and subject-object relation to the world.
Moreover, I claim that the philosophic bases of the methods 1-8 (their criticism is beyond the goals of my discourse), whatever they represent, bear the common features of presentism, environmentalism (sociocentrism), adaptationism, individualism and subject-object relation to the world. Due to these bases, a person is the inhabitant of Earth, who is personally responsible to respond actively and constructively to primary environmental influences and requirements, aiming at the active adaptation and development, and the achievement of the most high stableness in the given surroundings and circumstances. In this, the surrounding world for him or her is the given dynamic system of interrelating objects (structures). Ideas and behavioural acts are among these things and the objects of study as well. All these objects and their interrelations are external things to a thinking mind or subject and, thus, must be explored and cognised from the position of separate (independent) observer and explorer: for their neutralisation, if they are harmful; or subordination and exploitation, if they are beneficial; or integration with – "ordering one's life in harmony with one's environment by bringing together the relevant parts of both in a way that furthers one's unique view of excellence at the time." (as it is in the Method 7). Significantly, the interrelations of a person with the world take place exclusively within the flowing and continuing present and predictable future, which is true pragmatic relation to the world. But there is no place for the evolutionary future – of emergence of the successively higher ontogenetic level of a person’s integration into. As it is, for example, the high school for the school student, or vocational body for the undergraduate, etc.
6. The Cosmist Functionalism is Both the Systemic World-View and the Methodology of Scientific Exploration
Significantly, the Cosmist approach has some similarity with the trends of pragmatism, instrumentalism and functionalism. But the Cosmist functionalism bears the principal distinctive qualities. First of all, Cosmist functionalism is both the systemic world-view and the methodology of scientific exploration: methodology of universal – subject-subject – cognition of life phenomena on Earth, including the entire number of the existing ideas and behavioural actions of a person.
Hence, Cosmist functionalism transcends philosophic academic boundaries and autonomously enters the practical spheres of human life, acting as a methodology of comprehending human ideas and behaviours, and introducing the figure of a cosmist philosopher, who is a truly practising agent.
7. Cosmist functionalism studies the entire evolutionary (ontogenetic) process of a man.
The currently sanctioned functionalism likewise acts in a practical sphere, but it is running exclusively within the present and past times of the living object (human being) under examination. This functionalism does not consider the time of personal (subjective) emergent future in principle, while concentrating on the already formed (or, which are forming) states, systems and processes. Hence, the common philosophic functionalism is always conjoint to the given situation or state of being, implying basically the solution of an actual problem, or coping with a pathological condition, or dealing with a moral dilemma.
However, man's wellbeing is as much the wellbeing (health) within the given situation or state, or current process, as, generally, the wellness of his/her entire lifetime (ontogenesis on the whole, which is macro-process). It is just the point Cosmist functionalism substantially differs from the acknowledged philosophic functionalism in the philosophy of mind, sometimes designated as "input-output functionalism," and which is a variant of the identity theory in solving the mind-body problem. The basic distinction is that Cosmist functionalism studies the entire evolutionary (ontogenetic) process of a subject's (man's) life and, thus, explores necessarily the mental states of the subject's emergent future as well (this is, for example, the future time of self-sufficient vocational activity for a present undergraduate).
To perform this, Cosmist functionalism, in contradistinction to the acknowledged philosophic functionalism, depends on the original philosophic system of cosmological, ontological, epistemological, anthropological and ethical fundamentals. In other words, I come forward with an original 'Cosmist pragmatism,' 'Cosmist instrumentalism,' and 'Cosmist functionalism', which are based on the primary original systemic philosophy. (The full characterisation of my philosophic system is given in my publications. Please, see the references. The most exhaustive information is presented in the EJAIB, Vol.12 and 13).
8. Cornerstone Notions of the Cosmist Paradigm
8.1. The central notion of Process - cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth (CEPLE).
The crucial point of this originative philosophy is that it establishes an ultimate substance of life on Earth neither of the physical nor of biological (of natural origin) or of social origin, but precisely of the cosmic origin, which is represented by the objective phenomenon and cosmological notion of Process – CEPLE: cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth (my abbreviation for it is simply 'Process'). Substantially, Process (CEPLE) is the central notion of the entire Cosmist cosmo- and ontological framework.
Significantly, Process is an objective phenomenon of reality verified by numerous scientific disciplines, including comparative anatomy, biochemistry, etc., related to evolutionary history and, chiefly, to molecular biology. Therefore, naturally Process is an a posteriori notion (of objective, empirical, and descriptive essence). Simultaneously, Process is an a priori notion, for it is only revealed through intuitive rational cognition. Hence, the notion of Process integrates a posteriori and a priori thinking (despite the latter being frequently considered to be a greater philosophic sin), disclosing an approach for the universal comprehension of the phenomenon of the life on Earth. Essentially, Process, understood universally in terms of a growing degree of complexity, exists and emerges in the Past, Present, and Future, in order to integrate the entirety of living matter and – functionally – every living subject on Earth. In other words, Process embraces all processes (ontogeneses) of the all subjects (i.e. living active organisms: biological, personal, and societal) of the life on Earth, determining – through the functional membership of (and usefulness to) CEPLE – the healthy ontogenesis of any living subject on Earth. In my opinion, in this aspect, the scientific value of Process may be comparable with such fundamentals as Newton's "Universal Gravitation" or Maxwell's "Electromagnetic Field".
8.2. The Cosmist notion of 'subject'.
The other basic notion, which stresses the universality of the life on Earth is 'subject'. In Cosmist philosophy 'subject' means the integrated functional subject, which integrates autonomously and hierarchically other subjects (to be a functional whole) and, simultaneously, is always functionally integrated by a higher organised subject (organism). In other words, from the Cosmist point of view subject means every living organism on the Earth: molecule, cell, biological organism, biosphere, human being, family, community, social body, society, mankind, and, ultimately, Process itself (CEPLE) – which is to say, the single common whole cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth.
8.3. Other cornerstone notions of the Cosmist paradigm.
Another cornerstone notion is that of an 'emergent future', which means the successive appearance of the integrated macro-level of a subject's (man's) healthy ontogenesis: for example, the university for a schoolboy; the vocational body for a graduate and so on. In this, the term 'emergence' substantially has the meaning that is accepted in evolutionary thinking – that of the rise of a system that cannot be predicted or explained from antecedent conditions.
Further, I would like to stress the cosmist meaning of the term 'society'. This has no prevailing political meaning, but precisely relates to any community, structure, organisation, or any other socially functioning body of people expressing a common purpose through their organisation.
It is also important to discern the meaning of my terms 'cosmist' and 'cosmic': the former stresses two points: a) the intrinsic subjective origination of the primary perceptions of man's creative activity; b) the deliberate character of a person's creative activity, aimed at the achievement of the most desirable possible state of adaptation on the current level of her/his existence and, simultaneously, – of the gratifying ascent on the successively higher level of the man's entire healthy ontogenesis. In other words, a person performs cosmist creative activity basically on his/her own. In turn, the term 'cosmic' puts a particular emphasis on the fact that a subject is ultimately the function of Process. Finally, by typing the word 'Cosmist' with a capital letter or using Italics I intend to accentuate its reference to my original philosophic system.
Finally, the term 'creativity' has no correlation with supernatural factors, but designates precisely a person's inherent natural ability and energy to create: to originate, to design, to invent, to bring into existence, etc. new products, or results, or effects and, thus, – to create a new reality.
8.4. The ontological system of Absolute Cosmist Wholism (ACW system).
Original cosmological principles lay the foundation for the advancement of a framework of ontological assumptions - the so-called ACW system: of Absolute (in regard to the all-embracing evolutionary Process), Cosmist (universal, functionally intentional realisation of the ascending ontogenesis of any subject - living organism: biological, personal or societal, including man), Wholism (with reference to universal functional integration of any subject into one whole - self-unfolding and evolutionary ascending - Process). Here I have the place to list only the five chief principles of the entire ACW system:
1) Principle of the Universal Functional Integration - 'all living is a whole - an integrated functional subject';
2) Principle of the Universal Emergent Evolutionism - 'all living - any subject - is an evolutionary process'. This principle has equally both the micro-evolutionary essence (of adaptational, reflective, current, constructive, developmental individual creative activity) – for reaching the optimal stableness on the given environmental (societal) macro-level of a subject's (man's) ontogenesis, and the macro-evolutionary essence (of inherent, personalist, transcending creative activity, which intends to surpass the achieved state of adaptational stableness and is aimed at the integration into the wholeness of the successively superior macro-levels of the subject's ontogenesis);
3) Principle of the Evolutionary Selection from Above - 'evolutionary selection from the emergent future'. Basically, evolutionary selection is not exclusively the 'survival of the fittest' in the present environment, but it is chiefly the realisation and application of a subject's specific ability to gratify it/her/himself, along with corresponding activities (and the effects and results of these activities), for the use of the coming congenerous superior level of its/his/her integrated wellbeing. We thereby get the 'natural' selection of a functionally suitable subject out of the lower level, for the satisfaction of the needs and requirements of the superior (higher) organised level of reality – 'from the future'. Herein, for example, the reality of a certain school is absent along the current life of a child (although this school exists in reality), but, soon, the school administration will select (or will refuse) this child; similarly, the university board will select (or not) our future school student; likewise, the manufacturer manager will further select (or not) the graduate for employment, etc.
4) Principle of Creative Activity - 'man is a creator': here two categories of human creative activity are introduced and discerned: adaptational (micro-evolutionary, problem-based, constructive) activity and cosmist (macro-evolutionary, inherent, transcending) activity.
A) Adaptational creative activity (micro-evolutionary, responsive, problem-based, constructive, developmental etc.) This conforms to a large extent to Karl Popper's evolutionary emergentism – the constant production of novel, tentative, behavioural and cognitive actions of problem-solving in the given situation. Here, a person expediently uses the method of trial and error, as well as effectively exploits the already existing scientific and cultural material; the means of positivism, rationalism, eclecticism, subjectivism, existentialism and phenomenology are equally relevant here. Man's adaptational creative activity results ultimately in the attainment of the highest level of stability of existence in the given environment.
B) Cosmist creative activity has the synonyms 'macro-evolutionary, inherent, transcending etc.' This creative activity expresses itself in the production of specific (functional) personal effects or results. The latter make possible a person's selection 'from Above' and integration into successively higher levels (absent in the present reality) of man's entire ontogenesis. In other words, cosmist creative activity is a constant realisation and manifestation of the basic functionality of a person (its characterisation follows below).
5) Principle of the Subject's Wellbeing - 'the subject's wellbeing directly depends on the extent of one's belongingness and integration into Process'. The subject's wellbeing is the implementation of one's predetermined functional (cosmic) 'assignment'. It implies for a person: a) personal responsibility for the subjective discovery, re-realisation and implementation of man's cosmist functionality at every macro-level of ontogenesis, and b) achievement of the mature cosmist creative macro-level for a direct and specific (functional) contribution to the wellbeing of the one common Process.
8.5. The Cosmist Definition of Individual's Health.
Finally, I will present the cosmist definition of individual's health. The latter refers to the successful cosmist unity of adaptational and creative processes of the human organism and personality. In other words, individual's health is the 'process of processes' ('ontogenesis of ontogeneses') of the person's wellbeing. It comprises:
a) A man's successful ontogenetic macro-evolution: the process of the entirety of human vital activity culminating in the integration of the person's whole healthy ontogenesis into successively higher emergent hierarchical levels (in the evolutionary scale of complication); and, at the same time,
b) A man's regular and necessary micro-evolution: the process of the person's successful adaptational development from initial ('infantile', unstable) stages up to the mature ('homeostatic', stable) forms of the person's wellbeing on the given macro-evolutionary level.
9. Basic Principles of the Cosmist Epistemology, Anthropology, and Axiology
9.1. Homo Sapiens Cosmicus (HSC).
The cornerstone conception of the Cosmist epistemology is the establishment of the three distinct functional macro-orders of man's existence (functioning):
Homo Sapiens animalis (HSA) - the direct function of the Biosphere (Nature).
Homo Sapiens sapiens (HSS) - the direct function of Society.
Homo Sapiens cosmicus (HSC) - the direct function of Process.
Both HSA and HSS are always Bio-Social creatures, and not Bio-Social-Cosmist creatures. In other words, Man in this perspective is a bio-organism, social actor, and unique person in his adaptation to the society, but he or she is not a Cosmist agent carrying out his personal (functional, specific) contribution to the one common Process. Cosmist philosophy replaces "being" (a basic concept that serves as a starting-point for any serious metaphysician) by 'functioning,' as a more basic Cosmist concept, which points to the necessity of active evolution for every living subject.
9.2. Basic (Ultimate, Cosmist) Functionality (BCF).
A crucial point is: In recognising the notion of Process we obtain the substance to which all Earth's living subjects can be functionally reduced. Every living subject on Earth is ultimately a function of Process – of the ultimate self-evolving organism of life. Reasonably, then, every living subject on Earth has its/his/her basic (ultimate, cosmist) functionality. The notion of man's basic functionality means that any subject is intrinsically and basically dedicated for the realisation and execution ultimately of this particular function.
As a corollary, I can logically claim that: A) primarily the personalist (subjective) level of consideration is appropriate for the universal comprehension of phenomena of life on Earth; and B) that exclusively the cosmist functional approach can reach the universal comprehension of the entire living world on Earth: biological, personal, and societal.
9.3. The principle of CosmoBiotypology.
In this course the core principle of CosmoBiotypology emerges. The latter establishes, by virtue of Cosmist functionalism, that the person's gratifying feelings and perceptions (of his/her vital activity), his/her appropriate social surroundings, and his/her physiological biotype (constitution) have a single basic functional meaning. Thus, the CosmoBiotypological principle lays the foundation for the universalisation of biomedical, social, and human knowledge. In other words, this principle makes available for a scientist to rationally unite a person's subjective knowledge with the objective knowledge about the person - to unite previously incompatible scientific and humanistic paradigms.
Significantly, in this functional triunity, the personal (subjective) perceptions of a man have their decisive significance. Hence, Cosmist theory leads to a 'person-driven' scientific medicine, which is aimed at the integration of subjective and objective knowledge – i.e. of a man's personal experience and psychological, biological, and sociological data about the person (patient). Thus the Cosmist approach aspires to give back to rational global medicine its primordial idea of personcentric treatment of a patient. The words of Hippocrates, father of medicine, were '...the majority of all diseases do not come from without (like injury or infection), but from within... ' (citing B.Aschner, 1941: p.261).
9.4. The principle of Universal Functional Reductionism.
In turn, the principle of CosmoBiotypology relies on the more basic principle of Universal Functional Reductionism – the cornerstone of the whole Cosmist theoretical edifice. This principle has the true functional essence and makes the way for a original – cosmist, functional, universal – approach to life-reductionism. It categorically runs counter to the common morphological (structural-functional) approach: of reducing living phenomena from biosphere – to populations, organisms, cells, organelles, genes, etc.; or from mankind – to societies, social bodies and man ultimately – a member of the society. On the contrary, Cosmist 'functional' reductionism means that every living subject (organism) on Earth has the health-design: its/his/her BCF – basic inherent and distinct (cosmist) functionality.
10. Person-driven Cosmist Evolutionism
Essentially, Cosmist life-reductionism relies on objective scientific knowledge but, at the same time, it is primarily person-driven, based on personal feelings and perceptions. Thus, the Cosmist approach fronts currently dominant morphocentrism, pathocentrism, sociocentrism and 'presentism' of modern bio-science, integrating, instead, distinct bio-scientific bases: cosmist wholism, cosmist functionalism and evolutionism, health-centrism, personcentrism and responsible personalism, etc. Consequently, the Cosmist approach displays a novel person-driven (subjective), functional form of bio-reductionism. At the same time, the Cosmist paradigm is fully compatible with mainstream structural-systemic bio-reductionism. Indeed, although a person's basic functionality, which is a core notion of the Cosmist paradigm, can be disclosed primarily through her/his subjective feelings and perceptions, it always has a biological equivalent, i.e. the person's cosmic functional biotype. The latter is the natural object of classical bio-reduction, i.e. it is the morphological-functional scientific mode of knowledge.
I contend that humans are not only creatures who are struggling to survive in the environment and whose ultimate end is adaptation (who is an environment-centred person, although this has the basic significance), but who is likewise a cosmos-centred person whose ultimate task is the achievement of the cosmist creative macro-level of life activity and realisation, therein, the person's intrinsic specific (functional) direct contribution to the wellbeing of the common whole Process. To fulfil this task, he or she is responsible to realise and carry out the personal unique healthy ontogenesis (the entire life process).
Therefore, I claim the recognition of the special role of modern man in the wellbeing of the common cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth (Process). My thesis is: The future wellbeing of the common Process - of the life on Earth - depends entirely on man's deliberate cosmist creative activity.
11. From the "Will to Believe" – to the Cosmist 'Will to the Future'
11.1. The 'paradox of personal creativity'.
As it is characterised above, the Cosmist theory establishes the two incompatible spheres of human being: of Adaptational and Cosmist being and functioning (of Adaptational and Cosmist creative activity). Herein, we have the phenomenon of 'personal dualism' and the 'paradox of personal creativity.' The latter means that every human, as Homo Sapiens cosmicus, needs constantly for individual health, during his or her entire ontogenesis, to disturb and transcend, on his/her own, the state of mature, highly stable state of adaptational stability and wellbeing (on the every given level of the individual's ontogenesis) for the sake of successful integration into the successively higher (emergent) levels of the ontogenesis - for the ultimate attainment of the personally high Cosmist Creative level of the individual's healthy ontogenesis and execution on this the person's (inherent, specific) functional contribution to the wellness of one common Process (CEPLE) - cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth.
11.2. Adaptational creative activity is just a tool for the ultimate execution of a person's Basic Functionality.
There is no doubt that the methods 7 and 8 (Integrative Thinking and One Page management System, which I consider to be bright examples of Adaptational creativity), are very valuable and compatible methods in achieving the person's wellbeing. However, from the Cosmist point of view, Adaptational creative activity is just a tool for a man to carry out his or her Basic Functionality through the entire ontogenesis.
Prof. Darryl Macer acutely disclosed the compatibility of Graham Douglas's SOARA Process with the Cosmist approach. His decision was to name the Method 7 as EXPLORATION OF SOARA WILLS AND WILL GUIDES AND INTERACTIVE THINKING: ADAPTATIONAL AND COSMIST CREATIVE ACTIVITY. Indeed, Douglas's "Will to Power – ability to do or act" apparently correlates with ACW principle of the Unity of Evolutionary Levels - of 'man's constant creative activity': at every period of man's postnatal life a person is involved both in the necessary micro-evolutionary processes of sustaining his or her developmental wellbeing on the current level of adaptation – from 'infant forms up to mature forms of stability'; and, at the same time, he or she is – for the sake of personal wellbeing and health – constantly active in the macro-process of his or her intrinsic satisfying (cosmist creative) agency to produce the effects and gain the results of this activity and to make them noticeable and available for the selectioners from the higher integrated level of the subject's future existence.
11.3. The compatibility of the SOARA Will Process with the Cosmist approach.
Likewise, Graham Douglas's "Will to Integration - order one's life in harmony with one's environment…" might be drawn to comparison with the tenth principle of the ontological system of Absolute Cosmist Wholism (ACW system) – the "Principle of the Subject's Wellbeing," that is "the subject's wellbeing directly depends on the extent of one's belongingness and integration into Process". The subject's wellbeing is the implementation of one's predetermined functional (cosmic) 'assignment'. It implies for a person: a) personal responsibility for the subjective discovery, re-realisation and implementation of man's Basic Functionality at every macro-level of ontogenesis, and b) achievement of the mature cosmist creative macro-level for a direct and specific (functional) contribution to the wellbeing of the one common Process (CEPLE) – cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth.
In this course, the other Wills of SOARA Process are comparable: "Will to Animalism" together with "Will to Excel", "Will to Exist" and "Will to Dependence" are in accord with the Cosmist ontological category of Adaptational (micro-evolutionary, responsive, actual, problem-based, constructive, developmental) creative activity. On the other hand, "Will to Love" and "Will to Sensualism" can be compared with the category of Cosmist creative (macro-evolutionary, inherent, transcending) activity. This creative activity expresses itself in the production of specific (functional) personal effects or results. The latter make possible a person's selection 'from Above' and integration into successively higher levels (absent in the present reality, of the emergent future) of man's entire ontogenesis.
11.4. The Cosmist 'Will to the Future'.
In addition to Graham Douglas's "Wills", and bearing in mind William James's "Will to Believe", I would like to add the Cosmist 'Will to Future' – of man's ability and functional predisposition to transcend the whole levels of individual life activity and, ultimately, to reach the personal creative level of direct contribution to Process's wellbeing and Process's further self-evolving and ascent in complexity.
12. The Three Original Bases and Core Characteristics of the Cosmist Approach
The axis of the proposed Cosmist paradigm is the assertion that Man (microcosm) is equal to Nature (Biosphere) and Society (Environment), and the whole Universe (macrocosm). In this, however, man has the decisive evolutionary significance, determining the future wholesome stages of the whole evolutionary process on Earth. Thus, Cosmist approach has ultimately a person-centred character, although it admits the environmentalism and the structural-systemic pattern of exploration of the objects of surrounding reality. In other words, Cosmist approach is a 'subject-subject' approach, but which acts precisely within the objectivity of the existing reality (operating with objective scientific data - the products of subject-object approach). The cornerstone of the Philosophical Cosmism is the assuming of the universality of the world (Cosmos) we are living in as its substance. Then, as a consequence, the inappropriate position of man in the cosmos is the reason of her or his unhealthiness and non-wellbeing.
Significantly, the Cosmist approach relates on the three original bases:
1. Ontological basis – the original philosophic cosmology; the ontology of Absolute Cosmist Wholism; Cosmist epistemology, anthropology, axiology.
2. Methodological basis – the Cosmist functional-systemic ('subject-subject') approach to life phenomena cognition.
3. Bioethical basis – the decisive significance of the object of individual's health for the integrative mental mapping, as well as the advancement of the conception of 'Universal Market'. The latter asserts that the universal execution by a man of his or her functional devotion – the constant wholesome realisation of a person's Basic Cosmist Functionality – will bring about the harmony in life processes on Earth.
The core characteristics of the Cosmist approach, versus common approaches, in brackets, include personcentrism and cosmos-centrism (vs sociocentrism and environmentalism), health-centrism (vs pathocentrism), creationism (vs adaptationism), philosophic cosmology – philosophy of Process, and Cosmist evolutionism (vs metaphysicism and presentism).
Noteworthy, these core characteristics are not the displays of the author's original mentality, but largely are the natural expression of Russian (but not Soviet!) culture and philosophy, brightly expressed, for instance, in the philosophies of Solovyov and Berdyaev.
13. Four Trends of Comprehending Human Ideas and Behaviours
What are the critical views, aroused to a Cosmist idea? First of all, there is a common position (having been expressed within the Method 6): mind and consciousness can never be explained by science as long as science is stuck in physicalistic or functionalist reductionism.
But the function of what we are talking about?
1) Function of a neurophysiological structure?
2) Function of a biological organism as a whole?
3) Function of a human being as a whole person?
4) Function of a social structure?
5) Function of Process? Cosmist theory advances the thesis that any living subject and, consequently, mind and consciousness (mental states) of a person are ultimately the function of Process – CEPLE, an objective phenomenon of reality.
Therefore, the Cosmist functional thinking is a paradigmatically distinctive functional thinking, which, in relation to IMMP, becomes possible primarily on the personal level and which offers the universal functional reductionism. The latter is clearly distinctive from the existing variants of "functional reductionism", which turned out to be ineffective by the reason of their ontological groundlessness (Kim, 1993).
In other words, the core point is what we are putting into the centre of human ideas consideration:
1. A situation (dilemma, problem)?
2. A person – member of the society?
3. A societal structure and milieu?
4. A person – the function of Process?
In the Cosmist light, we can follow, analogously, the following trends of the comprehending of human ideas and behaviours:
1. Realistic, from crude materialism and scientism – to existentialism and phenomenology;
2. Idealistic, including the personal ultimate aiming at the highest values: of love, beauty, goodness, etc., and harmonious interpersonal communication (as this can be supposed in the Method 4);
3. Pragmatic functional, which stresses on purpose, practicality, and utility of human relation to the world;
4. Evolutionistic functional (Cosmist), which treats every living subject on Earth as the whole evolutionary process and the function of Process. Significantly, the Cosmist theory introduces the vital categories of human being and functioning – of Adaptational and Creative (Cosmist) creative activity. Adaptational has the synonyms of micro-evolutionary, responsive, problem-based, constructive, developmental activity; while Creative - of cosmist, macro-evolutionary, inherent, transcending activity.
14. The Intermediate Conclusions of Cosmist Theorising
From the all above stated, we might arrive at reasonable conclusions:
The new systemic philosophy is needed to lay a foundation for a theory capable of reflecting the factual state of reality, which forms man and the world within the inseparable whole. The main point is that the standard Cartesian view of mind and body, man and world, has become too narrow for the successful development of bio-science and global culture in general. The new philosophic and methodological search should be, to my mind, personcentric, health-centric, and of wholistic subject-subject essence.
"Cosmist" is a crucial term in my theory, which reflects the subjective (personal, responsible) and universal (in relation to BCF - Basic Cosmist Functionality) integration of a person (any subject, as well) in the surrounding world, and stresses the subjective origin of the universality of our world.
A "person-driven" Cosmist approach is not merely a demonstration of the need for a particular approach, but is an original philosophy, theory and methodology based on an original wholistic cosmological foundation.
The clear distinction of the Cosmist theory is that, being naturally an a priori framework, all its assumptions elicit an a posteriori (empirical) propositions and are thus validated either by natural science or by the observation of the natural state of things. Hence, a) Cosmist theory's proposition is a cast in a form that permits empirical testing; b) the Cosmist conceptual approach stemming from its original philosophic foundation can be turned into a practicable methodology.
The integrative mental mapping, for comprehending and counting of human ideas, is possible exclusively in the area of considering a person's entire natural healthy ontogenetic life process. The latter naturally calls for a bioethics of individual's health. In this realm, the objects of pathology (disease), the current moral bioethical dilemmas, although of vital importance, acquire the secondary significance.
15. Comparison of the Cosmist Approach with Abraham Maslow's Theory of Needs
To express more lucidly the Cosmist views, the analogy with Abraham Maslow’s theory of needs can be drawn. Maslow is best known for his self-actualisation theory of psychology, which argued that the primary goal of psychotherapy should be the integration of the self. Principally, his objects of research included precisely the healthy and wholesome persons, in contradistinction to the objects of pathological deviation of a personality, usual for psychological examinations. Maslow argued that each person has a hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied, ranging from basic physiological requirements to love, esteem, and, finally, self-actualisation.
Here is represented Abraham Maslow's pyramid of the "hierarchy of needs" (Figure 3). People, Dr Maslow found, strive to fulfil progressively higher levels of need, from nourishment, safety, love and esteem to "self-actualisation." This is a very valuable thought. From the Cosmist point of view, since the evolutionary appearance of Homo Sapiens, it is precisely the driving force of the entire evolutionary process of the life on Earth.
Scheme 1: Abraham Maslow's pyramid of the "hierarchy of needs".
[pic]
Due to Maslow's theory, the needs that are below in the hierarchy must be at least partially satisfied before those which are higher can become important sources of motivation (Maslow, 1969). As each need is satisfied, the next higher level in the emotional hierarchy dominates conscious functioning; thus, people who lack food or shelter or who cannot feel themselves to be in a safe environment are unable to express higher needs. Maslow believed that truly healthy people satisfied even the highest psychological needs and were self-actualizers, fully integrating the components of their personality, or self.
15.1. The chief role of a person's Basic Cosmist Functionality.
In Cosmist light, the needs (and the ideas and behavioural patterns they produce) of biological and social essence are shaped by the ultimate cosmist need (man's Basic Functionality). However, they have, in principle, functionally the uniform manifestations. Likewise the Cosmist Basic Functionalities are universal, comprehensible and countable. For example, there are around 200 main functional types of cells in a human organism. Naturally, man's functional self-actualisation (the realisation of his or her Basic Functionality) is shaped by the surrounding societal and cultural conditions. Thus, a person with faculty for mental analytical activity (as his Basic Functionality) can become an outstanding computer programmer in Japan, philosopher in Sweden, engineer in Germany, business man in America, colonel of artillery somewhere else, etc.
As a corollary, the hierarchical pyramid of needs (taken as a metaphor), always guided by the Basic Functionality of a person, has the immanent evolving character, continuously conducting the response to and satisfaction of the demands of the already emerged needs, and continuously realising and building on the levels of satisfaction (by generating the ideas, behavioural acts and eventually obtaining the needed effects and results) of newly emerging higher needs. Substantially, this evolutionary continuous growth of the 'hierarchical pyramid of needs' has individually specific direction – route (vector) of wholesome ontogenesis of the person, which relates to the optimal execution of his or her Basic Functionality.
Scheme 2: Ontogenetic hierarchy of a person's basic needs – from a Cosmist standpoint.
In outcome, on the Cosmist basis, the complete 'hierarchical pyramid of needs' acts as a whole entity during the entire life of a person. The self-actualisation by a human being, in Cosmist terms – the execution by man of his/her Basic Functionality, acts since the origin of zygote throughout continuous lifetime and directs all the other needs: biological and social. It is a crucial point in Cosmist theorising – man's consciousness (awareness, thought, sensation, emotion, volition, etc.) and behaviour (behavioural acts) are just the instruments in ultimate execution of one's Basic Functionality – his or her functional self-actualisation.
Hence, from the Cosmist standpoint, 'hierarchical pyramid of needs' acts and evolves throughout the entire lifetime of a human being, successively realising, in accordance to the main stages of world biological evolution and social history, the levels of needs and the derivative ideas and behavioural acts, integrating them all and forming life experience - of all in serving the eventual achievement of the functional self-actualisation and ultimate personal creative contribution to the wellness of Process.
16. The motto of individual's wellness (health): 'To Survive, in order to Transcend'
It is, likewise, a crucial point that man's ideas and behaviours manifest themselves, simultaneously, in two incompatible realms – Adaptational and Cosmist Creative activity. Since the origin of zygote, man ought to adjust and develop up to the high level of stability within the influences and requirements of the given environment – of all, to transcend this level by the selection from Above (from the emergent future) and functional inclusion into a new integrated higher living subject ('organism'). The formula of individual's wellness (health) is: 'To Survive, in order to Transcend'. Comprehending the ideas and behavioural acts of a human being, we are to reflect them as much within the actual micro-evolutionary (adaptational) personal process(es), as in relation to the person's macro-evolutionary (cosmist) ontogenetic process.
17. The equality of personal times of the past, present, and emergent future.
The third crucial point is, in the Cosmist frame, that a person's ideas exist as much in the past and present, as in the time of emergent future. In the latter case, they emerge in the form of virtual constructs and conceptions (ideas, thoughts, values, volitions, images, intentions, plans, constructs, figures, mental pictures, notions, perceptions, etc.), which has the transcendental origin. Herein, Cosmist epistemological conclusion is the following: All knowledge about man has its origin in two sources: a) in objective (subject-object) exploration of man as the biological organism and psychosocial agent; b) in subject-subject comprehension of the person's subjective realisation of his/her individual experience – equally both of the present and past experience and of the cosmist experience of his/her safe and satisfactory emergent future, which emerges from human ability to create the transcendental knowledge and values of the person's inherent functional integration into the emergent future levels of his/her healthy ontogenesis.
18. Conclusion
The following corollaries complete the Cosmist theorising:
human consciousness phenomena, including ideas and behaviour, are merely instruments in realising man's continuous wellness: biological, social, and cosmist (personal);
the actuating forces (needs, drives, motivations, etc.) emerge 'from within', but not 'from without', determining the functional type of ideas and behavioural acts, both in Adaptational and Creative sphere's of human activities;
in this, human's Adaptational creative activity refers mainly to the science-driven truths and society-established moral values; while Cosmist creative activity is based strictly on the inherent consciousness phenomena – ideas, sensations, emotions, volitions, which are realised, primarily, in virtual constructs and conceptions of a person’s active relation to the world;
to comprehend, describe and count the ideas, we need, primarily, to understand the functional needs of the wholesome ontogenesis of a person; primary, his or her Basic Cosmist Functionality;
from this follows, that the only area of universal comprehension of human ideas and behaviour is the personalist level – with the priority of person-driven knowledge, as well as application of Functional-systemic approach to the cognition of human ideas;
hence, the object of individual's health (wellness) appears to be the most appropriate one, and the figure of a Cosmist philosopher-personalist emerges to be the central one in realising the Behaviourome project;
naturally, the accurate and valid location of the person's position in the scale of his/her desirable and energy-giving ontogenetic route (and the appraisal of the extent of importance of adaptational or creative goals) is within the ability exclusively of a body of scientists, necessarily engaging physiologists, psychologists, sociologists, physicians, etc. – in addition to a Cosmist philosopher-personalist;
we need to create a realm of the bioethics of individual's health - to reach the goals of Behaviourome project.
19. The core thesis and the appeal to participants.
My core thesis: Every human being (every living subject) has its/her/his own Basic (Cosmist) Functionality, the realisation of which is the essence of a man's entire satisfactory, safe, healthy and wholesome life (ontogenesis on the whole). Thus, the Cosmist approach advances the distinct and definitive (functional) comprehension of human ideas and behavioural acts - as, ultimately, the instruments of personal realising and individual contribution to the one whole cosmic evolutionary process of the life on Earth (Process). This is, crudely speaking, pragmatism which is turned into the emergent future.
Finally, I would like to appeal to the participants of the Behaviourome project and to make a proposition: insofar we are transcending here the stage of presenting the different theoretical frameworks and methodologies for the achievement of the aims of integrative mental mapping project, the next stage, reasonably, might be the elaboration of practical methods and their exposition in the TRT 10.
20. Acknowledgements
I must express my sincerest thanks to Professor Darryl R. J. Macer, who is the originator of the Behaviourome project and whose delicate accompaniment of my endeavours was of immense help for me.
21. References
Aschner, B. (1941) "Neo-Hippocratism in Everyday Practice", Bulletin for the History of Medicine 10: 260-271.
Khroutski, K.S.: (2000) "Individual Health: New Definition and Ontological Background", Medical Ethics & Bioethics (Bratislava) 7 (1-2): 14-17.
Khroutski, K.S.: (2001) "Introducing Philosophical Cosmology", World Futures 57(3): 201-212.
Khroutski, K.S. (2002) "'Forwards to Hippocrates': Introducing Doctor of Tomorrow – Physician, Psychologist, Philosopher", Global Bioethics 15(1-2): 13-28.
Khroutski, K.S.: (2002) "Towards the Bioethics of Individual's Health: Introduction of the Cosmist Philosophical Fundamentals", Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 12(1): 2-9.
Khroutski, K.S.: (2002) "Epistemology of civilised man's diseases", E-Logos ()
Khroutski, K.S. & Peicius, E. (2003) "Introducing the Emergence-Discourse Method to Philosophy of Medicine and Bioethics: In Search for Rational Comprehension of Individual Health", Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13(1): 15-20. (E-access: )
Khroutski, K.S. (2003) "Integrative Mental Mapping Project Under the 'EDM' Processing: The Thesis", Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13(3): 93-98. (E-access: )
Khroutski, K.S.: (2003) "Bringing Forward the Philosophy of Universal Science: A Cosmist Concept", E-Logos ()
Khroutski, K.S. (2003) "The Cosmist Future of Personalism", Appraisal 4(4): 183-193.
Khroutski, K.S.: (2004) "Universal Anthropology: A Cosmist Approach", Anthropology & Philosophy (in print).
Khroutski, K.S.: (2004) "The Universalist Future of Contemporary Bio-Science", World Futures (in print).
Kim, J.: (1993) Supervenience and Mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lossky, N.O. (1951) History of Russian Philosophy. New York: International. Universities Press, Inc.
Maslow A.H. (1969) Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Macer, D.R.J. (1998) Bioethics is Love of Life: An Alternative Textbook / Darryl R. J. Macer. Christchurch, N.Z.: Eubios Ethics Institute.
Macer, D.R.J. (2002) "Finite or Infinite Mind?: A Proposal for an Integrative Mental Mapping Project", Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 12: 203-6.
Macer, D.R.J. (2003) "The purposes of Bioethics Education: Lessons from Japan and Asia", pp. 241-250 in Song Sang-yong, Koo Young-Mo & Macer DRJ., eds., Asian Bioethics in the 21st Century (Eubios Ethics Institute 2003).
Putnam, H. (1988) Representation and Reality. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
Discussion
Macer: We have some time for comments on mental mapping and the paper of Konstantin Khroutski. First I would like to ask Terry Lyons to make some comments about mental mapping.
Lyons: I’m Terry Lyons and I work for the United States Air Force Scientific Research. We are a basic research funding agency. The Air Force Scientific Research has a small office in London and a small office in Tokyo. We operate world wide and I’m the director of the small office in Tokyo. We actually fund research in universities around the world. We have a conference support program. We support visitors to give seminars in our lab. And we support visiting professors. Not specifically medical, it covers a broad range of subjects. Actually, most of our work in Asia is on material science and electronics. Recently, we started some projects in Japan on artificial intelligence; specifically we have been working with the Japanese Robo Rescue. Basically, we work on the problem of how robots would rescue people in a disaster scenario; for example, after an earthquake. This involves sensing, for example how robots with the use of sensors can determine the local situation where there is no human presence. That’s to give you a picture of what’s going on. We have invested on a few projects in Japan in this area. The connection to this to Darryl’s mapping of the human mind I think is because the artificial intelligence community does a whole area of research called knowledge process. And they call this ontology, but it is different from what philosophers’ ontology. This is really about teaching robots. So, if you think about artificial intelligence, robots can now play chess against humans and can beat humans against chess. If you ask the robot, do you want to play chess tomorrow, the robot doesn’t understand want, tomorrow. The robot has no basis in understanding that question. So we have robots that can make medical diagnosis and play chess, but they can’t understand human speech. They don’t have the knowledge of speech that humans have. So robots don’t understand basic definitions such as want, talk and eat. CYC is the psych database in the United States, it’s a very large project. I can show this to people who are interested. It’s really a huge database with millions of assertions at this point, which really tries to build a road for artificial intelligence, for teaching machines how humans understand. For example, it starts with a thing, and a pattern of things, teaching a machine basic concepts---what’s an animal, what do animals eat, for the machine to understand the basis about the world. This is a huge project, and in a way, I thought this was related to Darryl’s mapping of the human mind because it’s another way of mapping the human mind, although it doesn’t emphasize the ethical, but I suppose eventually it will include the ethical, concepts such as right and wrong. Human beings use these in speech. So, in the computer artificial intelligence community in the United States and in Japan, there’s a large of investment in ontology and knowledge process basically for application for artificial intelligence. So a little different kind of application from your application, but I think very similar kind of idea.
Macer: Thank you very much for explaining. The question I will ask to Konstantin is your idea of artificial intelligence from a cosmological point of view.
Khroutski: The cosmological point of view is just one way of approaching artificial intelligence.
Song: You have coined many new terms, which are confusing to me. Two questions. What’s cosmism and cosmist? And what’s the difference between holism and wholism?
Khroutski: Thank you very much. Cosmist means novel, personalistic approach. This is an attempt to move human personalism as proposed by Roger into the scientific value. The second question, as I explained in the slides, it has a regional evolutionistic current. Traditional wholism deals with the present time and the past time. Cosmist functionalism means the meaning of a man’s life. And this is possible at the mature stages of his life. His studentship is unpredictable at this time. This is the category of emergent future.
The Evolution of Thinking and Ideas With Special Reference
to the Politics of Reproduction
- Irina Pollard, Ph.D..
Dept Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
Email ipollard@rna.bio.mq.edu.au
Introductory
The conundrum twelve months ago was whether human ideas are finite and so recordable, or infinite and so recordable only up to a point (Macer, 2002a & b). Since then, the project has evolved rapidly and generated a diversity of useful ideas giving substance to the belief that just as biological diversity provides environmental stability so diversity of ideas provides social/cultural strength. Since the thinking process; that is, the generation of ideas, their analysis, evolution and recording in memory, is dependant on and maintained by brain power, human mental activity is essentially driven by a level of organization fixed in biology. It is my belief, therefore, that all ideas reflect or mirror Nature’s basic design principles, which accounts for why I’m most drawn to the ‘Evolution of Thinking and Ideas’ avenue of inquiry for furthering the development of the behaviorome project (Method 5 Macer, 2003). Nature’s fundamental design principles are based on cooperation, biological feedback, adaptation to changing conditions and promoting ecological diversity (Pollard, 2003b). The fundamental evolutionary characteristics of Homo sapiens are inspired intelligence and communal cooperative lifestyle that promotes the growth of creativity, artistic expression, ethical consciousness and technological supremacy. Given that the present research has evolved from the viewpoint of the biologist, it’s assumed that human ideas are infinite (conveniently defined as incalculably large and so unquantifiable) provided that the calculation is the sum of all human ideas over the whole span of human evolution.
This paper expands on my previous comeback to Darryl Macer’s challenging ‘behaviorome’ or mental mapping project. The project posits the question whether: a) human ideas are finite and so recordable, or b) infinite and so recordable up to the present moment in human history. My then reaction was twofold: a) that human ‘ideas’ are an integral part of somatic evolution which, over time, forge new and unpredictable levels of thoughts ad infinitum and b) that consensus would be reached that we cannot reach consensus but that great value is to be gained by the project’s journey (Pollard, 2003a). If human ideas or memes are an evolving phenomenon, then the ‘finite ideas’ argument may be too naïve, not least because new ideas may spontaneously arise and not be traceable to preexisting concepts. Nature has created complex variety on all scales of size from the living cell to the living universe but is there more to be revealed and will these defy counting? If, on the other hand, all ideas are already predetermined, then the complexity of the mind may flow from a unity implicit in the unity traceable to Nature’s essential particles. In this second scenario, ideas - being based on the lowest level of description - are finite because all the added complexity serves as embellishment. In any event, the behaviorome’s mind-stimulating abilities can well be utilized as a catalyst for adaptive social evolution generating new ideas, which may not otherwise have emerged or emerged at some other era. Whether our mind is finite or infinite seems trivial relative to what can be gained in terms of increased understanding and cooperation. This paper proposes that human ideas and evolution of life are analogous - reflecting infinite creative possibilities. Descriptive examples are taken from the expanding field of Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART).
Historical Perspective
Recent experiments have forced scientists to rethink the workings of the human brain and its ability to be rewired in the regulation of common activities such as thoughts and emotions. At this point it may be thought-provoking to reflect on the interpretation of the human mind as theorized by the ancient Greeks, in particular Plato and Aristotle. Plato and other scholars at the time believed that the action of the mind proceeds through a series of operations from sensation to memory. Essentially, information coming from the environment via the senses was passed to the front of the brain where the first paired ventricles - sensus communis - were situated for sensory analysis. The sensus communis communicated in the forebrain with the middle ventricle - ratio, cognatio and aestimatio - where reason, thought and judgment were processed. Finally, a narrow canal to the brainstem connected the middle ventricle with the last ventricle – memoria - where significant memories were stored (described in Blakemore, 1977). Taking the paucity of biological information at the time into account, the classical three-cell model presented a reasoned account of the brain in action from which, with the help of yet to emerge science and technology, more accurate working models could evolve.
Progress, however, was held back in the Middle Ages when the classical working model of the mind became unquestionable dogma. The Medieval Church perpetuated and reconstructed these ideas, which grew in complexity not by scientific observation but by the re-interpretation of old ideas. In brief, it was believed that nutrients absorbed from the intestines passed to the liver where a fluid called natural spirit was formed. This natural spirit flowed to the heart where it became vital spirit which pulsed, through a network of blood vessels, to the base of the brain. Here the natural spirit mixed with air inspired through the nose and flowed into the porous base of the skull. The final product became animal spirit (from the Latin ‘anima’ meaning soul or soul of life) which was stored in the system of fluid-filled cells running through the entire brain (Blakemore, 1977). Thus the basis of the classic three-cell model of the brain allowed the medievalists to retain, to some extent, one of Plato’s central ideas but, unfortunately, dogma and social intolerance prevented the evolution of new and more accurate ideas which could promote deeper understanding of brain function and malfunction.
Freewheeling curiosity is adaptive because it increases neurological connections creating new pathways in the brain which increase intelligence, learning capacity and creativity; however, it is also possible to abuse ideas through false information and mindless, fixed attitudes. Past experience may well act as a warning against maintaining that any contemporary knowledge-base represents the limits of understanding. In our hunter-gatherer past it was no doubt impossible to believe, let alone predict, that humans could one day have the idea of living in a technological environment as experienced today. As knowledge and understanding progresses so will ideas, and as technology progresses so will the complexity of the ethical controversies. As our ethical fabric continues to diversify, the ability to think freely should be accompanied by the obligation to think responsibly, compassionately and globally.
We are well equipped to think responsibly, compassionately and globally because the evolution of human brain power is unrivaled. The fossil record shows that human brain size has more than doubled in the past 2 million years to a volume of some 1,500 cubic centimeters. This steady growth in brain size made possible a steady growth in intelligence, and an increasing mastery of the world. But size isn’t everything. What also matters is how the brain is structured, with the human brain’s uniqueness lying in its flexibility. Flexible intelligence is demonstrated by the ability to solve problems in surprisingly diverse and unexpected ways, which can then be shared with the rest of the clan. It is believed that the analytical, conscious mind was born out of intellectual flexibility helped along by an innate life-long love for learning, exploring and playing. An early hallmark of human evolution was the capacity to reason, to reflect on actions and to engage in sophisticated discourse. The evolution of self-consciousness presaged consciousness of other, and the development of ethics seen as the rules of adaptive conduct (Pollard, 2002). In biological terms human uniqueness resides primarily in our brains with its products being co-operation in family and tribal units, long education, self-consciousness, sophisticated language and culture.
In essence, an idea is a thought, plan or notion formed in the mind where the mind categorizes ideas into concepts classified as, for example, physical objects, color, movement, time, emotion and so on. Characteristically, the mind generates ideas based on many co-evolving factors including experience, memory, education, culture, perception, imagination, inspiration, genetics, gender, mood and degree of wellness. It is true to say that at this time in our evolution we are only beginning to grasp some of the intricacies of brain function, so it may be an opportune time to also remind ourselves that ‘memory’ is not all in the mind but also refers to wider evolving entities such as cellular imprinting, DNA and the immune system. For instance, the phenomenon of genomic or parental imprinting suggests that the soma, or body, influences developing germ (egg/sperm) cells during gametogenesis by marking or imprinting them selectively. At fertilization, this imprinting influences the direction of the conceptus’s growth and development; that is, environmental influences produce lasting inheritable changes in the ways DNA works.
Essentially, the biodiversity of ideas is integrated into various levels or hierarchies of organization embedded in the organic. These are the genetic or molecular, the biological or organizational and the habitat or ecological levels of order and complexity. Further diversification of ideas is reflected at the social level as incorporated in the diversity of cultures, languages, interpretations of beliefs, ethics, aesthetics, political and legal systems (Figure 1).
[pic]
Figure 1. Memes and genes as the co-evolving units driving the evolution of new and progressively more complex ideas
On the Evolving Complexity of Ideas: A perspective from Recombinant DNA Technology and Assisted Reproductive Technology
Recent developments in genetic engineering and assisted reproductive technology have brought an unprecedented increase in our power over living things. Especially with the complete sequencing of the human genome, a diversity of new ideas is quickly evolving. Gene mapping together with recombinant excising and splicing techniques are applied for the production of new kinds of plants, animals, drugs and for the treatment of human genetic diseases. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are genetically novel creatures as they carry integrated foreign genes, which are expressed and inherited by subsequent generations and are subject to evolutionary imperatives. For example, Bt corn, first developed by Ciba Seeds (now Norvartis Seeds) and Mycogen Seeds in 1996, has a foreign gene inserted into its DNA that allows it to produce a protein from the Bacillus thuringiensis bacterium (hence the Bt designation) toxic to insect pests; that is, the plant produces its own pesticide, and it hands down this characteristic to its offspring.
Formerly it was acknowledged that reproductive health is predetermined by genetic endowment and by environment but it could be improved or undermined by individual behavior, advanced by better socioeconomic conditions and helped by medical knowledge and services. Now, since the second half of the 20th century, it’s also acknowledged that technological developments have given humankind real control over genetic material, fertility and access to ‘designer children’. It has already been suggested that we will be able to sidestep the problem of consent in genetic engineering through the use of artificial chromosomes, which can be added to a child’s normal genetic inheritance but switched on only after the child is old enough to be able to give his or her consent (Stock & Campbell 2000).
Presently the hottest three biotechnology developments are: a) greater knowledge about genetic causation, b) neuropharmacology, and c) the prolongation of life. As these new techniques will give societies control over their citizens, they will have significant and serious political consequences. It’s important to emphasize that these new developments will strongly challenge erstwhile held ideas about human freedom, notions of human nature, and the capacity to make ethical choices. In connection with the patenting of genetic material and genetically modified organisms, it may be of interest to note that the Geron Corporation has already cloned and patented the human gene for telomerase and, along with Advanced Cell Technology, has an active research program into embryonic stem cells. Telomerase is an enzyme involved in cellular replication and cell aging.
Modern developments in assisted conception and contraception have reinforced the reality that reproduction is largely a matter of choice. We can now decide whether or not we wish to have children and, if so, under what circumstances. To beat infertility, increasing numbers of couples are seeking medical treatments and as familiarity with Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) broadens, so does its acceptance, generating further demands for medical intervention accelerating the development of new ideas. However, we should not lose track of the precautionary approach when contemplating assisted reproduction, especially as concerns the more recent developments which can be viewed as experimental until such time as long-term outcomes are known and properly informed risk assessments can be made. Nevertheless, science has turned the natural biological clock – it can be rewound, fast-forwarded, paused, even stopped. Easy accessibility to ART has extended a woman’s childbearing years or, through the development of donor technology, progeny can be created without the involvement of either biological parent. It’s not even necessary to be living as developments have demonstrated that sperm from the bodies of recently deceased men can be extracted and stored for future insemination (Shah, 1996). Now that age and not being alive are no bar in reconstituting families, new ideas are surfacing constantly about the ethics of what we should allow technology do - and not to do. It’s fair to note that ART has politically challenged many deep-seated ideas by defying hereto unchanging social mores and customs. Issues of family, patriarchy (inheritance through a male child) and ‘child commodities’ such as the replacement of a deceased child are now realistic subjects for consideration.
The following may provide a practical analysis of real situations to illustrate how quickly new technologies become commonly acceptable if they reinforce long-held social belief or political custom. Living examples are taken from the article published by Ramesh Vinayak (2004). ART generated great excitement in India in 1986, when the first IVF baby was born in Mumbai. In the Punjab it was the ‘Donor Ova’ technology which drove popularity by increasing the demand for assisted reproduction tenfold since 2000 (from 30 IVF cycles in 2000 to over 400 cycles in 2003 and a 6 month waiting list). Responding to the increasing demand, fertility centers in India are now offering innovative ova-sharing programs. The program targets underprivileged young IVF-treatment seekers who cannot afford treatment but can produce healthy eggs which they can donate to wealthy women, who pay for their treatment. ART has also become a windfall in war-torn Kashmir where there is a high demand for donor ova-IVF because of a high prevalence of premature ovarian failure. The demand for technology-assisted late motherhood is also high in urban India, but the pattern is different as the majority of city-dwellers who seek ART are career women, who had postponed pregnancy till their career was established. There is also a high demand by couples who want to have children with their second or third spouse (Vinayak, 2004). The common denominator among the late parenthood seekers, particularly in the Punjab, is a desire for a male child. In response, fertility clinics do good business because they discreetly promise, and deliver, male children. Some of the couples under treatment have never had children or had only daughters, while others lost an adult male child in an accident or war and now want to resurrect a truncated family. For these middle-aged women, conceiving again with ART is the only way to overcome their trauma of the loss of their family’s breadwinner, opening up political and ethical questions relating to preimplantation or prenatal sex selection and gender-specific pregnancy termination. Most of the women are housewives from the neo-rich peasant class, who realize they can afford technologically-blessed sons. More than 40% of the couples seeking technological help to conceive in the Punjab are in the 40 to 65 age group (Vinayak 2004).
So it can be seen that modern ART technology challenges while at the same time also maintains parenthood within the standard politico-social family paradigm. Independently, debates flourish between the rights of children versus the rights of parents with the major ethico-medical issue highlighting late pregnancy health risks to the mother and her child. It’s well established that assisted reproduction in women over 40 years of age is poor compared with younger women (Dew et al, 1998). Placing to one side the increased incidence of delivering babies with congenital defects and other anomalies, late pregnancy also increases the risk of spontaneous miscarriage and may bring on latent diabetes, lead to hypertension and excessive bleeding at the time of delivery. At the time of publication, there was no law for ART in India but a policy had been drafted that declares 45 years as the cut-off age for seeking ART.
Concluding Remarks
New drugs are invented, tested, and approved for use all the time without the manufacturers knowing exactly how they produce their effects. It’s often the case in pharmacology that side effects go unrecognized, sometimes for years, or that a drug will interact with other drugs or conditions in ways that were totally unanticipated when it was first introduced. And so it is with technologies which, as they are applied, lead to the development of new ideas. As we’ve discussed assisted reproduction, which relies heavily on synthetic drugs and technology, a good example to illustrate my point is the thalidomide story. Thalidomide was originally thought to be a harmless tranquillizer that one couldn't over-dose on. It was later discovered to be harmful as it produced deformed fetuses if taken during early pregnancy, so was taken out of production later. If it were not for one chance doctor who used it to alleviate specific pain, we would never have known that thalidomide can, by constricting blood-flow to the particular area, cure ulcerations and lesions as found in leprosy sufferers. Thus this chance observation stimulated scientists to further think how thalidomide may be used in the treatment of cancer, which is presently being trialed. And so, chance occurrences spark hundreds of new ideas across the world.
When it comes to the commitment to transform society, it will not come through some fixed ideology but through general education with a scientific basis – and this is where bioscience ethics can assist. By linking scientific endeavor and its application into adaptive forms of bioethical consensus, bioscience ethics has become the practical interface between science and bioethics (Pollard, 2002). Its major elements are increased understanding of biological systems, responsible use of technology, and reassessment of ethnocentric debate in tune with new scientific insights. Bioscience ethics does not displace bioethics; rather it wishes to democratize major scientific advances to promote the development of informed secular ethics free from political or out-of-date constraints (Pollard, 2002). Bioscience and bioethics involves not only respecting rights and responsibilities, but also includes abstract qualities such as truth, gratitude, guilt, love, communication, disagreement and understanding by consensus – an effective mechanism of dealing with ethical pluralism by rational persuasion. Fundamental to this process, if the bioethical discussion is to be relevant to our knowledge-based lives, is the expectation of high biological standards – the ‘Evolution of Thinking and Ideas’ avenue of inquiry. It now seems that we’ve come full circle meeting behaviorome’s quest to document the diversity of human ideas. The increasing flood of new information produced by modern science and technology changes prevailing ethico-social mores that, in turn, power new ideas as to how best manage changing conditions – it’s hoped that the diversity of ideas challenges the behaviorome project to positively assist in extracting the best social policy outcomes.
References
Blakemore, C. Mechanics of the Mind. Cambridge UK, Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Dew, J., Don, R., Hughes, G., Johnson, T. & Steigrad, S. (1998). The Influence of Advanced Age on the Outcome of Assisted Reproduction. Journal of Assisted Reproduction & Genetics 15:210-214.
Macer, D. (2003). The Behaviorome / Mental Map Project: Second Stage. Eubios Journal of Asian & International Bioethics 13:38-39.
Macer, D. (2002a). Finite or Infinite Mind?: A Proposal for an Integrative Mental Mapping Project. Eubios Journal of Asian & International Bioethics 12:203-206.
Macer, D. (2002b). The Next Challenge is to Map the Human Mind. Nature 420:121.
Pollard, I (2003a). Bioethics and Human Mental Mapping: Are Ideas Finite or Infinite. Eubios Journal of Asian & International Bioethics 13:135-136.
Pollard, I (2003b).Choose between cooperation and annihilation: A mental mapping project towards a more generously directed altruism. Eubios Journal of Asian & International Bioethics 13:44-48.
Pollard, I. (2002). Life, Love & Children: A Practical Introduction to Bioscience Ethics and Bioethics. Boston, Kluwer Academic.
Shah S. (1996). Modern Reproductive Technologies: Legal Issues Concerning Cryopreservation and Posthumous Conception. The Journal of Legal Medicine 17:547-571.
Stock, G. & Campbell, J. editors. (2000). Engineering the Human Germline. New York, Oxford University Press, page 11.
Vinayak, R. (2004). Grand Old Parents: Late Motherhood. India Today December 22;58-60.
Discussion
Sivakami: Just a week back there was news in India about an old woman who has reached menopausal stage, who conceived on behalf of her daughter. This has created a lot of complications in relationships in the family, for example, whether to call the offspring her daughter or granddaughter. So there is a need for a new framework of rules, regulations to address complex ethical issues brought about by assisted reproductive technologies. I just wanted to bring this to your attention.
Pollard: Thank you, Aruna. I’m aware of this. And the next paper will about legal controls on the assisted reproductive technologies. So that is a nice introduction for your paper. In fact, one of my students came to me and said that I was born without a uterus. What do I do? So I said that it’s perfectly her choice, but that she should see what’s available. In the end, it was her mother who surrogated for her, with her eggs and her husband’s sperm, giving birth to a love child. And that is a positive example of assisted reproductive technology where there was informed choice, put the child first and not to have a child because you need to do something.
Sivakami: I would just like to clarify something. In alternative media in India, healers treat males and females for infertility but the process is painful. But they are able to come up with good results such as increased sperm count with least effect. The pharmaceutical industry is pushing the use of gonadotropin instead of allopathy. So now, the allopathic doctors are prescribing gonadotropin instead of traditional remedies, this increases the eggs but it might result in the burning of follicles, what is your comment on this?
Pollard: I’m a firm believer of knowing something before you reproduce, to know about reproductive function, lifestyle factor is very important. It’s a shame that 30% of people who come for ART in Australia have a history of drug exposure. This is why I think the education project is very important. If we can bring these ideas to the schools before, then this may lead to more responsible reproductive function, instead of just reproducing.
Sivakami: But do you think that alternative medicine can produce more babies?
Pollard: Well, I think that its possible that there are many natural drugs that have the same similar effect as fertility drugs, which indirectly increases gonadotropin release which is very much the same thing as giving them tropin by the biomedical profession.
One of the advantages of ART , it that the doctors have control of the reproductive system. In alternative medicine, the controls are not strong because you use a drug which is a mixture of drugs, there are other substances in it with different strengths. So if I have the choice, if I were infertile, I would go to the clinic to know exactly what I’m getting. I would be a really nuisance patient, but then that would be my choice. Again, informed choice…
Leavitt: Aruna, I think your point is very important. In Israel, there was a woman, a Yemenite Jew, who had tremendous success in helping women who had problems with their periods and also women who had problems with getting pregnant. She’s now dead, but she passed on her knowledge to her daughter. Personally, I think if something can be done with massage, oil, natural herbs, I don’t see why we need all this high-tech. I also wanted to ask you a question Irina, I’m sort of an amateur on the subject of reproductive technology. I’ve seen a few reports of health problems, comparing the health of in vitro babies with those who were conceived naturally. I wonder if you can fill us in on the effects of in vitro fertilization on babies?
Pollard: I agree with you. I think first of all you should start with the lower medicine, massage, oils, herbs which are not toxic. And lifestyle changes like exercise, weight control, nutritional deficiencies that cause infertility.And obviously, that’s the first step. But if there is really something organically wrong, if they are really infertile; Aruna mentioned, there is a boost to the pituitary access with increasing gonadotropin perhaps to force an ovulation. I don’t know enough about the strong drugs used in alternative medicine. I am more well versed with the clinical perspective. I think we shouldn’t just go passively, but be more involved as well. And don’t forget about the placebo effect. It could be as high as 50 % but at least 30%. So if somebody believes in the cure, and there is a psychological factor to infertility, then the placebo effect is high. In the assisted reproductive technologies, there have been recently a few disturbing publications.
Leavitt: High technologies related to western medicine?
Pollard: I’m sorry that’s a comment not related to the alternative medicine, comment of validity, if you believe in something, no matter what, something you take, something you do, ritual, it has a placebo effect. The literature has come out recently with side effects, increased genetic anomalies in some assisted babies, but that depends on the type of technology. The original IVF technique used in the case of Louis Brown, that technology does not seem to have an adverse effect. In vitro fertilization seems to be reasonably safe in the human. Other technologies, where there is an organic problem,for example in ICSI, all you need is one sperm. And that sperm doesn’t need to be even alive, you can just take the genetic material, inject it into an egg, and if that makes an embryo then the man can have a take home baby. Those technologies are a worry. And the discussion there is not so much the technology, but it is the infertile population. There is no way to tell if you force a really infertile man or infertile woman to have baby whether nature has made that infertile for really basic reasons or whether it is the assisted reproductive technology which is causing the damage. It’s probably a combination of the two. So one has got to be really informed and conscious about which reproductive technologies to use and which ones not to use.
Leavitt: Are there any longitudinal studies on this?
Pollard: Well, all this population , they’re really experimental animals , aren’t they.
The technology is being used for the first time. And the lifetime of the person is long, we can look at the embryonic fetal period, infancy, adult. Louis Brown was born in 1979, but she’s still a young woman, she hasn’t gotten into menopause. We do not know what the effects are for the other technologies, whether it has effects on puberty, fertility, menopause or aging. One thing that I must say is that we should be grateful for this population that has gone through IVF, from the point of view that they have taught us a lot about reproduction that we didn’t know before. And even now, that technology we are giving back to endangered species. Humans are the guinea pigs, and that’s now modified to help endangered species, species which we have pushed towards extinction. That’s an inverse way of doing it, where before the animals were used as experiment animals and we used the findings from them. So that might be interesting too.
A Method to increase Students’ Cognitive Potentialities using the Elementary Pragmatic Model
- De Giacomo P.*, Mich L.°, Storelli M.*, De Nigris S.*, De Giacomo A.*,Tarquinio C.*, Masellis R.*.
* Department of Neurological and Psychiatric Sciences, University of Bari, 70100 Bari, Italy
° Department of Information and Telecommunication Technologies, University of Trento, 38050 Povo – TN, Italy
1. Introduction
In this paper we present an innovative way to increase students’ cognitive potentialities. The underlying assumption is that in pursuit of this goal it is possible to apply the Elementary Pragmatic Model (EPM), a model for the pragmatics of communication. The EPM allows a description of the relational patterns of the subjects ( artificial and real ( based on 16 fundamental styles. [10]. In addition, the model makes it possible to calculate the formal result of the combination of patterns of interacting subjects based on a “paradoxes table”. The model put forward here was conceived at the end of the 1970s by the joint efforts of a psychiatrist and a computer scientist, revisiting systemic theories of communication [1], [11]. Applying the model in psychiatry has given a solid theoretical foundation to the interactive therapies applied at the Psychiatric Institute of the University of Bari, where this model has proved successful for over twenty years [6]. More recently, the model has been used in defining a project aimed at fostering creativity in companies [7]. In the field of economic psychology, the model has been applied by a research group at the University of Lisbon to study workplace relationships and has enabled the design of actions aimed at resolving problematic interactive situations [8]. The application of the model to electronic communication in the area of CSCW was first proposed at the end of the 1980s [2], [5], [4] where e-mail messages exchanged through The Coordinator (Action Technologies TM) [12] were analyzed. The model was most recently applied to define user models for web-based instruction [3]. In fact, a website can be perceived as an artificial subject that interacts with a human subject. Its pragmatic pattern can therefore be calculated using the model and compared with that of a student visiting the site. (The latter pattern can be calculated by analyzing the navigation within the site itself.)
We foresee here the application of the EPM so as to identify a set of alternative solutions of a given problem, thus improving the most creative phase of a problem solving approach. To this end it is possible to use a workbook designed to increase mental flexibility and that is suitable to be integrated in a web-based teaching environment.
The paper is structured as follows. The second section describes the EPM model, underlining the main assumptions and introducing the mathematical formulae. Section three illustrates the application related to the design of a workbook called "Mental Flexibility" based on 16 steps, corresponding to the 16 functions of the EPM.
2. The EPM - Elementary Pragmatic Model
The EPM model foresees the presence in the human mind of an unconscious decision-making system, the “interaction mechanism”, that influences a large part of the choices that each person makes when interacting with another person. Each subject can then be modeled as a couple.
An elementary interaction is given by an ordered triple:
.
Assuming the independence of the mechanism from the content (pragmatic redundancy), it is possible to codify the triples using Boolean values. For example, the interaction:
,
gives the triple (1,0,1(.
Four coordinates, corresponding to the following probabilities, define the mechanism:
Table 1 – Coordinates
|Antifunction |Acceptance |Maintenance |Cooperation |
|u1=p((0,0,1() |u2=p((0,1,1() |u3=p((1,0,1() |u4=p(1,1,1() |
These coordinates can be represented using Venn's diagrams, as in figures 2, 3 and 4.
The mechanism is also described by the relational pattern, given by the probability of the 16 Boolean functions of 2 variables. These probabilities can be evaluated from the coordinates with the principle of maximum information. In this way, from a formal point of view the pattern of a subject is represented by a vector, whose components give the probability of using each of the 16 fundamental relational styles provided by the model. The model thus acquires considerable descriptive power, given that the vector of probability makes it possible to handle an extremely wide range of different behaviours.
Table 2 gives the pragmatic meaning of the 16 functions.
Table 2 – Meaning of the functions
| |Meaning |
|f0 |No, no, no, no, no … |
|f1 |Our relation is based only on what we share |
|f2 |I only accept what is exclusively mine |
|f3 |I maintain my worldview |
|f4 |Only what is exclusively yours interests me |
|f5 |I enter your world with what we have in common |
|f6 |Everything in my world and in yours is part of our relationship as long as it is not shared |
|f7 |Our relationship is based on the union of our worlds |
|f8 |I only have relationships with what is alien to me and to you |
|f9 |What we have in common and what we have that is alien |
|f10 |I am an argumentative person |
|f11 |I’m interested in everything, also outside our relation, as long as it is not specifically yours |
|f12 |What is important for me is your world exclusively, and external elements |
|f13 |I enter your world using external elements |
|f14 |Everything, also what is alien, interests me, except for what we share |
|f15 |Yes, yes, yes, yes … |
The central hypothesis of the model refers to the change of the mechanism. Given the mechanisms fA and fB of subjects A and B, A changes its mechanism according to the formula:
fA=fA(fA,fB)
which allows to describe the potential evolution of the relational patterns of interacting subjects. (Table 3)
Table 3 – Paradoxes table
|fB/ |0 |
|fA | |
|useful |79% |
|not very useful |7% |
|useless |7% |
Moreover, the respondents graded the difficulty of the 16 steps of the workbook (very difficult, difficult, not difficult, not difficult at all). It was found that the greatest difficulties were encountered in step 10, corresponding to the antithetical thinking, and in step 14, corresponding to metaphorical thinking. The last result is particularly noteworthy because the use of metaphors plays an important role in fostering creativity.
Finally, the assessment of the completed workbooks, based on subjective judgments by male-female couples of judges, gave the following results (table 5).
Table 5 – Workbook assessment
| |Group 1 |Group 2 |
|Excellent |23.93% |37.76% |
|Good |41.12% |37.38% |
|Fair |29.16% |19.44% |
|Poor | 5.79% | 5.42% |
Worth noting is that repetition of the workbook makes its execution easier. Many professionals who completed the workbook more than once found it easier to use the second time.
4. Conclusions
In this work, we have presented the applications of the EPM to the development of a workbook. This workbook was designed to improve cognitive processes related to the problem-solving approach. It represents an innovative and systematic framework to identify alternative solutions to a given problem. The results of the first experiments suggest that it could be effectively used to promote students’ cognitive potentialities and their mental flexibility in a web-based teaching environment.
5. References
1] G. Bateson G., Mind and Nature: A necessary Unit, New York, Dutton, 1979
2] I. Bison, L. Colazzo., D. Malinverni Silvestri, L. Mich L., The Elementary-Pragmatic Model: A possible approach for setting up User Model, in Proc. 1st European Conf. EC-CSCW'89, London, September 13-15, 1989, pp. 389-401
3] L. Colazzo, L. Mich, L. Silvestri, User Modeling in Didactic Applications: a Pragmatic Approach, Int. Conf. on Computers in Education (ICCE’99), Chiba, Tokyo, 4-8 Nov. 1999, in Cumming G., Okamoto T., Gomez L. (eds) Advanced Research in Computers and Communications in Education, IOS, Amsterdam, 1999, pp. 232-235
4] L. Colazzo, L. Mich, D. Malinverni Silvestri, An application of the Elementary Pragmatic Model to Electronic Communication, Annali dell'Ist. Superiore della Sanità, 1992, 2(28): 245-252
5] L. Colazzo, L. Mich, D. Malinverni Silvestri D., T. Schäl, Interpretation of Human Relations in Computer Supported Communication: A Test with a Pragmatic Model, IFIP-TC8 Conf. on Collaborative Work, Social Communications and IS, in P. Kerola, R. Lee, K. Lyytinon, R. Stamper (eds), Elsevier, Helsinki, Finland, August 27-29, 1991, pp. 77-92.
6] P. De Giacomo, Finite Systems and Infinite Interactions: The logic of Human Interactions and its Application to Psychotherapy, Bramble Books, Norfolk; Connecticut, USA, 1993
7] P. De Giacomo, Mente e creatività, Franco Angeli, Milano, 1996 (In Italian)
8] P. De Giacomo, O.G. Pereira, Psicoterapias pragmaticas Breves e intervencoes relacionais, TUPAM, Lisboa, 1997 (In Portuguese)
9] P. De Giacomo, S. De Nigris, Computer Workbooks in Psychotherapy with Psychiatric Patients, in L. L'Abate, M.S. Bagget (eds), Distance Writing and Computer Assisted Interventions in Psychiatry and mental Health, Atlanta, GA: Inst. for Life Empowerment, 1997
10] E. Lefons, M.T. Pazienza, A. Silvestri, F. Tangorra, L. Corfiati, P. De Giacomo, An algebraic Model for Systems of Psychically Interacting Subjects, in Information and Systems, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1977
11] P. Watzlawick, J.H. Behavin, D.D. Jackson, Pragmatics of Human Communication, New York, W.W. Norton, 1967
12] T. Winograd, F. Flores., Understanding computers and cognition. A new foundation for design, Ablex, NJ, 1986
A Method of Counseling on line using the Elementary Pragmatic Model
- De Giacomo P.*, Mich L.°, Storelli M.*, De Nigris S.*, De Giacomo A.*, Tarquinio C.*, Masellis R.*.
* Department of Neurological and Psychiatric Sciences, University of Bari, 70100 Bari (Italy)
° Department of Information and Telecommunication Technologies, University of Trento, 38050 Povo - TN (Italy)
1. Introduction
The EPM has already been used in the range of electronic communication and different papers confirm the attempts of its application [1], [2], [3], [4], [5].
The research that our group is treating concerns its use aimed, in the Counseling on Line [15], and utilizable also in the educational range, of sentences with a strong psychological impact that we consider are able to interfere in the basic mechanisms of the organization of the human mind, thus forming a sort of aggregation and organization of thoughts, “a compass for mind”, a kind of “password for mind”. Experimental evidence led us to a conclusion: we noticed, in our professional practice related to the clinic and psychotherapy carried out both with single subjects and with their families, that some phrases were particularly incisive and important to start a subject’s therapeutic change. For this reason, a methodical work started, to research and pick out the phrases able to be used as an instrument of knowledge, of reflection on the constructions of mind, of opening to innovative ways of interaction.
When we speak about “sentences with a strong psychological impact” we make reference to innovatory, original, rather short phrases, involving, able to be conclusive to a meaning emotional input for the persons they are proposed to, that “whet their mind”; these sentences embrace, and have to do with, in the user’s opinion, an important topic of his life, and, thus, in that moment of his life, are capable to describe synthetically but clearly the peculiar features of a problem of his.
The “Table of Interaction” was used for the production of the statements endowed with the above said characteristics; it bases itself on a model of the mind, the Elementary Pragmatic Model (EPM). The EPM, in fact, gives us a “grid” of reference during the practice in a systemic meaning, and allows us to provide the subjects with some “containers” (regulators of mind, organizers, mental constructors, invariants) [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12] able to make possible a plain, lucid, definite interpretation of one’s own mind and thought. Such containers then, represent a language that is different from the usual one, but is effective in whatever way, because it is capable of getting out of the common schemes of thought, that tend to be homeostatic by nature, and therefore not suitable for change.
The proposed model enables the user to learn to change the results of his mind into clear, determinate and original “mental constructions” (the sixteen functions of the EPM) that will help him to understand the working of his mind and to analyse it in a new way in comparison with the past. A new key of reading himself and his own mental life is, after all, committed to the subject. The reframing, re-definition, new setting of one’s mental contents constitutes a fit remedy of psychotherapeutic kind, since they lead the user to throw over his schemes of thought that kept him with a homeostatic mental organization.
2. Theoretical Bases Of The Elementary Pragmatic Model
The theoretical order of the EPM is articulated on four levels of growing complexity (figure 1): an elementary level (of the triads); a second level (of the four co-ordinates); a third level (of the sixteen functions or rather of the sixteen relational styles); a fourth level (of the Table of Interaction).
[pic]
Figure 1 – The four levels of the EPM
1) Elementary Level (of the triads)
The development of the EPM starts from observing the interaction between two subjects, and from its analysis inside an elementary binary model. The communicative exchange can set up in triplets: “Shannon’s triads”. Every triplet comprises: the first interacting subject’s proposal (expressed in a binary language); the second interacting subject’s proposal (this one binary, too); the result of the interaction, which means how the first interacting subject was transformed in consequence of the interaction with the second one (figure 2).
[pic]
Figure 2 – The four levels of the EPM
2) Second Level (of the four co-ordinates)
The triplets make it possible for the graphic definition of four spaces of dyadic interaction, represented with Venn’s diagram in which: the circle on the left side represents the first interacting subject’s world, the circle on the right side represents the second interacting subject’s world; the intermediate part represents the intersection (the elements that are common to both the subjects’ worlds); everything of the circles is what’s outside the interacting worlds. Each of these components can be full or empty. Thus four co-ordinates of the interactions are defined: acceptance, maintenance, sharing, and antifunction (figure 3).
[pic]
Figure 3 – The four coordinates of the EPM
3) Third Level (of the sixteen functions or of the sixteen relational styles)
The combination of the four components of the four coordinates gives rise to the sixteen functions or relational styles (from F0 to F15). Such styles correspond to the following Venn’s diagrams (figure 4).
Figure 4 – Venn diagrams of the relational styles
|Sixteen interactive styles |[pic] |
| | |
|F0 The subject who obliterates him/herself in the relation | |
|F1 The sharer | |
|F2 The acceptor of one’s own world only | |
| | |
|F3 The maintainer of one’s own world | |
|F4 The acceptor of the other’s world without sharing | |
|F5 The acceptor of the other’s world | |
|F6 The acceptor of one’s own and of the other’s world, without sharing | |
|F7 The acceptor of one’s own and of the other’s world | |
|F8 The acceptor of what only exists neither in one’s own nor the other’s world | |
|F9 The acceptor of what only exists, or does not exist, in one’s own and in the other’s world | |
|F10 The anti-other or “Mary-Mary quite contrary" | |
|F11 The complete maintainer of one’s own world, with tendencies to expand | |
|F12 One who, while accepting the other’s world without sharing, and while accepting what exists neither| |
|in one’s own nor in the other’s world, behaves like a maintainer of one’s own world | |
|F13 The exaggerated acceptor who refuses solely what exists in one’s own world | |
|F14 The total acceptor who is nevertheless unable to share | |
| | |
|F15 The total acceptor | |
4) Fourth Level (of the Table of Interactions)
The interaction of the sixteen relational styles among them leads to 256 possibilities that are depicted in the Table of Paradoxes (figure 5). As you can see, from this table the “Compass Sentences” that are used in this research, take origin. The use of the table is rather easy: vertical is representing the first interacting subject (for example, the patient), and horizontal the second (for example, the therapist). If the “patient” adopts a certain relational style and the therapist adopts another one, through crossing the two functions we’ll read how the patient was transformed by the relationship with the therapist.
[pic]
Figure 5 – The table of paradoxes
3. From The EPM To An Applicative Test To Define The Relational Characteristics Of The Subject
To make the relational styles (third level of the clinical practice) clear and utilizable in the clinical practice, a college of experts of the EPM arranged to choose, among all the proposed adjectives, the most suitable ones to represent the corresponding functions. So we got the following list of couples of adjectives that is used in the test “The Way You See Yourself” [16]:
f0 – empty/absent
f1 – participant/sharer
f2 – solitary/reserved
f3 – tenacious/egocentric
f4 – docile/surrendering
f5 – altruist/involved
f6 – mysterious/ambiguous
f7 – collaborative/mediator
f8 – abstract/unpredictable
f9 – sharing/innovative
f10 – rebel/antagonist
f11 – dominant/dictatorial
f12 – double faced/false-altruist
f13 – unpredictable/altruist
f14 – inconclusive/disorganized
f15 – confused/chaotic
From the outcomes of the test you can deduce the relational pattern of that subject. In other words, different subjects use, in their interpersonal relations, patterns that have different percentages of relational styles. This test, as we’ll see, is part of the program that has to be executed on-line.
Formulation of the “Compass Statements”
Such phrases, which are obtained from the Table of Paradoxes, using the logic of the Model and the operators’ creativity and experience, were selected on the ground of the impact they caused on varied samples of population (figure 6).
[pic]
Figure 6 –Formulation of the Compass Statements
After the experimentation, it appeared that some statements, more than others, resulted statistically significant. Actually, we are working with a group of 31 sentences (an interaction corresponds to each of them) that we purpose in the Counseling on Line. Examples of application of the sentences are the following ones (the formula of their origin from the Table of Paradoxes is written below each phrase and enclosed with parentheses, there’s the number of each phrase in the group of the above said 31):
1. (9) Having a goal is already achieving a goal.
EPM: F9 II F15 = F9
2. (12) Uncertainty, doubt, ambivalence, doubtfulness, being swayed by the waves, if this is a state that repeats, repeats, in the end it nullifies you, it kills your mind.
EPM: F6 II F6 = F0
3. (19) lf you pursue a goal creatively, if the outcome is positive, in other words leads towards your world, this will make you stronger.
EPM: F9 II F5 = F3
4. (21) When you think you are a great person, the almighty or a genius, or your work seems to you very important and headed for great results and great successes, tell yourself: “I’m in a dream-attack”.
EPM: F14 II F14 = F1
5. (23) True luck is when you get something unexpected that you like.
EPM: F9 II F13 = F11
6. (25) If you want to keep your creativity, feed off chaos.
EPM: F9 II F15 = F9
7. (31) Sequences are interrupted either by nullification or by absolute inflexibility or by total confusion.
EPM: The three “final states” of EPM (F0, F3, F15).
4. On-Line Sentence Application Programme: Counseling On Line
The relation on-line with the user – who can be a student in Educational contexts – has to happen, in our opinion, according to a contract whose objective is the attainment of a clear aim: a better consciousness of himself, that is to say a cognitive investigation of his own mental organization.
The procedure is the following one: the Counseling goes on according to ten sessions, and during each of them the user will choose a sentence among the given ones and will utilize it as a sort of subject whose aim is the investigation of himself: theme of his work will be to explain the reason why he chose just that sentence, to clear up how it managed to get in his beliefs, which associations excites him, which events of his life it recalls, how he’d elaborate the sentence according to a viewpoint of himself, which story he’d create about the sentence. Besides, he’ll be provided with a grid of answers quoted from the EPM, among which he’ll have to individualize the most corresponding to his viewpoint, and, moreover, (but only during the first and the last sitting) the test “The Way You See Yourself” will be administered to him; it defines the features of the user in the relational point of view. At the end of the session, the user will present his elaborate, that will be, if both the therapist and the user think it convenient, discussed in an interactive way by a private “chat”: otherwise, the user will be directly sent to the next session.
At the beginning of the next session on-line, the user will choose a second sentence that’ll have to be worked out in the same way of the first one and possibly discussed in an interactive way with the therapist.
At the starting of the following session a third sentence will be chosen, that will take the same procedure, and so on till the overall duration of the ten sessions.
At the tenth session a general synthesis will be made: interacting with the user, the therapist will try to define what has emerged from the work of the ten sessions and to understand what the user understood about himself; the test “The Way You See Yourself” will be administered again at the end.
Finally, an evaluation of the counseling will be made on four levels (excellent, good, middle, zero).
Ways of reply to the user: the feedback of the therapist in the Counseling on Line
If the user likes a feedback given by the counselor by chat, varied kinds of reply are proposed to the users following the program.
Particularly, sixteen styles of answers are picked out and suggested, arranged in a conceptual point of view according to the basis of the EPM, for instance, the professional authoritative one (F3), the answer aimed at the investigation and the understanding of what the subject worked out (F1), the answer based on pursuing a goal creatively (F9), the answer of the kind in identifying himself with the subject’s world (F5), the ambivalent answer (F6), the mediatory answer (F7), the antithetical answer (F10), the metaphorical answer (F14), the abstract answer (F8), the answer based on entering into the subject’s world beyond measure and paradoxically (F13), the magic answer (F11), the answer of the kind of total acceptance (F15), etc.. In giving the person a feedback, using the sixteen styles of answer, you can proceed both without pre-constituted contents or deriving from a pool of phrases coming from or not coming from the EPM, covering a large quantity of human foreseeable situations. Computerized programs can also be utilized with the goal of improving the organization of the users’ thought, i.e., for example: “Flexibilization of Mind”, “The Tape of Mind” (that is to say “The Wheel of Wisdom”), “Psychoma”, which are the results of the research work centered in the EPM.
4. Conclusions
This initial experimental study has assumed at present the characteristics of a “soft” Counseling, based fundamentally on the subject’s choices, and therefore with the user’s most exclusive liability. Starting from this input, we intend to get helpful experiences for the goal of improving our on-line interventions with the possibility of developing a real and right systemic and cognitive e-therapy in the next future. Besides, given the encouraging premises, we are planning to set up a completely automatized service of Counseling in a not so distant future, with a “clever” computer that interacts with the user, and furnishes him with those “password for the mind” able to open new paths for his self-consciousness.
5. References
13] Colazzo L., Mich L., Malinverni Silvestri D., Schael T.: An experiment on computer-mediated communication supported by the coordinator using a pragmatic model. In Proc. “Int. Work. on CSCW”. Gorling K., Sattler C. (Eds). Berlin, 9-11 Apr. Inst. fuer Informatik u. Rechentechnik, Berlin; pp.34-58, 1991.
14] Colazzo L., Mich L, Malinverni Silvestri D., Schael T.: Interpretation of human relations in computer supported communication: a test with a pragmatic model. In Stamper R.K. et Al. (Eds), Elsevier Science Publisher, Amsterdam, 1991.
15] Colazzo L., Malinverni Silvestri D., Margoni M., Mich L.: Simulation of communicative situation between subjects using the elementary pragmatic model. In Proc. “IASTED Int Symp. Modelling, Identification and Control”. Hamza M.H. (Ed). Innsbruck, A, 18-21 Feb. 1991. Acta Press, Anaheim, CA, pp. 149-152, 1991.
16] Colazzo L., Malinverni Silvestri D., Mich L.: An Application of the Elementary Pragmatic Model to Electronic Communication. Ann. Ist. Super. Sanità, Vol.28, 2: 245-252, 1992.
17] Colazzo L., Mich L., Silvestri L.: User modeling in didactic applications: a pragmatic approach. (Cummings G., Okamoto T., Gomez L. Eds.) Advanced Research in Computers and Communications in Education. Vol. I. IOS Press, Tokio, 1999.
18] De Giacomo P., Silvestri A.: New horizons in psychiatric research: The elementary pragmatic approach to the study of interactional behavior, Report presented at the WPA Regional Symposium, Kyoto, Apr. 9-1, 1982.
19] De Giacomo P., Pierri G., Corfiati L., Silvestri A., Lefons E., Tangorra F.:An Elementary Pragmatic approach in system- therapy, “International Journal of Family Psychiatry”, 4: 65-74, 1984.
20] De Giacomo P., Silvestri A.: An Elementary Pragmatic Model in family therapy, “International Journal of Family Therapy”, 6: 245-263, 1985.
21] De Giacomo P.: The Elementary Pragmatic Model: from theory to therapeutic practice. Ann. Ist. Super. Sanità, Vol.28, 2: 169-176, 1992.
22] De Giacomo P.: Finite Systems and Infinite Interactions: The Logic of Human Interactions and its Application to Psychotherapy. Bramble Books, Norfolk, Connecticut, USA, 1993.
23] De Giacomo P. e O.G. Pereira: Psicoterapias pragmaticas breves. Tupam Editores, Lisbona 1997.
24] De Giacomo P., Margari F. Rutigliano G.: Ottimizzazione della visita psichiatrica: ovvero dell’arte modulare dello psichiatra. F. Angeli, Milan, 1997.
25] De Giacomo P.: Mente e creatività: Il Modello Pragmatico Elementare quale strumento per sviluppare la creatività in campo medico psicologico, manageriale, artistico e di ricerca. CD-ROM. F. Angeli, Milan, 1999.
26] De Giacomo P., De Nigris S.: Computer workbook in psychotherapy with psychiatric patients (Ed. L’Abate L.) Greenwood Publishing Group Westport, 2001.
27] De Giacomo P., Marconi P.L., Storelli M., De Giacomo A., Giovannelli M., Masellis R., Anelli F., Carrieri G., Lattanzio A., Tarquinio C., Lavorato E.: Un counseling on-line col Modello Pragmatico Elementare: Ed Schena, Fasano, Italy, 2002.
28] L’Abate L., De Giacomo P., McCarty F., De Giacomo A., Verrastro G.: Evaluating three models of intimate relationships. Contemporary Family Therapy, 22: 103-122, 2000.
29] Silvestri A,, De Giacomo, Pierri G., Lefons E., Pazienza M.T., Tangorra F.: A basic model of interacting subjects, Cybernetics and Systems: An International Journal, 11: 113-127, 1980.
ID-Cartography: How to build an Idea-Counter and Idea- Maps?
- Francisco Iturra.
c/o Patricia Vergara S., Apartado Postal 66895, Plaza Las Américas, Caracas, Dto. Federal, Venezuela ZP 1070
Email: francis21@
Method 3 Coordinator, Member of behaviourome@
Introduction
When Dr. Macer invited peoples worldwide to join and enjoy Human Mental Map Project, I were working about a general approach to measure the underlying properties of general sceneries by information theory tools. At a first attempt, I distinguish two major Kingdoms (K): Bio-K and Moral-K. The first is determined by genetic and instinctive behaviour. At the opposite, the second is determined by culture environment, education process or more specific, the traffic of all kind of messages which peoples share one each other. Art, Religion, Philosophy, Science, Tradition, Social Law, and so on, are ways to exchange symbols and a way too, to valuate these symbols, thus are kinds of knowledge. Although, we share genetic with a wide range of organism, knowledge appears to our consciousness like a social inheritance of human beings. Therefore, at Bio-K does not exist radical uncertainty because organism develop its potential natures along iterated cycles, but at Moral-K, doubt always exist and force us to choose between choices, like famous Hamlet statement: “To be or not to be, that is the question”.
Primary Codes
Primary codes are not derived code and represent source ethical codes. For instance, although exist several melodies around the world, all of them has been created with few primary codes; only seven major symbols. Moreover, think about our decimal number system which has only ten major symbols. I have a suspicion about ethical fields. I guess that is possible find primary ethic codes. Method group 3 is one attempt to do it. Moreover, notice that primary codes are finite sets. Later, I will consider the facet concept similar to primary code concept but not equal. In fact, a primary code is a type of facet. A well definition could be: primary codes are the minimum set of facets utilized to describe some scenery or ethical environment.
A Gradual Process
About the matter of our interest, I view the solution as a gradual and experimental process. See the history of humans beings where always is possible to find a blend of mistakes and successful. Certainly the first map will be improved like anything created by ours hands and minds. First, we ought to thinks about the designs requirements looking forward the map‘s expected performance. So, if the goal is “Bioethics for the people by the people”, let flesh and bones built-in peoples build their owns maps. And if we are tempted to think that peoples often don't know why they believe something or most often , peoples are generating ideas, or beliefs, with quite limited information…¡Do not care!. This is the most important component at bioethical choices. In effect, the dilemma concept is the key to understand the problem, and wherever exist a dilemma, exits too uncertainty. Fortunately, peoples has not a whole knowledge of chances and choices, and this is the major attribute in a moral world. In opposite, imagine an ant ‘s community, where each ant know what it must do it by chemical signs. Obviously, in that world. does not exist enough quantity of uncertainty, diversity and moral troubles. The Method 3, I have suggested, is a measure of diversity or complexity of one human community. More diverse and complex is a society more need information to reduce uncertainty.
How to deal with uncertainty?
Regarding an extreme case, the Bio-K, offer one solution. In fact, instincts are an efficient method in the struggle against uncertainty because it is annulled by learning and saving skills process. At the opposite, at the Moral-K, when the uncertainty is very high and intuition or information are not enough to face it, the only resource is a coin toss. In that case, obviously, the quantity of information involve will be minimal and in consequence the amount of ideas is minimal too. But in the first case, at the Bio-K, the culture information is minimal too. Regarding a whole genetic determined community of human beings, we could expect a basic behaviour structure, or perhaps could be complex, but without doubt will be determined by initial conditions or genetic state of each individual, with independence of changing conditions of the culture environment. In that case, diversity will tend to be minimal and in consequence the amount of ideas will be minimal too. But, when behaviour is determined with dependence of changing conditions of the culture environment we are in presence of genuine moral dilemmas. Changing conditions are the source of uncertainty and diverse behaviours observed are the appropriate response to the amount of uncertainty.
Building an information vector
If we ask a people a question who can response with a simple “Yes” or “No” (“Accept” or “Not accept”), (“Agree” or “Disagree”) and so on, we obtain a piece to build an idea map, of course, after an appropriate process. I call this piece as a facet. A facet is an answer to one binary dilemma. In general, if we ask “n” binaries dilemmas “ to “m” peoples, we obtain a matrix of n x m facets. By example, a survey with 150 dilemmas applied to 6.000 peoples, produce 900.000 facets. But there are 2 150 (a very large number) ways to answer the 150 binaries dilemmas. Now, if we define, at one first approach, “one idea” as a particular combination of facets , at one extreme and unlikely case, could exits 2 150 to many complex ideas, but obviously has not yet observed. In real world, peoples share ideas, therefore the expected number of complex ideas will be less. But in real world too, complex ideas are more unlikely than elemental ideas, so the expected number of elemental ideas will be greater than complex ideas. The key question is ¿When a set of facets, become an information vector? The answer I suggest is: After apply to the matrix an ad-hoc method to evaluate the involve information quantity, we could find enough information quantity to recognize an information pattern. Thus, in that case, and only in that case, we could have a sufficient reliability to affirm the existence of an information pattern which supply us, a solution to the involves moral dilemmas.
Therefore, an information vector is a set of facets which provide us a solution to the involves moral dilemmas by reducing the uncertainty involve in the complex an moral environment where human beings share moral values.
How to evaluate matrix or a set of information vectors?
In particular, the suggested method works like an Ideas-Counter. The number of ideas is proportional to the quantity of information. A moral world is always complex a cause of diversity within itself. Complexity, very often carry on uncertainty. Hence , to reduce the unwanted effects of uncertainty, beings use the information ‘s resource to resolve moral choices. When many peoples, emits a collection of answers to binaries dilemmas, reveal a collection of facets, that eventually could provide us a collection of information vectors. Here, I would like to redefine, more exactly, the concept of idea: An idea is a collection of facets where the quantity of information increase, reducing the uncertainty or entropy implicit in the moral choice resolved by the same idea. More quantity of information, more strong is the join between two facets, then by gather measurements of the information quantity between two facets along the information vectors, we could have a measurement of the whole information involved at the matrix (See the Appendix to know the calculus) . At this point, it is possible to arrange the measurements into three cases. The one occurs when all the measurements are equal to zero. In this case, we are in presence of a non moral world where peoples do not have moral dilemmas, where does not exits uncertainty and where people behaviour is whole determined by genetic information shared by all the member of the community under observation. At the second case, some measurements could be equal to zero and someone not, but which are not equal to zero, are close to zero. In this case, we are in presence of a moral world where peoples have moral dilemmas, where exits an absolute uncertainty and where people behaviour is whole determined by toss a coin. At the third case, some measurements could be equal to zero and someone not, but which are not equal to zero, are not all close to zero. The more wide the range of measurements, the more information exist. In this case, we are in presence of a moral world where peoples have moral dilemmas, where exits a relative uncertainty and where people behaviour is not whole determined by toss a coin. ¡This is the real moral world of the human beings! .
ID-Cartography principles
Here, seven principles about ID-cartography to build every kind of maps
1) Mind cannot be represented but thoughts can be mapped.
2) Thoughts are mind activity patterns.
3) Patterns are recurrent thoughts.
4) Recurrence is a sample of reiterative and shared elements.
5) Elements are the pieces of a map.
6) There is no one kind of map. In fact, we can imagine to many class of maps, according to the elements we have chosen.
7) We need imagination to define elements and tools to get its.
In my case, (Method 3) , I have defined elements as facets. Facets are elemental binary dilemmas of a complex environment. Moreover, I have chose the appropriate tool to select facets. A Survey (the tool) is a collection of facets or elemental binary questions that can be answered by a simple Yes (accept) or No (not accept). When each people answer the whole survey, with the assistance of all kind of information which exist in the culture where he or she live, produce an information-vector, therefore, many peoples produce a collection of information-vectors or a information-matrix. If peoples answer the dilemmas by a coin toss, there is no any idea. On the contrary, when peoples answer by information assistance, we could find clusters of equals information-vector which represent ideas shared by peoples. At one extreme, when all peoples answer at the same way, there is only one idea. These clusters are information patterns or Ideas, so ¡It is possible to represent and count ideas!.
A reference to “Structural Modeling Approach” (author: John Warfield)
Here a brief analogy between the “Structural Modeling Approach” and Method 3. The concepts at the left(right) of the arrows are the steps suggested by the author and by me, respectively.
1) Perception => A common faculty of the human beings
2) Storage in the brain => A precondition to form ideas
3) Identifying a context => the context is the culture under stress by biotechnology development.
4) Generating factors associated with that context => The factors are the facets as diverse aspects of the culture under stress by biotechnology development.
5) Identifying types of relations that appear to be associated with these factors => The relations are implicit meanings the peoples give to each facet and allow interviewed ´s peoples either accept or not the facet.
6) Associating the factors with algorithms that permit the relationships to be quantified => At the suggested model exist only one entropy-algorithm to calculate the transference ´s information as a measurement of the links between the facets.
7) Assigning or computing numerical values to/for the factors => The numerical values are average bits of information between each pair of facets
8) Structuring the factors => The facets will become into cluster structures as a result of the previous steps. Each cluster is one idea
9) Interpreting the structures of factor => The interpretation will consist into arrange the ideas in order to built up the map.
10) Interpreting the model-related information for purposes of design or decision-making = > When one people make one decision stands at one point of the map. When make another decision linked with the other, in fact, go from the first point to a second point, and so on. Thus, when one people resolve dilemmas by making too many decisions, in fact, go through a road or a net of roads where the information gradually increase. So, the map could be a useful representation of the selected routes ( set of roads) to resolve the dilemmas.
Appendix
Regarding a set of facets and taking a pair of facets each time and considering, p1, p0, q1, q0 as the probabilities of the followings events: facet1= Yes, facet1= No, facet2= Yes, facet2= No, respectively. At the same manner, we could define four joint-events and the respective probabilities. Thus, r11, r01, r10, r00 are the probabilities of the followings joint-events, facet1= Yes and facet2= Yes ; facet1= No and facet2= Yes ; facet1=Yes and facet2= No ; facet1= No and facet2= No ; respectively. Next, we could arrangement the probabilities in a matrix, like that:
| |p1 |p0 | |
|q1 |r11 |r01 |r11 + r01 |
|q0 |r10 |r00 |r10 + r00 |
| |r11 + r10 |r01 + r00 | |
With a simple operation, we could transform this matrix, in a conditional-probabilities-matrix, like that:
| |p1 |P0 |
|q1 |r11 / r11 + r01 |r01 / r11 + r01 |
|q0 |r10 / r10 + r00 |r00 / r10 + r00 |
| |r11 + r10 |r01 + r00 |
If : s11= r11 / r11 + r01 ; s01= r01 / r11 + r01 ; s10= r10 / r10 + r00 ; s00= r00 / r10 + r00 and substituting , we can write the conditional-probabilities-matrix as follows:
| |P1 |P0 |
|q1 |s11 | S01 |
|q0 |s10 | s00 |
| |r11 + r10 |r01 + r00 |
Now, applying the function Ln2 to the last matrix, we can define the information quantity between the two facets, as follows:
IQ = H(X) – H(X/Y)
Where :
H(X) = - ( (r11 + r10)Ln2(r11 + r10) + (r01 + r00)Ln2(r01 + r00) )
H(X/Y) = - ( r11 Ln2(s11) + r01 Ln2(s01) + r10 Ln2(s10) + r00 Ln2(s00) )
Integrative Thinking Outside And Inside The Box
- Graham Douglas.
4 Cintra Street, Ipswich, Queensland, Australia 4305
Email: integrativethinking@
Graham Douglas is a pioneer author and consultant in Applied Mind Science in the field of Integrative Thinking and originator of the terms Integrative Mind, Integrative Problem Solving and Integrative Improvement - Development as if People and Their Physical, Social and Cultural Environments Mattered. His book The Revolution of Minds! incorporating the SOARA (Satisfying Optimum Achievable Results Ahead) Process of Integrative Thinking and the SOARA Workbook is available at integrative-.
Would you please wonder for a few moments about your life and work. Write down some examples of possible areas for improvement in relationships, leadership, creativity, innovation, teamwork, management, communication and trust, effectiveness and efficiency. Have you ever wondered why improvement in these areas is so slow?
After wondering and researching for many years it seems to me improvement in all areas is impeded by the way we are trained to think. We are trained to think "inside the box". This box is known as critical thinking. It has produced much knowledge of parts of the world around us but it is inconsistent with the integrative way in which nature, our bodies, brains and minds function. I believe we should also be trained specifically in Integrative Thinking (IT) which is consistent with the integrative way nature, our bodies, brains and minds function.
In contrast to critical thinking IT is a process of habitually and almost automatically making connections to create a whole new picture rather than habitually and almost automatically breaking down an old picture into its parts.
IT may be thought of as a successor to lateral thinking and using multiple intelligences but, not surprisingly, is fully integrated, not an add-on extra. It is a practical application of brain and mind sciences so is a form of technology but it is human-based rather than machine-based technology. It is a NEW way of thinking which helps us think outside and inside the box and integrate the two as we plan and act. IT can be learned in less time than it takes to learn to drive a car.
Critical Thinking and Its Problems
In educational institutions, at work and even at home we train what I call our Critical Mind. We train people to reason in a disembodied way as though our minds were symbol manipulators like computers, unconnected with the remainder of our bodies and our environment. We train them to break problems down into parts, to put these parts into rigid categories with shared properties and to manipulate symbols representing these categories. We train them to hypothesise using these rigid categories ( thereby excluding all other possibilities) and look for a grain of the "truth" about these categories that is imagined to be "out there" in the real world and to justify that "truth" with propositions expressed in words or mathematical symbols joined together in accordance with the rules of logic.We train them to think in a straight line towards a conclusion. We train them as though the way we justify our thoughts - in logical statements - is the way we think. In short, we train people to think "inside the box".
We dehumanise reasoning. The effects of this on our lives and work include:-
* People who are predisposed to be less comfortable with manipulating symbols tend to become alienated from the better justifiers.
* Power tends to lie with the better justifiers.
* As justifications become more specialised the difficulty of communicating increases and trust decreases.
* We tend to become locked into our justifications.
* We make a habit of being critical first and thinking constructively second or not at all.
* We continue doing what has worked in the past even when circumstances change.
* Critical thinking based on different, crude and rigid categorisations often leads to unresolved conflict in groups and organisations. This unresolved conflict can surface later and undermine the group or organisation.
* Similarly, as individuals we can be left with unresolved internal conflict. This can damage the individual and others.
* All this unresolved conflict leads to cruelty, unhappiness and inefficiency and hinders our creativity and performance as individuals, in groups and in organisations.
Integrative Thinking (IT)
Integrative Thinking by all concerned would overcome these difficulties. We need to use what I call our Integrative Mind of which our Critical Mind is a part.
Extensive research in brain and mind sciences in recent years has shown:-
* Our mind and reasoning are inherently embodied, that is, shaped by our bodily interaction within itself and with its physical, social and cultural environment.
* Most thought is unconscious and much of our reasoning is done when we are not conscious of it being done.
* Over a lifetime of experiences we develop a number of prototypes in our minds that are reflected in patterns in our brains.
* It is difficult to change these prototypes so solving novel and complex problems in a creative way usually involves redeploying prototypes from another domain to the novel domain.
* The more prototypes we have (the broader and deeper our knowledge) and the greater our ability to trigger those prototypes, the easier it is for us to creatively address novel and complex problems.
* We tend to be simplifiers because we can keep only about four plus or minus one items in our short-term memory while we are working on other information.
(For a concise outline of the mind science that underpins my work please see the interview with George Lakoff about his and Mark Johnson's book "Philosophy in the Flesh" at )
Integrative Thinking (IT) draws on this research and starts from the basis that we are NEW - Wonderers, Narrative creators and Experience managers not mere manipulators of symbols as critical thinking implies. Hence, IT has been called the NEW IT Revolution.
The process of Integrative Thinking may be thought of as our wondering about a situation, creating a narrative connecting our wonderings and managing our experiences in acting out our narrative. It involves understanding and learning what our basic human needs and aspects of our human will are, what guides us in balancing those needs and will, clarifying what we have and what we want to set our goal, exploring possible connections when relaxed, arriving at a strategy to negotiate the change from what we have to what we want, devising tactics to advance the strategy, taking bold, assertive and timely action to achieve our goal, reviewing and evaluating our performance.
Advantages of Integrative Thinking
We tend to think integratively when we have a problem and "sleep on it" but we have been trained so much to think "inside the box" that we do not trust the "hunches" that result, particularly those that are "outside the box".
Imagine what an improvement it would be if you and all the people in your organisation or group were trained in an integrative thinking process with the features I have described. "Outside the box" thinking and "inside the box" thinking would be integrated and "the box" would disappear. We could humanise our reasoning.
Imagine what it would be like if everyone in your life had this common, comprehensive, holistic and structured basis for communication and trust.
Picture the leader setting directions and motivating people in such a way that all could follow the thinking process the leader used. Picture the quiet introverted creative person being able to explain a new idea in a structured way. Picture a team that "spoke the same language". Picture a group or organisation with challenge and change all around them that did not have to try to communicate with a multitude of different mindsets developed from a lifelong habit of critical thinking. Picture the manager motivating and coordinating the efforts of the managed when all were trained to plan in broadly the same way.
Becoming an Effective Integrative Thinker Is Not Difficult
For example, my SOARA (Satisfying, Optimum, Achievable Results Ahead) Process of Integrative Thinking involves the learning of a set of aids to memory to help trigger connections in our minds, help us see analogies in unrelated fields and provide a way of self-monitoring our thinking and acting. All these aids to memory are joined together in a meaningful sentence so the Process as a whole can be learned in about the time it takes to learn to drive a car (about twelve hours) and easily remembered. With practice its application can become almost automatic. At all stages of the Process provision is made for learners to record their reflections and possible actions based on those reflections. People can be introduced to the basic concepts of the Process at almost any age. The Process is culturally neutral.
The Process starts with each learner establishing their CAT (Creative Acting and Thinking) Profile by assessing how they applied a set of integrative thinking parameters in some planned activity from their past the results of which were satisfying and led to a successful outcome for them.
Similarly, the learner then establishes their RAT (Random Acting and Thinking) Profile for some planned activity from their past the results of which were unsatisfying and led to an unsuccessful outcome for them.
The learner compares these profiles to understand how they balanced these parameters when successful.
From this basis they begin to clarify what they have and what they want against those same and additional parameters of People, Market, Product, Money and Physical, Social and Cultural Environment.
The Process continues to help the mind redeploy its prototypes in the face of change and uncertainty until a plan is established and implemented, reviewed and evaluated using a number of feed-forward and feedback and other practical techniques based on brain and mind sciences and a lifetime of experience in human development, management, training, business and government.
With practice, applying the SOARA Process of Integrative Thinking becomes a habit that empowers people and makes easier our struggle to achieve successful outcomes on a life-long journey among possibilities. It helps us refine our perceptions, expand our horizons, sense and respond successfully to emerging trends and events. By helping us to make analogies from other domains it brings out and enhances our creativity. By helping us to always consider a comprehensive range of variables it ensures we always take others into account including our customers and stakeholders. IT helps us and our enterprises thrive.
While improving our creativity and performance IT helps us gain a sense of meaning, a sense of belonging and a sense of personal power. This is because IT helps us reconcile our needs and wants and balance and integrate our thoughts, feelings and actions in harmony with our physical, social and cultural environment. Therefore IT helps us work towards sustainable development and the better linking of life and work.
In this competitive and uncertain world can any of us afford not to know how to integrate our thinking from outside and inside the box?
Footnote:
When a framework for proceeding with the development and implementation of the Behaviourome Project is decided upon I think it will trigger others to submit more candidates for inclusion among relevant "currently most accurate theories" (CMATs) from their fields of knowledge."
In this regard some may find stimulating The World Question Center 2004 on Edge at where the question answered by a number of people prominent in science circles is "What's Your Law?".
Apropos the need for a basic integrative framework to advance the Behaviourome Project, one answer that caught my eye was from Andy Clark, as follows:-
"Clark's Law. Everything leaks.
There are no clear-cut level distinctions in nature. Neural software bleeds into neural firmware, neural firmware bleeds into neural hardware, psychology bleeds into biology and biology bleeds into physics. Body bleeds into mind and mind bleeds into world. Philosophy bleeds into science and science bleeds back.The idea of levels is a useful fiction, great for hygienic text-book writing and quick answers that defend our local turf but seldom advance scientific understanding)."
Apropos the need for that basic integrative framework to be memorisable, the following answer by Ernst Poppel seemed particularly relevant:-
"Pöppel's Universal
We take life 3 seconds at a time. Human experience and behaviour is characterized by temporal segmentation. Successive segments or "time windows" have a duration of approx. 3 seconds. Examples: Intentional movements are embedded within 3 s (like a handshake); the anticipation of a precise movement like hitting a golf ball does not go beyond 3 s; if we reproduce the duration of a stimulus, we can do so accurately up to 3 s but not beyond; if we look at ambiguous figures (like a vase vs. two faces) or if we listen to ambiguous phoneme sequences (like Cu-Ba-Cu-Ba-.., either hearing Cuba or Bacu) automatically after approx. 3 s the percept switches to the alternative; the working platform of our short term memory lasts only 3 s (being interrupted after 3 s most of the information is gone); spontaneous speech in all languages is temporally segmented, each segment lasting up to 3 s; this temporal segmentation of speech shows up again in poetry, as a verse of a poem is embedded within 3 s (Shakespeare: "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day"); musical motives preferably last 3 s (remember Beethoven's Fifth Symphony); decisions are made within 3 s (like zapping between TV channels); and there are more examples. Thus, the brain provides a temporal stage that last approx. 3 s, which is used in perception, cognition, movement control, memory, speech, or music."
For background and contact details please see integrative-
The Revolution of Minds! Bibliography
© Copyright Graham Douglas 1994-2003 All rights reserved
(When year of publication is shown like this: 1989 (1986), 1989 is the year of publication of the edition consulted and 1986 is the year that edition was first published.)
Abercrombie, M.L.J. 1986 (1960), The Anatomy of Judgment: An Investigation into the Processes of Perception and Reasoning, Penguin, London.
Adams, J.L. 1988, The Care and Feeding of Ideas: A Guide to Encouraging Creativity, Penguin, London.
Allman, W.F. 1989, Apprentices of Wonder: Inside the Neural Network Revolution, Bantam, New York.
Argyle, M. 1991, Cooperation: the Basis of Sociability, Routledge, UK.
Armstrong, K. 1993, A History of God: From Abraham to the Present: The 4000-Year Quest for God, Heinemann, London.
Baars, B.J. 1993 (1988) A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Benjamin, M. and Curtis, J. 1992, Ethics in Nursing, 3rd edn, Oxford University Press, UK.
Billeter, J.F. 1990, The Chinese Art of Writing, Trans. Clarke, J.M. and Taylor, M. Skira/Rizzoli, New York.
Birch, C. 1993, Regaining Compassion for Humanity and Nature, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia.
Bittel, L.R. & Ramsey, J.E. (eds) 1985, Handbook for Professional Managers, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Blackmore, S. 1990, Minds, Brains and Death, in Scott, A. (ed) Frontiers of Science, pp 36-49, Blackwell, Oxford.
Blakemore, Colin 1988, The Mind Machine, BBC, London.
Boden, M. A., 1991 (1990), The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms, Basic Books, USA.
Bono, Edward de 1990, I Am Right - You Are Wrong: From This to the New Renaissance: From Rock Logic to Water Logic, Viking (Penguin), London.
Brown, P. 1991, The Hypnotic Brain: Hypnpotherapy and Social Communication, Yale.
Bruer, J.T. 1993, Schools for Thought: A Science of Learning in the Classroom, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Bruner, J. and Haste, H. (eds) 1990 (1987), Making Sense: The Child's Construction of the World, Routledge, London.
Buzan, Tony 1988, Make the Most of Your Mind, Pan, London
Campbell, A., Gillett, G. and Jones, G. 1992, Practical Medical Ethics, Oxford University Press, UK.
Capra, Fritjof 1989 (1988), Uncommon Wisdom: Conversations with Remarkable People, Fontana, London.
Caudill, M. & Butler, C. 1990, Naturally Intelligent Systems, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Certeau, Michel de 1988 (1984), The Practice of Everyday Life, trans S. Rendall, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Charlton, W. 1988, Weakness of Will: A Philosophical Introduction, Blackwell, Oxford.
Chopra, Deepak 1989, Quantum Healing: Exploring the Frontiers of Mind/Body Medicine, Bantam, New York.
Churchland, Patricia Smith 1989 (1986), Neurophilosophy: Toward a Unified Science of the Mind/Brain, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Churchland, Paul M. 1989, A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Cialdini, R.B. 1985, Influence: The New Psychology of Persuasion, Quill, New York.
Cohen, D. and MacKeith 1991, The Development of Imagination: The Private Worlds of Childhood, Routledge, London.
Coombs, H.C. 1990, The Return of Scarcity: Strategies for an Economic Future, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Cotterill, R. 1989, No Ghost in the Machine: Modern Science and the Brain, the Mind and the Soul, Heinemann, London.
Cytowic, R.E. 1993, The Man Who Tasted Shapes: A Bizarre Medical Mystery Offers Revolutionary Insights into Emotions, Reasoning and Consciousness, Putnam's Sons, New York.
Davis G.A. and Rimm S.B. 1989, Education of the Gifted and Talented, 2nd edn, Allyn and Bacon, USA.
Dawes, R.M. 1988, Rational Choice in an Uncertain World, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Orlando, USA.
Diamond, Jared 1991, The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee, Radius, London.
Dilworth, D.A. 1989, Philosophy in World Perspective: A Comparative Hermeneutic of the Major Theories, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Dixon, B. (ed.) 1989, From Creation to Chaos: Classic Writings in Science, Blackwell, Oxford.
Donald, M. 1991, Origins of the Modern Mind: Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition, Harvard, Cambridge, Mass.
Donaldson, M. 1993 (1992), Human Minds: An Exploration, Penguin, UK.
Donaldson, M. 1979 (1978), Children's Minds, Norton, New York.
Drucker, P.F. 1986, Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Heinemann, London.
Dulbecco, R. 1987, The Design of Life, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Edelman, G. 1992, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind, Allen Lane, UK.
Edelson, Marshall 1990 (1988), Psychoanalysis - A Theory in Crisis, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Finke, R.A. 1989, Principles of Mental Imagery, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Fisher, R. & Brown, S. 1989, Getting Together: Building a Relationship that Gets to Yes, Century Hutchinson, London.
Fisher, R. & Ury, W. 1989 (1982), Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In, Century Hutchinson, London.
Flew, A.G.N. 1989, An Introduction to Western Philosophy: Ideas and Argument from Plato to Popper, rev. edn, Thames & Hudson, London.
Fodor, J.A. 1988 (1987), Psychosemantics: The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Fontana, D. (ed.) 1984, The Education of the Young Child: A Handbook for Nursery and Infant Teachers, 2nd edn, Blackwell, Oxford.
Frankl, V.E. 1984, Man's Search for Meaning, 3rd edn, Simon & Schuster, New York.
Gardner, Howard 1991 (1989), To Open Minds, Basic Books, USA.
Gardner, Howard 1993, Multiple Intelligences: The Theory in Practice, A Reader, Basic Books, USA.
Garvey, C. 1991, Play, 2nd edn, Fontana, London.
Giere, R.N. 1990 (1988), Explaining Science: A Cognitive Approach, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Gilder, G. 1986 (1984), The Spirit of Enterprise, Penguin, London.
Gleick, J. 1989 (1988), Chaos: Making a New Science, Sphere, London.
Gombert, J.E. 1992, (Trans. Pownall, T.) Metalinguistic Development, Harvester Wheatsheaf, UK.
Harasim, L.M. (ed) 1993, Global Networks: Computers and International Communication, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Harris, M. 1988, Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology, 5th edn, Harper & Row, New York.
Hawking, S.W. 1989 (1988), A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes, Bantam, UK.
Hawking, S.W. 1993, Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays, Bantam, UK.
Heilbroner, R.L. 1991 (1986), The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times, and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers, 6th edn, Penguin, London.
Heilbroner, R.L. 1993 (1992), Twenty-first Century Capitalism, Allen & Unwin, Australia.
Heim, M. 1993, The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality, Oxford University Press, UK. Hickman, C.R. & Silva, M.A. 1985, Creating Excellence: Managing Corporate Culture, Strategy & Change in the New Age, Allen & Unwin, London.
Higbee, K.L. 1988, Your Memory: How It Works and How to Improve It, 2nd edn, Prentice Hall, New York.
Hogarth, R. M. (ed.) 1990, Insights in Decision Making: A Tributeto Hillel J. Einhorn, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Hookway, C. (ed.) 1986 (1984), Minds, Machines and Evolution: Philosophical Studies, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Howard, Robert 1991, All About Intelligence - Human, Animal and Artificial, Univ. of New South Wales, Australia.
Howard, R.W. 1987, Concepts and Schemata: An Introduction, Cassell Educational, London.
Howe, M.A. 1986, Imaging: Self Exploration and Development Through Creative Use of Fantasy, Spiral, Melbourne.
Humphrey, N. 1992, A History of the Mind, Chatto & Windus, London, UK.
Ignatieff, M. 1990 (1984), The Needs of Strangers, Hogarth, London.
Jackson, P. 1990, Maps of Meaning, Allen & Unwin, London.
Jahoda, G. 1992, Crossroads Between Culture and Mind: Continuities and Change in Theories of Human Nature, Harvester, UK.
Jamieson, G.H. 1985, Communication and Persuasion, Croom Helm, Beckenham, UK.
Jeffers, S. 1987, Feel the Fear and Do It Anyway, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Orlando, USA.
Johnson, Mark 1993, Moral Imagination: Implications of Cognitive Science for Ethics, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Johnson, Mark 1987, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Johnson, M.H. and Morton, J. 1991, Biology and Cognitive Development: The Case of Face Recognition, Blackwell, UK.
Kanter, R.M. 1985 (1983), The Change Masters: Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work, Allen & Unwin, London.
Keeney, R.L. 1992, Value-Focused Thinking: A Path to Creative Decisionmaking, Harvard, Cambridge, Mass.
Kemp. T.P. and Rasmussen (eds.) 1989, The Narrative Path: The Later Works of Paul Ricoeur, MIT, Cambridge,Mass.
Kirby, J. 1993, People Key to Success: BCA, in "The Australian", Brisbane, December 2 1993, p.27.
Klivington, K.A. 1989, The Science of Mind, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Laborde, G.Z. 1987, Influencing with Integrity: Management Skills for Communication & Negotiation, Syntony, Palo Alto, USA.
Lakoff, George 1987, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Langer, E.J. 1991 (1989), Mindfulness: Choice and Control in Everyday Life, Harvill, London.
Langrehr, J. 1994, Become a Better Thinker, Wrightbooks, Australia.
Lapierre, D. 1994, With All Her Heart, in "The Courier-Mail", Brisbane, January 1, 1994, p.31.
Le Vay, S. 1993, The Sexual Brain, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Lloyd, P., Mayes, A., Manstead, A.S.R., Meudell, P.R. & Wagner, H.L. 1986, Introduction to Psychology: An Integrated Approach, Fontana, London.
Loewald H.W. 1980, Papers on Psychoanalysis, Yale, New Haven, USA.
Luttwak, E.N. 1987, Strategy: The Logic of War and Peace, Harvard, Cambridge, Mass.
Mahoney, M.J. 1991, Human Change Processes: The Scientific Foundations of Psychotherapy, Basic Books, USA.
Mansbridge J. J. (ed.) 1990, Beyond Self-interest, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Marginson, S. 1993, Education and Public Policy in Australia, Cambridge University Press, Australia.
Margolis, H. 1993, Paradigms and Barriers: How Habits of Mind Govern Scientific Beliefs, University of Chicago, Chicago.
Matsumoto, M. 1988, The Unspoken Way: Haragei, or the Role of Silent Communication in Japanese Business and Society, Kodansha, New York.
Mayr, Ernst 1988, Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist, Harvard, Cambridge, Mass.
Meares, R. 1992, The Metaphor of Play: On Self, The Secret and Borderline Experience, Hill of Content, Melbourne.
Mehler,J. and Dupoux, E. 1994, What Infants Know: The New Cognitive Science of Early Development, trans Southgate, P., Blackwell, Cambridge, Mass. and Oxford UK.
Miller, L. 1991, Freud's Brain: Neuropsychodynamic Foundations of Psychoanalysis, Guildford, New York.
Moss, S. 1989, Jungian Typology: Myers Briggs and Personality, Collins Dove, Blackburn, Australia.
Neville, B. 1989, Educating Psyche: Emotion, Imagination and the Unconscious in Learning, Collins Dove, Blackburn, Australia.
Ohmae, Kenichi 1987 (1982), The Mind of the Strategist: The Art of Japanese Business, Penguin, U.K.
Ohmae, Kenichi 1990, The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Interlinked Economy, Collins, London.
Ornstein, R.E. 1987, Multimind, Macmillan, London.
Ornstein, R.E. & Sobel, D. 1988, Healing Brain, Macmillan, London.
Ornstein, R.E. & Ehrlich, P.R. 1989, New World, New Mind: Moving Towards Conscious Evolution, Methuen, London.
Ornstein, R.E. & Swencionis, C. (eds) 1990, The Healing Brain: A Scientific Reader, Guildford, New York.
Osherson, D.N. & Lasnik, H. (eds.) 1990, An Invitation to Cognitive Science Volume 1: Language, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Osherson, D.N., Kosslyn S.M & Hollerbach J.M. (eds.) 1990, An Invitation to Cognitive Science Volume 2: Visual Cognition and Action, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Osherson, D.N. & Smith, E.E. (eds.) 1990, An Invitation to Cognitive Science Volume 3: Thinking, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Penrose, R. 1989, The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and the Laws of Physics, Oxford University Press, UK.
Pert, C. B. 1990, The Wisdom of the Receptors: Neuropeptides, the Emotions, and Body-Mind. In Ornstein R. and Swencionis C. (eds), The Healing Brain: A Scientific Reader, Guildford, New York.Pert, C. B. 1993, The Chemical Communicators. In Moyers B. D., Healing and the Mind, Doubleday, New York.
Pinker, S. 1994, The Language Instinct: The New Science of Language and Mind, Allen Lane, UK.
Plotkin,H. 1994, The Nature of Knowledge: Concerning Adaptations, Instinct and the Evolution of Intelligence, Allen Lane, UK.
Pollock, J. 1989, How to Build a Person: A Prolegomenon, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Posner, M. I. 1991 (1989), Foundations of Cognitive Science, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Postle, D. 1989 (1988), The Mind Gymnasium: How to Use Your Mind for Personal Growth, Simon & Schuster, Brookvale, Australia.
Rapoport, A. & Chammah, A.M. 1970, Prisoner's Dilemma, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Reed, M. and Hughes, M. (eds) 1993 (1992), Rethinking Organisation: New Directions in Organisation Theory and Analysis, Sage, London.
Rheingold, H. 1991, Virtual Reality: Exploring the Brave New Technologies of Artificial Experience and Interactive Worlds from Cyberspace to Teledildonics, Secker & Warburg, London.
Richards, R.J. 1987, Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior, University of Chicago, Chicago.
Roberts, J. 1988, German Philosophy: An Introduction, Polity, Cambridge University Press, U.K.
Rodgers, S. 1994, Income Outstrips Inflation, in "The Courier-Mail", Brisbane, January 15, 1994, p.4
Rollins, M. 1989, Mental Imagery: On the Limits of Cognitive Science, Yale, New Haven, USA.
Root-Bernstein, R.S. 1989, Discovering: Inventing and Solving Problems at the Frontiers of Scientific Knowledge, Harvard, Cambridge, Mass.
Rose, S. 1993 (1992), The Making of Memory: From Molecules to Mind, Doubleday, New York.
Rose, S. Lewontin, R.C. and Kamin, L.J. 1988 (1984), Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology and Human Nature, Penguin, UK.
Rowe, D. 1988, The Successful Self: Freeing Our Hidden Inner Strengths, Fontana, London.
Rowe, D. 1989, The Construction of Life and Death, Fontana, London.
Rudge, P.F. 1990, Order and Disorder in Organisations, Corat, Kambah, Australia.
Rutter, M. & Rutter, M. 1992, Developing Minds: Challenge and Continuity across the Lifespan, Penguin, UK.
Schiffer, S. 1989, Remnants of Meaning, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Schmookler, A. B. 1993, The Illusion of Choice: How the Market Economy Shapes Our Destiny, SUNY, New York.
Schon, D.A. 1987, Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.
Schrage, M. 1990, Shared Minds: The New Technologies of Collaboration, Random, New York.
Schumacher, E.F. 1973, Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered, Harper & Row, New York.
Sherman, B. and Judkins, P. 1992, Glimpses of Heaven, Visions of Hell: Virtual Reality and its Implications, Hodder & Stoughton, London.
Singer, P. 1993, How Are We to Live: Ethics in an Age of Self-interest, Text, Australia.
Singer, I. 1987 (1984), The Nature of Love, 2nd edn, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Skemp, R.R. 1986, The Psychology of Learning Mathematics, 2nd edn, Penguin, UK.
Slobodkin, L.B. 1993 (1992), Simplicity and Complexity in Games of the Intellect, Harvard, Cambridge, Mass.
Smith, N. & Ainsworth, M. 1985, Ideas Unlimited: The Mindmix Approach to Innovative Management, Nelson, Melbourne.
Sousa, Ronald de 1990 (1987), The Rationality of Emotion, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Sperber, D. & Wilson, D. 1986, Relevance: Communication and Cognition, Blackwell, Oxford.
Spillane, R. 1985, Achieving Peak Performance, Harper & Row, Sydney.
Stanton, H.E. 1988 (1985), The Fantasy Factor: Using Your Imagination to Solve Everyday Problems, Collins, Sydney.
Stewart, I. 1989, Does God Play Dice? The Mathematics of Chaos, Blackwell, Oxford.
Sutherland, M. 1993, Advertising and the Mind of the Consumer: What works, What Does'nt and Why, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
Suzuki, David 1990 (1989), Inventing the Future, Allen & Unwin, Sydney.
Thelen, D.P. (ed.) 1990 (1989), Memory and American History, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Trehub, A. 1991, The Cognitive Brain, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Vaillant, G.E. 1977, Adaptation to Life, Little Brown, Boston.
Varela, F.J., Thompson, E. and Rosch, E. 1993 (1991), The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
Walls, J. 1993, Global Networking for Local Development. In Harasim, L.M. ed, 1993, Global Networks: Computers and International Communication, MIT, Cambridge, Mass.
© Copyright Graham Douglas 1994-2003
All rights reserved
The Potential of the Behaviourome
- Morgan Pollard .
School of Resource Science and Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, 2480, Australia
Email: mogsdogs@
Since the TRT8 paper on the application of mental mapping to environmental issues, other important and relevant ideas have also been circulating in my office and head, ranging from recent inspirations to many previous years of thinking about the mapping of sustainability. There are amazing spaces of the potential, ballooning tasks, heavy philosophy and some difficulty in synthesising precise concepts into an easy-to-read but strategic and meaningful form. Ideally, with the design of emulating the major requirements for survival of a meme such as the Behaviourome, the major ones being popularity and usefulness. Other characteristics required of a successful meme include fun, clarity, simplicity, accessibility and memorability, as well as a sound scientific and philosophical basis.
The Behaviourome (Macer 2002) is a multidimensional map or model for the measurement of ideas and behaviour against indicators of love. Its central aim of 'Love' is an ethical objective which is almost unassailable philosophically. Other ethically watertight objectives at similar conceptual and prescriptive scales are 'Biosurvival' and 'Human Survival'. These are objectives which can be considered Central Aims of human behaviour. Love is noticeable by its presence or absence in, if not all given behaviours, crucially, all or most behaviours and ideas of important relevance to people and the world.
What are the most important and relevant ideas in the world? The short answer is 'Priorities', almost by definition. So why doesn't their analysis comprise a more central role in global human thinking and behaviour? Historical, educational and psychological tendencies are among the reasons for these shortcomings of global management. Current global trends, entrenched paradigmatic models and over-specialisation of knowledge in an environment of over-consumption, may not be enabling us to think and act clearly from the most appropriate scales and perspectives.
It is almost certain that this coming century is one of the most hazardous humans have yet entered. We already seem to be experiencing the Sixth Mass Extinction event since life began, each of which typically wiped out the majority of species on Earth. The pace of technological and environmental change seems to be rapidly accelerating. There is a 'spike' beyond which prediction into the future becomes impossible from within today's socio-technological paradigm. It is quite possible that new combinations of genetics, computation and nanotechnology into poorly-understood new processes could cause change on unprecedented scales. Biology involves self-replication and evolution, but the addition of computation may 'pull the stops', removing the brakes or randomness from natural selection using heuristically-directed mutation. Such change, combined with a hopeless or warlike mentality (due to inequality) and widespread belief in coming Apocalypse, may indeed put things beyond the thresholds and limits required for human survival. Optimistic and pessimistic worldviews on the question of human survival and extinction must be debated, before analysing the appropriate parameters of investigation for such a crucial field of study.
The major risk categories for human extinction are technological and environmental. Risk is able to be controlled to a certain degree by its relation to human knowledge, beliefs and motivations. However, uncertainties and limitations may be determined by difficult to measure factors such as feedback effects, catalysts, emergent properties, critical thresholds, lag-periods, and potentially dramatic phase shifts. The Behaviourome may represent a rare window of opportunity - it seems to be a coherent synthesis of the most relevant requirements for solution to the most important problems on Earth.
But what does the Behaviourome look like and how can it be used to measure love? We should thoroughly examine the Behaviourome; from the outside first perhaps, before dissecting it for analysis, checking breadth and depth, inverting it, seeing the ways it can be put back together, and then flying through it many times to have other looks from the inside. The philosophical relationship of uneasy opposition between love (good) and hate (evil) needs to be discussed, before concentrating on the former. Perhaps we could spiral like an electron through interpretations of the Behaviourome observing and investigating our collective memory (history, monitoring), love of good (ethics), love of self (psychology), love of life (ecology, medicine), love of others (sustainability), and our collective hopes (religion, metaphysics) and dreams (futures modelling and management).
Of particular interest and importance during the journey are the following factors: dimensions, boundaries, limits, axes, centre, regions, interconnections, uncertainties and priorities. What are the nature of these qualities and how may different interpretations affect the architecture of any ideas map? Epistemology (knowledge domains, fields of study, cognition, justification etc.), complexity theory (reduction/synthesis, uncertainty, emergent properties etc.) and systems theory (networks, nested sets, processes/flows etc.) are relevant in this context, as well as the systematic organisation of data, information, belief and knowledge (e.g. factual, schematic, strategic, semantic, syntactic) into architectures which enable the creation of useful tools applicable to ethical situations existing in the real world.
Although ideas are perhaps infinite in the direction of specificity, they are grouped in manageable sets in the direction of generality. Specificity is the realm of data, details, reductionism; the frontiers of science. Because a single new answer seems to open up more than one new question (Kant's principle of question propagation), and due to emergent properties in complex systems, in this direction the number of ideas seems to become unmappably large. The ability to map is limited by the level of specificity you allow. Generality, on the other hand, involves synthesis, meta-knowledge, philosophy; the big ideas which drive our strategies and collective aims. In this direction everything groups into very manageable nested sets; a finite region which is very mappable.
The Behaviourome is of course largely mapped. Unfortunately, the pieces of the map are scattered in chunks across and among the experts, professions, journals, catalogues, book contents, internet maps, databases and institutions of the Global Mind. The task is larger than currently practicable, so there must be judicious choice of mapping priorities. Integral to any model or mapping project are its axioms, assumptions and priorities. The usefulness of a model is a function dependent upon these factors, the practical architecture of the model, inclusion/omission and relations of its contents, and the context in which it is used. Different potential Behaviourome architectures for different applied problem-solving situations must be canvassed, compared and contrasted in terms of their practicality and potential utility, without discarding any of the core components of the original idea. Some of these various interpretations or relatives already have names, for example the 'Noosphere' (de Chardin) and the 'Meme-Pool' (Dawkins); other options should be given names: I'd like to suggest: 'Behaviourome' (behaviours); 'Ideome' (ideas); 'Ethical Behaviourome', 'Peace Behaviourome' and 'Sustainability Behaviourome' (examples of specialised subsets); 'Global Mind' (collective information-processing of all global systems and the resulting coordination and activity); and 'Grand Behaviourome in the Sky' (Platonic realities existing beyond human limits of understanding).
Perhaps a giant cubic egg is a memorable metaphor for the multidimensional cube called the Behaviourome. As an egg, it remains in the realm of the abstract, like any other natural and neutral idea. It is a potential. Some of the most important limiting factors to it's potential to do good work in the real world include: a) its evolutionary fitness as a meme; and b) its ability to give birth to useful new tools.
Ideas do change the world - they are like strategies - but tools, like tactics, are what changes the world directly. Preliminary investigation of the Behaviourome reveals an 'infinite in practice' number of good tools (e.g. expert systems and decision-support systems) can be derived from this simple idea - complexity embedded within simplicity. For example: a complex measuring mechanism (using science for objective knowledge and democracy for subjective belief) produces a simple sum-total barometer (clock measuring central tendency/dispersion, uncertainty ranges etc. in human behaviours by love over time) to monitor overall global progress towards love (survival) or regress away from love (extinction).
Can such an effort to integrate and measure such disparate things really work? Of course it can - we are doing it all the time To a certain extent, all such things can, are, must be measured: every day in law, town planning, the boardroom, Parliament…. The value of criticism lies only in the improvements to the models they induce. Besides, when it comes to behaviour, belief is a more potent motivator than the factual reality (as the stock market or the director of scientific research and development funding would attest).
A neighbour of the Behaviourome is 'Tristan', the giant particle accelerator/collider in Tsukuba Science City. This is a large, expensive, successful meme and tool also designed to investigate the limits of human knowledge (new subatomic particles). This comparison is to reinforce the necessity of using science as the central backbone of this philosophical model. By science, I mean logic, measurement, systematic reduction and synthesis, empiricism, falsification, objectivity, parsimony and openness to analysis and critical scrutiny in the quest for new solutions. Close as possible conformity to reality will provide the model a strong backbone and ensure that any uncertainty or imprecision is at least no less than current boundaries of legal, political and economic models.
This does not exclude the metaphysical, for there are also significant limits to scientific understanding, and Love is primarily emotional, intuitive, illogical, subjective, creative, religious, spiritual. This idea brings science and religion together towards a common goal. In this philosophy, common is the driving word.
Suggested examples of priorities for meme cooperation with the Behaviourome (i.e., formation of co-adapted meme complexes) are as follows. Essential ideas include the Golden Rule (do unto others); Balance (Buddha), Forgiveness (Jesus), Charity (Mohammed) Utilitarianism (Mill), Theory of Justice (Rawls), Bioethics (beneficence, non-maleficence, justice, autonomy), Sustainable Development (precaution, environmental science, quality of life), and Ecological Economics (eco-centrism, realistic compromise).
Potentially important tools for co-adaptation include democracy, experimental science, logic theory, problem-solving theory, decision theory, multidimensional models, geographic information systems, game theory, conflict analysis, cost-benefit analysis, risk assessment, life cycle assessment, strategic environmental assessment, social and environmental impact assessment (e.g. OECD 'State of the Environment' monitoring indicators), quality of life indexes (e.g. Genuine Progress Indicator, UNDP Human Development Index & Human Freedom Index, Happy-life-expectancy etc.) quantification tools (e.g. models, descriptive statistics), databases (e.g. census data), adaptable software (e.g. Linux), information retrieval systems (e.g. Google), decision-support systems and expert systems (applications of artificial intelligence).
Potentially sympathetic and cooperative groups of people include the Academic community, Peace movement, Global Justice movement, Green movement, Human Rights movement, Human Responsibilities movement, United Nations subdivisions, Non-Government Organisations, and the Open-Source software community.
Strategies and possibilities for the application and success of the Behaviourome require discussion. In this spirit we should try to take a meme's eye-view, the perspective of the hopes and dreams of the Behaviourome itself. This task is helped by using the emerging field of memetics. What are the Behaviourome's memeplex, memotype, sociotype, meme-gene interactions? Memetics can help us to investigate competition and cooperation in the likely cerebral, media and software environments or vehicles of this meme. Memes can evolve by 'Lamarckian' inheritance, able to both 'copy the product' and 'copy the instructions'. But sadly, all sympathy to the Behaviourome, a meme cannot easily carry or do anything for itself without a vehicle; a helping hand such as human activity (spread the word…). If I were the Behaviourome I would be envious of the marketing, the logos, the activity, the transport, the media saturation of other much less valuable memes. These enterprises are only as ethical or unethical as the products they promote. So what are the real goals, characteristics and requirements of a meme, and how can its prospects for survival, dispersal, longevity, adaptation, heredity, fecundity and utility be enhanced?
Imagine for a moment, hopeful/sceptical reader, the positive global socio-political ramifications likely to result from widespread successful combination of the two central elements of this idea; namely Measurement (map), and Ethics (love). Or for now, just consider the potential for self-initiated change resulting from simple belief in the impending widespread development of such a Transparency Tool. As well as extending limits to human achievement, belief (with desire) creates motivation which leads to behaviour. The development period of such a tool will be one of warning thunder to corporations and governments, and its successful creation will be as lightning to evil practices across our planet.
Sadly, and with the incomprehension and disrespect of our future descendants, ethics remains only a minor incentive today compared to the driving force of world affairs, economics. People alive today have the chance to be the first of the wise generations - rather than the last curious specimens of Homo selfish. I see a future world where eco-nomics, (Latin: 'management of the house'), takes its proper role as a means to an end rather than an end in itself, alongside rather than running roughshod over eco-logy ('the science of the house').
What's the ingenious but simple compromise? Instead of getting rich earning dollars for any activities driven by human demand, people can instead become enriched earning a new currency, let's call it the 'globe'. Earning of globes is simply proportional to the expected resulting global ethical benefit of the activities. Just for starters, in imagining this world, much of the space used today for advertising would become resources of relevant information… instead of the BRW rich list of wealthiest companies/persons, instead individuals and institutions would compete for proportionately rewarded rankings of most 'loving of life', 'loving of others'… Globes utilise the powerful incentives inherent in money, towards desirable ethical outcomes.
These concepts are simple even for layman, and they should be part of the common discourse. There are only two barriers to the achievement of this better future. One is the consent of the people (consent of the minority known as 'the powerful' is preferred, but not required to create a global democracy with current communications technology). The other is a (preferably democratic and scientific) measurement tool for ethics (i.e., some sort of "love/good/life/self/others Index").
Before you balk at this attempt to put the world in a box, take a long look at the horror show called 'world news' tonight, and then compare that to what's inside the box - it's a Box of Love, Life, Good, Self, Others, Memories, Hopes, Dreams… metaphorically speaking, this is a map of Heaven, and an attempt to manifest Heaven on Earth.
A positive attitude is in accordance with the spirit of the creators of the Behaviourome - to empower the loving, and remain positive and open-minded about individual and collective 'spaces of the possible'. However, discussion of negative elements must be included by virtue of their importance - problems cannot be solved without first being identified. The objectives of the Behaviourome offer the opportunity for bloodless revolution. Both alternatives to this are (from the perspective of the political ethicist, sustainability expert and environmental scientist) too horrible to contemplate. Despite vested interests in the status quo, lost time on objectives such as these equates to lives lost and continuation of oppression and misery.
With help, I think the Behaviourome can deliver on its promise of Love of Everything - an antidote to Pandora's box, non-illusory ecstasy modelled on reality, an empowering imprint on the collective psyche, and a measurement tool for Ethics. It contains all the major ideas and elements required to 'Save the World', an ambiguous but popular phrase similar to 'Biosurvival', 'Love', and other Major Aims of human behaviour. Change is the fundamental nature of major forces active in the world today, such as democracy, capitalism, globalisation and open societies. Things are going to change. In the hands of academics (domain expertise), media (distribution expertise), software developers (tool expertise) and the public (democratic expertise), the Behaviourome meme can spread, grow and start to save the world.
No arguments can dispute the clear beneficial educational potential embedded in this project. Thanks, Darryl, for the Behaviourome. And anyone else who may come across this lovingly-constructed idea, in your own little way encourage its hatching, help it to survive and reproduce. Love, philosophy and good life to people and the Earth.
How to assess people's views of biotechnology: Lessons from Japan
- Masakazu Inaba and Darryl Macer.
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba,
Tsukuba Science City 305-8572, Japan
Email: dj_xis@digital.design.co.jp, Macer@biol.tsukuba.ac.jp
This paper presents the results of the analysis of data of Japanese attitudes toward specific applications of biotechnology from survey responses. Interviews were conducted to more deeply explore the reasons behind the attitudes. Examples will be shown from analysis of comments in interviews and mail response surveys to determine attitudes of the general public and scientists toward biotechnology. Analysis reveals some attitudes are shared among the public and scientists in 2000, while the frequency of these concerns may vary. The two most acceptable of the four medical applications were medicines produced in genetically modified microorganisms and a transgenic cancer mouse for research use. These were perceived to bring benefits by about two thirds of the public and 85% of the scientists. The least acceptable application was xenotransplantation, which even 14-18% of the scientists considered to be unnatural. Embryonic genetic diagnosis was more acceptable than xenotransplantation, however, more respondents saw ethical concerns with this application. The results of two agricultural applications show similar compositions of respondents' attitudes to that of toward genetic diagnosis in the series of questions with diverse reasons. Some preliminary results of the 2002-2003 mail response survey will be presented, and the trends over time will be discussed.
See paper in Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13 (2003), 78-90.
Empirical Dimensions of Human Idea for Plant Genetic Resources Conservation and Management
- Dipankar Saha 1, H.S.Sen 2 and A.Saha 3.
1. Agriculture Research Service Scientist, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore, Kolkata- 700 120, India. E-mail: dipankar@ejobs.
2. Director, Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore, Kolkata- 700 120, India
3. Principal Scientist and Head, Crop Improvement Division, Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore, Kolkata- 700 120, India
Abstract
Differential ecological domain exists within its explicit functions and implicit structural inter-relativity in dealing with the conservation issues of plant genetic resources (PGR) in every agro-ecological niches, in its every ecotypes and successions of ecotypes within each niches. Environmental ethics has its fuzzy contours. Even if it can help us in finding out the finite dimensions of sustainable bio-systems. It is also a critical attribute to rationalize the empirical dimensions of any decision theory within differential agro-ecological domain by taking into consideration maximum possible natures variables, its biosynthesis and integrative socio-biological reciprocity in the process of idea conceiving within each individual and the representative of any community embedded within the ecological matrix of those niches related to conservation. This paper is trying to understand the idea matrix within some specific agro-ecological framework initially by taking into consideration four different prominent ideas likely environment (e) is providing agriculture (a); agriculture (a) is producing food (f); food (f) is basic material for human survival (h+) and maximization of agriculture (amax) leads towards environmental destruction (e-) in the form of genetic resources erosion. Individual and community based behaviourome with respect to any idea or any combination of ideas (in or in4) can help us to understand the behavioral precursors in the process of idea biosynthesis which can be comprehensible to develop the eco-ethical policy propagules for effective PGR conservation and management in a given agro-ecological context.
TRT8 abstracts (February 2003) [for papers published in EJAIB only the abstract is printed here because those papers can be downloaded]
Note that the full TRT8 discussion of the project is transcribed and is printed as appendix 2 in the paper by Macer in this book (pp. 1-60).
The Behaviourome and Proposal for an Integrative Human Idea Map
- Darryl Macer, Ph.D..
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba,
Tsukuba Science City 305-8572, Japan
Email: Macer@biol.tsukuba.ac.jp
One of the most interesting questions before a thinking being is whether we can comprehend the ideas and thoughts of other beings, and conversely whether they can also read our mind. I would argue that we have already the means to embark upon a human mental map with the goal of describing the diversity of ideas a human being makes in any given situation or dilemma. I call this the behaviourome or human mental map. Such a map is not of a physical structure but a map of ideas.
There are several uses of such a project to make a human mental map. These include:
1) To understand ourselves, and whether the number of ideas is really finite.
2) To compare mental maps and idea diversity between persons and species.
3) To aid in policy making to make policy that respects the diversity of people in a culture, and globally. This would help develop bioethics for the people by the people.
4) If we can make individual mental maps, this would offer persons assistance when making moral decisions. This would give them a chance to consider all their ideas, and to make a more considered moral choices. This would also be useful in the testing and implementation of better bioethics education.
This introductory paper will present the first edition of a human mental map and call for an international collaborative project involving people from many cultures, disciplines and walks of life, to build together a human mental map.
Macer, DRJ. The next challenge is to map the human mind. Nature 420, 121, 2002.
Macer, DRJ. Finite or Infinite Mind?: A Proposal for an Integrative Mental Mapping Project. Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 12 (2002), 203-6.
Choose Between Cooperation and Annihilation: A Mental Mapping Project Towards a more Generously Directed Altruism
- Irina Pollard, Ph.D.
Dept Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney 2109 Australia
Email: ipollard@rna.bio.mq.edu.au
The fundamental design principles of Nature are based on cooperation, biological feedback, adaptation to changing conditions and promoting ecological diversity. Common human survival themes should, therefore, also echo this pattern and include more cooperation and less conflict, living within our ecological means, and living in harmony with the environment and ourselves. We have long had sufficient mind-power and with recently acquired scientific understandings and renewed bioethical awarenesses, are now facilitated to increase our survival fitness - if we choose. What is required is to mature emotionally and catch-up to our mind's vast potential by ethically managing our own fitness as a species. When it comes to, for example, killing thousands, even millions, of our own and other species in futile ideological competition, fueled by the random horrors of terrorism and coordinated warfare, we can no longer accept this as being a necessary and inevitable part of life. Our innately flexible intelligence can rescue us because within our collective biological nature exist strong survival instincts such as justice, empathy, love and respect for the freedom and lives of others. It is the further refinement of these positive biological instincts that can provide us with the necessary assets in the present struggle for adaptive survival. However, the global community must agree on forward-thinking bioethical standards when applying the contributions from science and technology. It is essential, therefore, to consider modern scientific and technological applications alongside some measure of ethical consensus. We need, as a society, to keep track of powerful technological developments despite the benefits associated with these gains. The present paper seeks to draw together bioscience-bioethics* in order to heighten general awareness of current bioethical issues raised by biological research and its applications. Thus, the enriched sum of us, irrespective of background, can come to both an informed opinion and make decisions in the spirit of intelligent altruistic cooperation. A bioscience-bioethics cooperative friendship alliance, based on Nature's model, is proposed to extract wisdom from human diversity, beliefs, attitudes and values.
Pollard, Irina (2002). Life, Love and Children: A Practical Introduction to Bioscience Ethics and Bioethics. Kluwer Academic.
Published in Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13 (2003), 44-48.
Multiple Facets of the Fantasies of the Asian Mind
- Jayapaul Azariah, Ph.D., .
Founder President, All India Bioethics Association,
New No. 4, 8th lane Indiranagar, Chennai 600 020, India.
Email: Jazariah@
Human personality is divisible into many components: some divide it as Body , Mind and Soul while others divide it into Body, Soul and Sprit. It is also possible to recognize five interrelated components of human personhood. They are (a) Physical (b) Mental (c) Moral (d) Emotional (e) Spiritual. Such a five partite human personality is essential for personality development.
Mind is like a plant, planted in a mud pot or a fish in a aquarium tank. Their growth in terms of size is strictly dependent on the space-capacity of the container. Smaller the given space the smaller is the organism. So is the mind. The scale of perception of the world around us conditions mind. Asia is generally recognized, as the spiritual center of the world while the West is technology oriented. Spiritual and mechanistic worldviews are the two containers that contain the mind. But where is this mind of the humans? Is it in the body component or in the soul or in the spirit? Is there any difference between the Western and Asian minds? If so what is due to?
Aurvedic dictum is "You are the product of the food". In this sense food is related to the body and mind. If mind is "memory" then where is the mind? How does food condition the mind? If mind is that which thinks then is it right to say that perception, feelings, a will to do and consciousness are the outworking of the mind? Does mind grow and age? Are ideas created? Does mind produce an ideology? Mind is a double-edged sword! We generally say that the best definition of pollution is "Out of sight - out of mind". But mind can interpret it as "out of sight" = invisible; "out of mind" = insane "? Solutions offered by the mind can also be problems! Then one has to think again and reframe the solutions.! What are the technologies by which mind can be controlled to think in the positive direction that can provide a viable solution?
The Asian mind is circular. It thinks of cycles and in circles. The way of life is characterized by cycles of birth and death. The body is taken through a cycle of fasting and feasting. Should the mind think linearly? Can the mind be subjected to fantasy? Is the ancient Indian concept of "Maya" a fantasy idea? Mind has the function of forming images and ideas. For the preservation of peace in this world what is needed is the development of a mind with a visionary fantasy.
Published in Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13 (2003), 39-41.
Arguments of the great philosophers that our thoughts are not in our brains
- Dr. Frank J. Leavitt.
Chairman, The Centre for International Bioethics
Faculty of Health Sciences
Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel
Email: yeruham@bgumail.bgu.ac.il
Any project to produce a "Human Idea Map" on the basis of brain research ought to take seriously the question whether our thoughts are really in our brains. I shall present an argument, based on such great philosophers as Descartes and Berkeley, to the effect that our thoughts are not at all in our brains.
I shall then outline some possible further implications which might be drawn from the conclusion that our thoughts are not in our brains. It might be that our thoughts are in our souls, and that brain research is irrelevant to the study of thought. Or it might be that the truth is what philosophers call "psycho-physical parallelism", according to which our thoughts are in our souls but are reflected by parallel events in our brains. Or it might be that -- as the philosopher Berkeley thought -- no physical objects really exist. So our brains would exist only in our thoughts, rather than our thoughts existing in our brains.
Published in Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 13 (2003), 48-49.
Idea diversity and cultural borrowing
- Tim Boyle, Theol.D. .
Tsukuba Christian Center, Japan; and USA
Email: za3t-byl@asahi-net.or.jp
Cultures have been adopting ideas from each other and then adapting those concepts to their own needs since the beginning of history. While such recent interchange is abundantly documented, that in ancient times is less clear. Nevertheless, some intriguing and little-known circumstantial evidence points to the flow of such basic concepts from very ancient times.
I will briefly introduce two lines of evidence pointing towards such ancient interchange. The first could perhaps be more accurately summed up in the concept of common origins rather than later exchange. Over 200 ancient flood accounts have been documented from every region of the world (). Many of these have very similar themes to that recorded in the Bible. While other interpretations are, of course, possible, one logical conclusion that can be drawn is that they have a common origin in the stories of an actual flood.
A wide variety of ancient cultures have their own versions of a Great Flood; many of these tales contain the following similarities. A summary of a couple of examples that show amazing similarity to the story of Noah:
Aztec: In the Valley of Mexico there lived a pious man named Tapi. The Creator told him to build a boat to live in, to take his wife and a pair of every animal that existed. Neighbors thought he was crazy. As soon as he finished, it began to rain. The valley flooded; men and animals went to mountains, but they were submerged. The rain ended, waters receded, etc. Tapi realized that the floodwaters had receded after having sent a dove that did not return. Tapi rejoiced.
Hawaiian: A Hawaiian legend tells of a flood in which all beings were killed except for Nuu and his family who repopulated the earth when their boat landed on top of Mauna Kea.
China: While specific flood legends exist in China, I want to briefly look at some circumstantial evidence in the origin of Chinese characters. Ship 船 "Eight 'mouths' on a boat". This points to common stories handed down to the authors of the Bible and to the ancient Chinese scribes who designed the characters.
There are two primary ways of explaining these similarities:
Coincidence. Practically every culture faces disastrous floods at one time or another and these are explained by mythology.
Common source. DNA studies conclude that all humans emerged from a common ancestral pair on the order of 50,000 years ago. If such a flood took place in prehistory, then it's logical that its distant memory would be preserved in ancient stories.
The other aspect of my talk will point to a still ancient but much later age when the "Silk Road" provided the means for extensive cultural interchange to take place in ancient Asia. Specifically, I will point to evidence showing the spread of Christian concepts that were incorporated into Chinese and Japanese culture as the result of their spread along the Silk Road during the First Millenium AD.
Japan is thought of as having been a Shinto and Buddhist culture from ancient times. Christianity is said to have first entered Japan in 1549 with Xavier. But this standard view needs to be modified. It is true that Western Christianity first came with Xavier, but "Keikyo" (="Nestorianism") was here long before, leaving its legacy in the form of many adopted ideas. The Christ motif of a savior entering human history from outside appears to have found its way into many stories. For instance, "Momo Taro", an ancient Japanese fairy tale of a boy that is born from a giant peach that floats up to a farmhouse. He is raised by the farmer and becomes a kind of savior who vanquishes evil with his power. In modern terms, it's very much like the story of "Superman". The common motif would seem to have been derived from the Christ story.
The Influence of Taoism at the End of Life
- Dena Hsin-Chen Hsin, and Darryl Macer.
China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba Science City 305-8572, JAPAN,
Email: hchsin@
To comprehend the ideas and thoughts of the human mind is not only an interesting research goal, but it often can be an effective and ethical way to solve the problems we face, and are enduring in our worldly realities. Some of these dilemmas are the life and death issues of human society.
With the remarkable advances in medical technology, the end of life often becomes a very complicated situation. Every clinician is obliged to make a decision of how to help in the dying process and to protect human dignity in an ethical and morally defensible way. To gather the ideas from people maybe a good start to making more ethical decisions with the patients in their care. To understand the context of people's values and attitudes should continue to build a social consensus which may facilitate the decision making process. Many people may agree that cultural restraints and experiences of the past are subjects to dominate their actions, however, in the end of life issues, people may not easily take action by their own judgment. Thus with the goal of promoting a higher humanity in the dying process, we need a strong conceptual framework to help people make decisions which they and their family will recognize to be the right ones.
People in Taiwan may adapt ancient Chinese philosophy like Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism as their value system. In the study of Taiwanese seniors' attitude toward life and death, we have perceived that many seniors in Taiwan accept Taoist philosophy as their attitude toward their declining life. Based on the comments given during the interviews, elderly people simply explained death as a return to the nature (In Chinese, Hwe Guei Tzyh Ran), or life should return to its source like ten thousands things (In Chinese, Wann Wuh Guei Gen). As Taoism describes human life as something with no form, nor substance in the beginning, then somehow there is a form or a shape of human body, then life, and later it returns to the nature again, people can easily accept this process as normal in motion like the four seasons. Also as a cosmetic view of Taoism that life and death should be even in the motion of natural cycle, the sequence, like day and night, should be up to Heaven and beyond the interference of man. With this kind of Taoist thinking, it will provide a defensive attitude towards our declining life that is Wu-Wei, actionless actions and just follow nature. We hope an in-depth thinking of Taoist philosophy will recall the original aims of medicine and uphold the truth that the value of human life should transcend from quality of life to quality of death.
When compared to the results of the question on the images of life in Australia, Japan and New Zealand by senior persons, we found that the idea to let life follow its natural course was also a major comment in other countries (Australia, 25%; Japan, 34%, New Zealand 20%, and Taiwan, 39%), so although the basis of this thinking in Taiwan may be called Taoism, once we start to explore the ideas of the human mind a thought process which can be labeled in one culture as Taoist, might have another label in another culture. If ideas are universal, then we could conclude that Taoist thinking is found in people in different cultures, not only Chinese. If Taoist thinking is not only found in the Chinese mind then we can appreciate it even more.
Transforming ideas into policy making- thoughts, values and global governance
- Minakshi Bhardwaj, Ph.D. .
Eubios Ethics Institute, Tsukuba Science City 305-8691, Japan
Email: bminakshi@
Each society has its own ethics and its on set of values that are developed over thousands of years. At the level of governance these values are interpreted, articulated and transformed into policies that may be reflective of the ethical values of the people. Governance is process of decision-making and the process by which the decisions are implemented. It is the complex mechanisms, processes, relationships, and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, ideologies, exercise their rights and obligations and mediate their differences. This paper tries to discuss some of the ethical issues in policy making in developing countries, and how values, ideologies and different cultures affect the governance at global level. The role of ethical principles in shaping ideas of people at the level of global governance will be discussed.
When did 'bioethics' begin in each country? A proposal of a comparative study
- Masahiro Morioka
Professor, CIAS, Osaka Prefecture University, Gakuencho, Sakai, Osaka, 599-8531 JAPAN
International Network for Life Studies
Email: pbi01055@nifty.ne.jp
Some people say that bioethics began in the USA and has spread around the world, but other people insist that bioethics has existed throughout the ages in every region. Which is right? Probably it depends on the definition of "bioethics."
(1) If we define "bioethics" as a kind of philosophy or ethics of life and death, we can find a great deal of literature from ancient times in every region. From this perspective, "bioethics" can be seen as a contemporary version of philosophy or ethics of life and death.
(2) If we define it as medical ethics, we can also find various ideas on ethics of medicine. There have been European, Chinese, Islamic, Hindu, Jewish traditions, etc. We have had a variety of discussions about euthanasia, abortion, healthy life, the use of medication, and so on.
(3) If we define it as environmental ethics, we have also had various traditions throughout the world.
(4) If we define it as the discussion of ethical issues arising from contemporary "advanced biomedical technology," such as organ transplantation, selective abortion, IVF and gene therapy, we can find such discussions from the 1960s to the present.
(5) If we define it as the civil movement that claimed the rights of patients, women, and the members of minority groups, then again, such movements have appeared since the 1960s in many countries.
(6) If we define it as an "academic" research and discussion, the United States of America would probably be one of the earliest countries to have institutionalized it as an academic discipline. Bioethics as an academic discipline emerged from the late 1970s to 1980s in the USA, but what about other countries?
I would like to propose a comparative study of the history of bioethics among countries or regions. Probably many interesting ideas and discussions will be found through the research. Isn't TRT the best place to discuss this topic? In Japan, bioethics as (1)(2)(3) has existed from ancient times. The discussion of ethical issues arising from contemporary "advanced biomedical technology" began in 1968 when organ transplantation from a (pseudo) brain dead person was performed. In 1972, the Eugenic Protection Law Revision Bill was presented to the Diet, and ethics of selective abortion after amniocentesis began a heated political issue. In this year, women's liberation groups and a disabled group started movement against the revision, and they discussed a number of "bioethical" issues, though they did not use the word "bioethics." They discovered the problem of our "inner eugenic thought," which has become one of the main topics in today's Japanese bioethics. Hence, bioethics as (4)(5) began in the early 1970s in Japan, and in my view the crucial year was 1972.
Academic research started in the mid-1980s and we "imported" bioethics literature from English books and journals. Japanese Association for Bioethics was established in 1988. Academic Books and papers on bioethics began to emerge in this period. Hence, bioethics as (6) is considered to have begun in the late 1980s in Japan. It is interesting that the criticism of "bioethics as an academic discipline" has existed from the beginning. (For example, the subtitle of my first book published in 1988 was "Beyond Bioethics.") It is important to looking for alternative ideas to "bioethics as an academic discipline" in each country. It should also be noted that the journal of Eubios Ethics Institute was first published in 1991 at Tsukuba, and we have had eight TRT international conferences here.
References
Masahiro Morioka, Disability Movement and Inner Eugenic Thought: A Philosophical Aspect of Independent Living and Bioethics, EJAIB 12 (May 2002), 94-97.
Debora Diniz, Dirce Bellezi Guilhem and Volnei Garrafa, Bioethics in Brazil, Bioethics 13:3/4, (1999):244-248.
Research project on Cultural Issues in Bioethics
>
Ideas of the Japanese Mind: An Outline of Japanese Ethics, Morals and Religions
- Shinryo N. Shinagawa, M.D. .
Emeritus Professor of Hirosaki University School of Medicine,
32-3 Fujimicho Hirosaki, Japan, 036-8223
E-mail: shinryo@smile.ocn.ne.jp
Six topics will be presented. They are: 1. A short prehistory of Japanese people; 2. A short cultural history of Japan especially from a viewpoint of foreign impacts on Japanese culture including ethics and philosophy; 3. A short history of religions in Japan; 4. Main characteristics of religions in Japan; 5. Main characteristics of ethics and morals in Japan, and 6. Christianity in Japan.
1. A Short Prehistory of Japanese People
Japan is a small country compared to China, West-Europe, Russia and the USA, and therefore almost all matters in Japan have been strongly influenced by the cultures – including philosophy and ethics – of these countries. Prior to a description of the influence of foreign cultures on Japan, I would like to talk about the prehistory of the Japanese people. Prehistoric man came to the Japanese islands at least 5,800 years ago. Since 1990s Japanese historians are now re-writing the prehistory of Japan after many ancient materials were newly discovered in San-nai Maruyama, in the northern extremity of Japans main island.
The Japanese race is considered to be of Ural-Altaic stock. They are Mongoloid, but with some admixture from South China, South East Asia and Polynesia. The Japanese, however, were not, the only indigenous inhabitants of the Japanese islands. The Ainu, who now represents a tiny minority of the inhabitants of Hokkaido and have almost disappeared as a separate race, are ethnically entirely different from the Japanese, being more hairy and less yellow-skinned. They are probably of the same racial origin as some of the Uralic peoples of Siberia. The Ainu were dominant in Hokkaido (the old name which was Ezo) until the nineteenth century and in northern Honshu until about 1,000 years ago. The Kumaso, who may have been of similar racial origin as the Ainu and lived in areas further south, were defeated and exterminated or absorbed by people of the Japanese race some 1,500 years ago.
2. A Short Cultural History of Japan
The first foreign culture – including ethics and philosophy – influenced Japan was the Chinese and Korean in the sixth or maybe already in the fifth century. Chinese characters, Confucianism, Buddhism and its related arts and constructions, such as the bureaucratic system and so on were introduced to Japan.
The second foreign culture was brought by the West-European traders and Christianity missionaries in the sixteenth century. Their visit finally resulted in a seclusion policy, with a Shogunate Government of Japan from 1640 to 1868 with one exception: Dutch traders in Nagasaki settling far from Edo (Tokyo) approximately 2,000 km to the South-West.
The third invasion took place by the visits of Russian, British, French and American vessels with new powerful modern western weapons. They asked the Japanese Shogunate Government to open the door for western countries other than the Netherlands, and forced them to sign unequal treaties. Unequal treaties became one of the reasons why the Japanese Meiji government went on the course of militarism and expansionism under the slogan of “a rich country, and strong army and navy”. Not only a few Japanese historians believe that one of the remote causes of the Pacific War took place in 1941 was the unequal treaties between the Anglo-American countries and Japan.
The fourth was the influence of the Russian Revolution in 1917. Socialism, communism, Marxism and Leninism were introduced to Japan from Russia (USSR) and West-European countries, and had a strong influence on the intelligentsia, the poor farmers and unemployed labourers in Japan. Soon, the Japanese government judged these thoughts to be ‘dangerous’ and threatening for the position of the Emperor and his family, the political system, and the independence of Japan. From 1918 to 1922, an intervention against the Russian Revolution – Siberia expedition – was carried out by the Japanese Army.
No one can deny that an inflow of communistic and socialistic thoughts became a motivation for the improvement of the poor people’s position and the health care system in Japan. At the same time, however, it became one of the triggers of the repulsive rise of fascism and fanatic nationalism in Japan since the 1930s which resulted in the Pacific War or World War II. Needless to say, that ideologies of fascism and totalitarianism of the right coming from Germany and Italy were introduced to Japan, and gave a strong impact to the nationalists and militarists in Japan. This was the fifth foreign impact to Japan.
The sixth impact was the greatest ever experienced by the Japanese people. This was the Pacific War or World War II and its consequences. From 1941 to 1945, especially from 1943 to 1945, the Japanese army and navy were defeated by the American at the fronts of the western and south-western Pacific ocean, and the tolls exceeded two millions. The most serious experience of this war to the Japanese people was the fact that the battlefield extended from the front to the Japanese mainland, and that the distinction between combatants and non-combatants was imprecise. Both in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, more than 100,000 civilians died by one attack of the American Atomic bombing. Finally in August 1945, Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration and surrendered to the Allied countries. The occupation of Japan by Allied Forces, mainly by American troops, was carried out formally from 1945 to 1952. In practice, however, it continues to the 2000s at least in Okinawa, a southern island.
The defeat in World War II and the occupation by foreign troops were the first experience of this kind for the Japanese people. Remorse for the hazardous past was so great, and Japan and the Japanese people pledged to revive as a nation of pacifism, so that Japan adopted a new constitution in 1946, which announced to the world “Renunciation of War”. Although many problems and discussions relating to the pacifism of post war Japan have remained unsolved, pacifism may be called the most striking characteristics of post war philosophy and ethics in Japan.
Along the line of pacifism, Japan reconstructed its destroyed land, cities, railroads, ports, mills, plants, etc., and the money which would have been used for the military and warfare, was used as greatly as possible for the reconstruction of Japan, the welfare and the prosperity of the people, not only of Japan but also of other countries. Japan’s expenditures for defence are limited to stay under one percent of GNP. On the other hand, two announcements have been adopted by the Japanese government: “Three Non-Nuclear (Military) Policy” and “Three No Arms Exporting Policy”. And as far as the Japanese government announces, they continue to function. If the latter would be adopted by many industrialized countries other than Japan, most of the civil wars and international conflicts in such areas as the Balkan, Africa, the Near and Middle East would cease very soon.
In the 1990s, the seventh impact attacked Japan and the Japanese people. It started with the end of the cold war between the two superpowers. A balance between the ideas of the right and the left forces in Japan seems to be loosing, and many Japanese are now worrying about a possible recession in social security and health care in Japan. At the same time, voices are becoming loud that a restudy of the social system built in postwar Japan, including the constitution, is necessary.
From the viewpoints mentioned above, I am of the opinion that a history of Japan – including ethics and philosophy – can be classified as seen in Table 1 into seven stages or categories.
|Table 1. A classification of Japanese History from a viewpoint of Foreign impacts on Japanese Culture, including Ethics and Philosophy |
|An early introduction of Chinese and Korean culture, especially of Chinese characters, Confucianism, Buddhism and a bureaucratic administration|
|system, in the 6th or earlier centuries |
|An era strongly influenced by Chinese civilizations from the 6th century up to the 16th century |
|Seclusion era against western countries with an exception of Dutch (and Chinese) traders in Nagasaki from 1615 to 1868 |
|Westernization and modernization of Japan from 1868 to the 1920s |
|Years of fascism and nationalism and World War II (Pacific War) and its defeats from the 1930s to1945 |
|Years of occupation by Allied Forces and Cold War between two superpowers from 1945 to 1980s |
|Since 1990s – after the end of the Cold War |
3. A Short History of Religions in Japan
The prehistoric period continued in Japan up-to the 5th century. In 513, Confucian scholars came from Korea to Japan, and brought Chinese features to philosophy and ethics of Confucianism and Taoism. In 538 or in 552 Buddhism was introduced officially coming from Korea. In 604, the Seventeen-Article Constitution was promulgated by Prince Regent Shotoku (574-622), and in 607, the construction of the Horyuji Temple began in Nara under the strong influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. By the introduction of Confucianism and Buddhism and by the communication with Korean, Chinese and more-western cultures and people since the 7th century, the mind of the Japanese people was stimulated, and an original form of Shinto or Shintoism began to be systematized.
After the death of Prince Regent Shotoku, as the number of monks increased and they were gradually classified into six schools; the Sanron, Hosso, Kegon, Ritsu, Kusha, and Jojitsu. These schools were directly introduced from China, and were studied at the various temples, established by the government.
In the 8th century two new Buddhism sects were introduced from China namely Tendai and Shingon by Saicho and Kukai. Kukai was not only a great priest of Buddhism but also a distinguished creator of the Japanese culture. The most famous is the creation of the Japanese alphabets, hiraganas and katakanas. One of the reasons, I guess, why the Japanese technology and science developed unusually among non-western countries depends upon this creation and popularization of Japanese alphabets.
Up-to the 12th century, Buddhism was confined to the privileged classes of court nobles, monks, scholars, and artisans who had enough time to master the complicated philosophy and rituals of Buddhism.
During the Kamakura period (1185-1333) a drastic change took place in Buddhism. New movements occurred within the Japanese religious world, and three schools newly rose and developed. These are the Jodo (Pure Land), Zen, and Nichiren schools, and each has pursued its own course and continues to do so today.
Among the new Buddhist movements in the 13th century, the Nichiren school had influenced the Japanese society most strongly and broadly. Two significant influences should be mentioned; they are the alliance of the Nichiren Buddhism with the Shintoistic nationalism till 1945, and the proliferation of new religious movements of Buddhist origin that have suddenly appeared during the 20th century. Such powerful organizations as Soka Gakkai (Value-creating Sect of Buddhism), Reiyukai, and Risshou Kosei Kai, all originated from the Nichiren school. Soka Gakkai claiming, more than 16 million adherents and closely connected with the Komeito Party (Clean Political Party), the No.3 political party in Japan today following the Libero-Democratic and Democratic Parties.
After the Kamakura period, the periods of the Shogunate military government continued up-to 1868 in Japan. The mind of the Japanese people and the foundation of the Japanese society were consolidated in these periods of the Shogunate Governments, especially during the Tokugawa period (1603-1868). The Tokugawa Shogunate Government had the policy of (1) the suppression of Christianity especially of the Roman Catholic church, (2) international isolation or Closing-door policy against Euro-American countries except the Netherlands, and (3) separation of Buddhism from Confucianism and Shintoism. Namely, Buddhism functioned in the religious sphere; Confucianism in the moral sphere and for the ruling of the people, and Shinto in state politics.
The idea of the separation of these roles was consciously or unconsciously implanted into the minds of the Japanese and continues to hold up to the present time. Buddhism was no more a vital religion but retained only in the tradition which was handed down by the priests and monks from the Kamakura Period.
Meanwhile, the Tokugawa Shogunate Government has continued for more than 200 years with no civilian war at all, and an extremely close unification or peaceful coexistence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Shintoism was realized in Japan, as well as the establishment of a Japanese-specific way of thinking, living and decision-making.
Therefore, it may be said that a complex of Confucianism, Buddhism and Shintoism had already been established prior to the open-door policy of the New Meiji Government functioning since 1868.
4. Main Characteristics of Religions in Japan
There are many religions in Japan. Indeed, Japan may be called a country presenting a “Museum of Religions”. Various religions are flourishing side by side, such as Buddhism, Shintoism, Christianity, and others. Here, I would like to point out some common tendencies in the major Japanese religions as well as in the folk-beliefs, being:
1. Emphasis on filial piety or obedience ad ancestor-worship connected with the Japanese family system and agriculture ascending from ancient times;
2. Deep-seated and common beliefs in spirits of the dead in connection with ancestor-worship, as well as with more animistic conceptions of malevolent and benevolent spirit activities;
3. Emphasis on onn (debts or favours given by superiors, human or superhuman) and ho-onn (the return to onn);
4. Continuity between man and deity, or ease in the deification of human beings;
5. Mutual borrowing and mixing of different religious traditions, in other words, a syncretistic character;
6. Co-existence of heterogeneous religions in one family or in one person.
7. More peripheral position in every-day life.
Today in Japan, religion occupies a more peripheral position. In the 17th century, religion did play much the same role in Japan as in the West, but the trend towards secularism (that has recently became marked in the West) dates back to at least three centuries in Japan. The secularism of the Japanese society is the product of a Confucian philosophical background, which has had this same effect on China and Korea even earlier.
8. Abundance of new religions.
New religions are abundant in Japan. Within the span of a decade of post-war Japan, statistics show that about six hundred new religions appeared. The new religions tend to be highly syncretistic, combining Shintoism, Buddhism, Confucianism and sometimes furthermore even Christian or Western philosophic influences. The new religions usually stress this-world-life, rather than the after-life, emphasizing the achievement of health, prosperity, self-improvements, happiness through faith or through magical practice, peace and prevention of war, and so on.
5. Main Characteristics of Ethics and Morals in Japan
The first thing that should be mentioned is the fluidity of Japanese ethics and morals. These categories are usually more fluid than static or absolute. This so-called “situational ethics” is based on continuing human experience rather than on a corpus of dogmas. Flexibility and conformity to prevailing circumstances could be said to the waterwards of Japanese morality.
This fluidity and flexibility comes from the fact that the two distinct concepts of “what is good” and “what is bad”, do not please the Japanese ethical sensibility. This is illustrated by such expressions as “Even the position of a criminal may be from thirty to fifty percent correct”. For many Japanese people, the problem of ethics and morals is not the conscious mind of each individual but rather the relationships between individuals. This is the second characteristic of ethics and morals in Japan.
It is not possible to comprehend how a good action differs from a bad action, unless they are considered from the viewpoint of the relationship between one man and another. A Japanese usually looks upon himself as a member of a group to which he belongs, furthermore a member of a national family to whom he has some obligations and duties, and considers it to be the role of this group, national family or state to preserve and enhance a benevolent social order that is immutably Japanese.
Therefore, in Japan, the bonds and relationships to other members of the group or of the society is very important. Once the bonds, relationships, and obligations in the weft and warp of society have been accepted and fixed in place, Japan is a very nice and comfortable country to live in, and the Japanese people can cleave to you with amazing tenacity. Shinryo or trustworthiness is a central operative word in many Japanese social interactions.
6. Christianity in Japan
Christianity adherents in Japan number to only about 1 million – less than 1 percent of the whole population – divided fairly into Protestants and Catholics. The influence of Christianity on the modern Japanese society is far greater than its number of adherents would suggest. Christians, though few in number, are strongly represented among the best educated, leading elements in society and have therefore exerted a quite disproportionate influence.
Another factor should be mentioned here is that Christianity, as an important element of Western civilization, has attracted general interest and curiosity. Most educated Japanese probably have a clearer concept of the history and basis tenets of Christianity than they have of Shintoism and Buddhism.
I think, that perhaps the largest area of Christian influence is within ethics. As modern Japanese increasingly turned to universalistic values, they adopted many ethical attitudes which historically both in the West and in the Japanese mind are associated with Christianity today. Thus the Christian influence on contemporary Japanese ethical values is at least more recognizable if not even actually greater than the influence of either Buddhism or Shintoism.
Moreover, many Japanese look upon Christians as people of high moral priorities, and they often envy the apparent firmness of Christian beliefs, though they find themselves unable to accept the accompanying theology.
References
1. Buddhist Promoting Foundation: The teaching of Buddha. Kosaido Printing Co.Ltd. (Tokyo), 1977.
2. Cortazzi, H.: Modern Japan, The Japan Times (Tokyo), 1994
3. Hall, J.W.: Japan. From prehistory to modern times. Charles E. Tuttle Company (Tokyo), 1971.
4. Hori, I.: Religion in Japan (Japanese Version). Taimeido (Tokyo), 1987.
5. Lebra, T.S.: Japanese patterns of behavior, University of Hawaii Press (Honolulu), 1976.
6. Matsumoto, K.: Introducing Buddhism. Charles E. Tuttle Company (Tokyo), 1987.
7. Moore, C.A.: The Japanese mind. Essentials of Japanese philosophy and culture. Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1980.
8. Ono, S.: Shinto. The Kami Way. Charles E. Tuttle Company (Tokyo), 1962.
9. Reischauer, E.O.: The Japanese, Charles E. Tuttle Company (Tokyo), 1978.
10. Sanson, G.B.: Japan in world history. Charles E. Tuttle Company (Tokyo), 1977.
11. Suzuki, D.T.: Zen and Japanese culture. Bollingen Series LXIV – Princeton University Press, 1958.
12. Wilkinson, E.: Japan versus Europe. A history of misunderstanding. Penguin Books, 1981.
Ecological feedback drives the evolution of ideas and living things, which carry them
- Rick Weisburd, Ph.D.
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan; and USA
Email: weisburd@biol.tsukuba.ac.jp
What is a human idea? The mind creates ideas to experience, feel, express, or process perception of things both physical and abstract, sensed and intuited, real and imagined. Ideas may be the fundamental unit of mental processing of information. However, ideas and the ability to process them are not limited to humans, and might not be limited to living organisms. Even chemicals like nucleic acids might be thought of ideas. With a determined number of possible bases at each position (4), for any given nucleotide length, there is a fixed number of possible nucleotide sequences. Although the number of possible DNA ideas (unique nucleotide sequence) increases exponentially with increases in sequence length, it cannot become infinite unless a nucleotide sequence of infinite length is possible. Perhaps like the number of possible DNA ideas, the number of possible human ideas, is finite. Nevertheless, the number of such possible ideas is so vast that we cannot conceive of any cell, computer, or mind that could consider them all. Thus, trying to characterize all possible ideas might be futile. A more sensible approach might be to characterize and classify ideas based on their utility to humans.
Ideas of the Chinese Mind
- Baoqi Su.
Center for Bioethics, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
Email: subaoqi2005@vip.
1. Confucian ideas of “persons”
The traditional Confucian culture has had deep impact on the shaping and development of the ideas of the Chinese people. In this paper I would like to share a few thoughts about Confucian views in facing modern bioethical debates.
Mencius’ (Meng Zi) idea of a moral person, is precisely the mind which cannot bear to see the sufferings of others. As Mencius argued as follows:
“When I say that all men have the mind which cannot bear to see the suffering of others, my meaning may be illustrated thus: Now, when men suddenly see a child about to fall into a well, they all have a feeling of alarm and distress, not to gain friendship with the child’s parents, nor to seek the praise of their neighbors and friends, nor because they dislike to the reputation of lack of humanity if they did not rescue the child. From such a case, we see that a man without the feeling of commiseration is not a man; a man without the feeling of shame and dislike is not a man; a man without the feeling of deference and compliance is not a man; and a man without the feeling of right and wrong is not a man. The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity (ren); the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness (yi); the feeling of deference and compliance is the beginning of propriety (li); and feeling of right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom (zhi)…” 1
According to Mencius, people with capacities of humanity (ren), righteousness (yi), propriety (li), and wisdom (zhi) are regarded as a virtuous person.
As Dr. Tsai has argued in his paper “The Two-Dimensional Concept of Confucian Personhood in Biomedical Practice”, 2 Confucius (Kong Zi)’ concept of a moral ideal person is expressed as a Junzi (the moral person or the superior man). A Junzi in Confucian ethics is the person of high moral achievement who constantly tries to improve and cultivate himself to attain various stages of perfection. He is a man of humaneness (ren) and righteousness (yi); he pursues harmony and unity with the universal moral order, the Dao (the Way). Junzi is well qualified to be an autonomous person, a true moral agent who is self-activated, self-determined, self-reliant, and is constantly improving himself via moral self-cultivation. Besides being an autonomous person, Junzi has another important feature as emphasized in Confucian ethics in relational perspectives. A Confucian person is socially situated, defined, and shaped in a relational context where he must achieve humaneness (ren) through interaction with other particular individuals. No one can be fully human without playing roles in the interaction with one’s fellow persons.
To examine Confucian ideas of “persons” is the key to many moral dilemmas of practical medical issues in contemporary China. Some of the important implications, such as the moral status of the fetus, abortion, healthy birth and eugenics, physician-patient-family relationships and other issues, including death and euthanasia, reproductive technology and genetics. Let us examine a few in order to illustrate ideas that would be important to include in the construction of the mental map. 3
2. Moral status of fetus and healthy birth
The person often considered to be the third greatest Confucian, Xun Zi said: “birth is the beginning of a person, and death is the end of a person. If one has a good birth and a good death, then he fulfills the Dao of mankind (Xun Zi).” Since then, this idea has become a conventional Chinese idea. The human fetus has value, but it has not been treated as a person. 4 A zygote, an embryo or an early fetus will not be regarded as an independent person in that it presents no sign of any personal behavior before it is born. 5 A person is an entity that has body or shape and psyche, and has rational, emotional and social-relational capacity. Thus Confucianism accepts early abortion with some conditions and it is not considered as killing a person. Traditionally, the mourning period of a person’s death continued for several weeks, but a dead fetus was never officially mourned. When an abortion took place, the Chinese philosophy would not say that a person died. However, human embryo is not merely stuff, which has potential to become a person. Stem cell research is permissible under very strict conditions presently in China.
As to the phrase “good birth and good death”, it can be interpreted a person should have a healthy birth and a peaceful death. The Chinese word “Yousheng” (which is sometimes translated into the English word of “Eugenics”) has an original meaning as “good birth” or “healthy birth” without any intention of the tragic history of eugenics in the earlier twentieth century. Infanticide or abandonment of newborns has happened in China, however, it may not be of wide extent. It was due to various reasons. In traditional Chinese culture, a child usually ranks at a higher level, and is regarded as having more value because it is a future person. As a matter of fact, we always save a child first if we could not save both an adult and the child.
3. A human being is a part of a family and community
Confucian ideas are very much concerned about human relationships. A person is a relational person, who cannot survive without support from others. A person is only a drop in the sea, without this drop of water the sea will still exist. It is a quite a different concept of person to the modern idealized Western independent person. The social interest is more important that individual interests, and when they conflict, the latter should be given priority. That is why, in some issues, the Chinese people always give priority to family, community and society. For example, Chinese people understand and support the one-child family law, although most of them desire to have at lease one boy and one girl.
From the Confucian point of view, this is how we could understand the physician-patient-family relationship in the Chinese society. The family has responsibility to take care of sick members, and on the basis of respect of the patient’s will, traditional Confucian culture takes all the opinions of the patient’s families into account. The family is the basic unit of traditional Chinese society. In actual practice, physicians frequently inform the families rather than the patient about a serious disease. They consult the families in order to establish a plan for treatment. 6 This stands in contrast with some other countries where the patient’s individual autonomy is more highly respected. However, family values and the common good may cause the patient to reconcile their right of autonomous decision-making to the preferential choice of the family or society. 7 Informed consent is not given by individual patient, but by the family. For example, the decision of donating organs after death by a person may be against by their family. The extremes of totally ignoring the family views are not seen in any culture.
4. Death is a taboo in Chinese mind
Many countries in the world have admitted the concept of brain death, organ donation from dead bodies, and even euthanasia has become legitimate in several countries. However, Chinese people are reluctant to accept these, probably because of the influence of Chinese traditional culture. Confucian ethics puts greater emphasis on the doctor’s duty to help people. Saving life is regarded as the highest virtue. In a Confucian culture, life is the most precious good whereas death should be avoided. This tradition is expressed in the concepts of “Five Blessings” and “Six Disasters” in the Shangshu’s chapter “Magnificent Norms”, where life is cherished and death is detested. The Five Blessings are longevity, happiness, health, virtuous living and life unto and old age; the Six Disasters are dying young, disease, worries, poverty, evilness and weakness. 8 In tradition, it was also connected with the understanding of life and death as mysterious and holy destiny. The Lunyu Yanyuan (Analects of Confucius: On Yan Yuan) wrote that “Death and life belong to destiny, and wealth and rank are determined by fate”. Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism all consider that life and death are destined by fate and reflect the Will of Heaven and cannot be changed by human power. 9 Therefore, everyone should fulfill his life from birth to death naturally.
The main Confucian idea is that body, hair, and skin are received from the parents, and life is owed to the parents, so one should keep the body integrated even after death. That is why people hesitate to donate organs in China, though it is difficult to compare the attitudes to people in other countries given the difference sin life quality and health insurance. However, the Confucian idea of death has a deep impression on Chinese mind. Death is unwanted and no action that helps someone to die is regarded as a virtuous action. Hence generally Chinese have a negative attitude against euthanasia of their elderly relatives. This is contrary to a popular idea in Western medical ethics, to respect patient’s autonomy as the most important and fundamental principle. Hence physicians in medical practice have to respect the patient’s decision, even if they believe that the decision is against the patient’s health or life.
5. Ideas of health, genetic diseases in cultural context
Chinese traditional medicine does not use the word “jiankang” (health). The Huangdi neijing (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine) defined health as the unification of the counter-position as Yin and Yang (According to ancient Chinese medicine, Yin and Yang are the two opposing principles of nature, the former being feminine and negative, and the latter being masculine and positive). 10 The Huangdi Neijing considered that health is the balance of Yin and Yang. Excess or deficiency of Yin or Yang will cause illness.
Genetic diseases can due to the imbalance between Yin and Yang too. The lives of disabled persons in society can be miserable, due to all kinds of reasons. Confucian ideas of treatment of genetic diseases can be one demonstration of the contribution to the current moral dilemmas in medical ethics. We will see that the practice of medical genetics has been greatly affected by traditional Chinese culture. The Confucian principle for dealing with the ethical issues of biotechnology is Dao. Dao, in Chinese philosophy exists everywhere in everything and dominates the exercise and functioning of all things in the universe. 11 A moral person practices the Dao, not only to develop their own nature, but also to help others, as well as all things on earth, to fulfill their nature. 12 This aspect of morality is expressed in the Zhongyong (The Doctrine of Mean) as follows:
“Only those who are absolutely sincere can fully develop their nature. If they can fully develop their nature, they can fully develop the nature of others. If they can fully develop the nature of others, they can fully develop the nature of things. If they can fully develop the nature of things, they can then assist in the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth. If they can assist in the transforming and nourishing process of Heaven and Earth, they can thus form a trinity with Heaven and Earth” .13
The Confucian mind regards biotechnology as an act of great virtue to help people who suffer from diseases. There are numerous natural defects that need the help of human beings to improve. 14 Traditionally Chinese people are very enthusiastic with science and technology. However, one should not abuse the employment of genetic technology, such as using it for sex selection, or as an aid to eugenics and raising discrimination to individual according to his or her genetic information.
6. Confucian ethics is “virtue ethics”
Confucian ethics as well as traditional medical ethics are mainly “virtue ethics”. It is well known that medicine is regarded in Confucian culture as “an art of humaneness (yi ben ren shu)”. Ren (humaneness) means loving people, caring for people, and doing good to people. A Chinese adage says: “if you could not become a prime minister, then become a doctor.” Tthe responsibility of a physician is the same as a prime minister to practice ren. The Confucians emphasize cultivating the virtue of doctors themselves is more important than norms or ethical standards. 15
The famous Tang dynasty physician Sun Simiao says: “If a patient requests help, one may not consider whether he is rich or poor, superior or inferior, old or young, beautiful or ugly, a Chinese or a barbarian, dumb or intelligent, all patients must be regarded in the same manner, as they were the closet of kin.” Physicians should be dedicated to helping others. And he also indicated that the doctors should be indifferent towards wealth. As he wrote in his book (The Essence of Great Medicine): “Essential prescriptions worth a thousand gold prices”, “Physicians may not use their skills for commerce”. 16 He also regarded the life of animals is the same as human’s, so he argued against using animal components as medication. I assume that is why Chinese herbal medicine welcomed by the people from the world today apart from its other merits.
According to a fundamental moral norm “Xiao” (filial piety), it is a rule to have boys to take the family line, and a child to taste a poison and a medication on behalf of his parents. A cancer patient or a terminally ill patient (although he or she is a competent and rational person) is not told the real disease by doctors or their children until death. As to Confucian rule of etiquette, Meng Zi said in giving and receiving, men and women should not touch each other (nan nu shou shou bu qin). But if one’s sister-in-law is drowning, he should give a hand to her. 17
7. Conclusions
The basic Confucian idea is ren, which means “loving people” The golden rule is: “What you do not wish for yourself do not do to others”, and “After establishing yourself, you should help others to establish themselves; after you develop yourself, you should help others to develop themselves” (The Lunyu, The Analects of Confucius). This is consistent with the Western principle of “good”: “To do to others only what you wish others to do to you”. From the origin of morality in China, the moral principles of ren (humaneness), yi (righteousness), li (propriety) and zhi (wisdom) are key ideas for the mental map. People with such a moral character are regarded as virtuous persons. This is in harmony with the Western principles of autonomy, justice, do no harm and beneficence, as Darryl Macer expresses as various forms of love, self-love, love of others, loving life and loving good. They are both major guiding principles for our common lives and they both share a common idea of ren and ai (humaneness and love). We could see the idea of love of others in traditional Confucianism and today, as well as in other cultures.
Confucianism has long been a representative of traditional Chinese thoughts and it has directed social, political, educational, and moral actions in Chinese society for more than two thousand years. The ancient Chinese medical ethics was also established on the foundation of Confucian ethics. 18 The traditional Confucian culture has impacted deeply on the development of the ideas of the Chinese mind. Confucian views in facing new bioethics issues brought about by recent advances in medicine could be seen as offering important contributions to the ongoing development of Chinese society. The Confucian thoughts should not be ignored even though the solutions of contemporary China’s bioethics dilemmas cannot be found only in the historical dimension, because they are fundamental constructs to what we might call the "Chinese mind".
8. Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank Professor Darryl Macer and the colleagues participating in the Eighth International Tsukuba Bioethics Roundtable: Proposal for an Integrative Human Idea Map and the Methodology of Cross-Cultural and Multidisciplinary Bioethics for their comments on the earlier draft of this paper.
9. References
1 Chan Wing-tsit. (1973). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, Fourth Printing, 1973: 65
2 Tsai, Daniel F. C. (2002). The Two-Dimensional Concept of Confucian Personhood in Biomedical Practice. In O. Doering and Renbiao Chen (eds.) Advances in Chinese Medical Ethics: Chinese and International Perspectives. (pp.195-213). Hamburg: Institute of Asian Affairs.
3 Macer, Darryl R. J. (2002). The next challenge is to map the human mind. Nature 420,121.
4 Qiu, Renzong. (1999). Cultural and Ethical Dimensions of Genetic Practices in China. In O. Doring (ed.) Chinese Scientists and Responsibility: Ethical Issues of Human Genetics in Chinese and International Contexts (pp. 213-238). Hamburg: Institute of Asian Affairs.
5 Lee Shui-chuen. (1999). How Confucians Establish the Moral Worthiness of A Person: On the Personhood of An Individual. In Lee Shui-chuen (author) Confucian Bioethics (pp. 167-177). Taibei: Legion Press, 1999.
6 Zhang, Daqing. (2002). Medicine as Virtuous Conduct: Assessing the Tradition of Chinese Medical Ethics. In O. Doering and Renbiao Chen (eds.) Advances in Chinese Medical Ethics: Chinese and International Perspectives. (pp. 233-254). Hamburg: Institute of Asian Affairs.
7 See reference 2.
8 See reference 6.
9 Shen Mingxian. (2002). Euthanasia and Chinese Traditional Culture. In O. Doering and Renbiao Chen (eds.) Advances in Chinese Medical Ethics: Chinese and International Perspectives. (pp. 255-265). Hamburg: Institute of Asian Affairs.
10 Huangdi Neijing Suwen. (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine). Beijing: People’s Health Press, 1979.
11 Tsai Daniel Fu-Chang. (2001). How should doctors approach patients? A Confucian reflection on personhood. Journal of Medical Ethics, February 2001, Vol 27, No 1, p 44-50.
12 Lee, Shui-chuen. (2002). A Confucian Concept of Personhood and Its Implication for Medical Ethics. In O. Doring (ed.) Chinese Scientists and Responsibility: Ethical Issues of Human Genetics in Chinese and International Contexts (pp.167-177). Hamburg: Institute of Asian Affairs.
13 See reference 1: 107-108.
14 Lee Shui-chuen. (1998). A Confucian Perspective on Human Genetics. In O. Doring (ed.) Chinese Scientists and Responsibility: Ethical Issues of Human Genetics in Chinese and International Contexts (pp. 187-198). Hamburg: Institute of Asian Affairs.
15 See reference 4.
16 Sun, Simiao. The Essence of Great Medicine. Beijing: People’s Health Press, Reprinted 1982.
17 Mencius. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Book Press, Reprinted 1991.
18 See reference 11.
The Human Idea Map: A follow-up of the Human Genome Map?
- Margaret Sleeboom, Ph.D. .
IAS, Leiden University, Noonnensteeg 1-3-2311, VG, Leiden, The Netherlands
E-mail: m.sleeboom@let.leidenuniv.nl
Introduction
This essay is a comment on the Human Idea Map, central theme of TRT8, and the proclaimed follow-up of the Human Genome Map.[1] One aim of making a Human Idea Map, according to initiator Darryl Macer, in the Proposal for an Integrative Mental Mapping Project [abbr. ‘Proposal’] is to answer the question of the universality of ideas.[2] The aim will be realised by mapping all ideas (in the absolute sense of ‘all and every idea’), which, according to the Proposal, are discrete (countable) units. This map, it is argued, would help us ‘when we're faced with dilemmas like should we have common guidelines to regulate the use of new biotechnology or assisted reproductive technology using cloning’.[3]
I believe, however, that a focus on the countability of genes, ideas and neuronal states does not necessarily lead to a better understanding of human behaviour, and proceeds, in my view, from just one a-historical idea: behaviourism.[4] The notion of an idea as a mental conceptualisation cannot be measured by rational choice theory as presented in the Proposal, because it excludes other notions of what counts as an idea. Therefore, I disagree with the argument that because the number of possible choices for action is finite and the number of sensory states of animals is finite, the number of human ideas is finite.
Even if Mental Mapping were to be the solution to the world’s problems, trying to explain some ideas by means of sources, which in fact may be just other ideas, is a tautology. In this case, it is a tautology symptomatic for a reductionist approach towards human expression and history. Disregards the question of whether or not it is possible to create a Human Idea Map, instead of creating a mental map of all ideas, it may be more useful to put together a Thesaurus of Human Folly. At entrance number one, in my view, we had better put human over-self-confidence.
The historical nature of ideas
One presupposition of Mental Mapping is that man can find and create common guidelines to solve bioethical dilemmas, that are direct and give shape to human history. However, whether or not we use a new technology does not mainly depend on the question of whether we have ideas in common, leave alone bioethical ones. To paraphrase Karl Marx, People make their own history, but not always in the way they meant to.[5] In other words, structural problems exist independently of our ethical stance: different human groupings may have different interests. The fact that bioethical choices are perceived as dilemmas cannot be understood without reference to the particular situations in which they occur. Thus, in principle, one could agree with the idea of developing, say, cloning technology, though in practice one could advise against it, owing to the realisation that the technology could be misused in particular situations.
In other words, technology, its use, and its purpose cannot be understood fully or adequately through the ideas they represent. Instead, they gain their meaning in ever changing historical contexts and vary according to who is observing. Thus, in one situation, the possession of biological weapons is met with the idea of making money based on profit maximisation and in others with that of military destruction based on moral indignation. Rather than regarding mapping ideas as the key to difficult questions of warfare, bioethical dilemmas, and animosity, religious clashes and political inequality, we need to understand how inequality in power relations have come about historically. For ideas have no neutral value outside history: they change along with the rest of the world, which we perceive through them.
The Enlightenment and the instrumentality of Mental Mapping
The Proposal’s idea that a universal Idea Map could somehow be completed and used for solving bioethical problems to me seems to be an optimistic one, reminiscent of the pursuits of Don Quixote. Many thinkers have warned against the naivety of overrating human knowledge, as human impulse and accident cannot be ignored with impunity. However, resolving clashes of ideas by placing them into a gigantic Idea Bank would require the help of an immense dosage of scholastic fervour, and a belief in the mediation of God or a very cunning management corporation.
The belief in the omnipotence of human control has been criticised as a product of positivism and the Enlightenment. One of the ancient pillars of the positivist belief in the power of human knowledge is Plato’s view of ideas. Plato regarded ideas as mental maps, as the shadows of a finite number of images. They were types, or archetypes. In short, ideas were depicted spatially as related types that varied according to the way you looked at them.[6] These types were eternal, constituting an a-historical taxonomy. Such a-historical taxonomies revived during the Renaissance. They were also part and parcel of developments in biology, such as the taxonomy developed by the Swedish botanist Linnaeus. His taxonomy, similarly, was flat: it was timeless. The philosophical current has been criticised over and over again in East, West and elsewhere for its neglect of temporal relations and for its universal pretences.
Darwin’s evolution inserted time into this equation. Social Darwinist, however, inserted a new kind of time into human history: a notion of time that linked primitive societies to complex societies vertically.[7] A serious accusation, that still holds today, was directed at the attempts by social Darwinists to project their taxonomies onto human society, which has led to both ideologies of the eugenics and universalistic ideologies of behaviour.[8] Both have enormous potential for human conflict: the former regard some categories of humans as better equipped and, therefore, superior to others; the latter tend to relate human equality to one ideal-type to which the rest of humanity is expected to conform. In times of conflict, an Idea Bank containing predefined and ordered ideas of race, physical health and behaviour norms (i.e. mental health) may be a powerful instrument when mobilised by authoritarian regimes.
Of course, many conflicts are only triggered by the clashes of ideas, not caused by the ideas themselves (for no idea exists independently!). Thus wars usually occur as the unintended consequences of actions and non-actions. In turn, these are part and parcel of complex processes, which are irreducible to cerebral neurology.
The survival value of ideas
The belief that a better understanding of the thinking of others has survival value in evolution (p. 203) is another notion borrowed from biology. In this case, it is used in support of a blind form of idealism that ignores the complexity of power relations between people. For in what situations and for whom does the understanding of others lead to survival? In wartime by knowing ones enemy? Or by knowing ones partner in love? Often it has been said that understanding the behaviour of others is the forte of women: can we say that it has contributed to their survival value? How do we historically show that the understanding of others has led to an increase in survival value?
I do not proclaim the uselessness of ideas, but object against the notion that ideas could ever be thought or understood outside their (historical) context, and that they could be ascribed some generalised function. The notion of ‘ideas as having survival value’ seems to be tautological. Whatever we mean by ‘understanding others’, as long as we don’t know what it means, which seems to be the case, we can hardly claim know what is survival value. Furthermore, it is well-known that in the evolution of species criteria can be applied for fitness in a certain environment with hindsight only. This is why the nature of evolutionary laws is tautological. In the case of humans we cannot even apply criteria with hindsight as the relationship between humans and their environment changes extremely fast. This is partly a result of the human ability to reflect upon its own behaviour. Nevertheless, some peoples seem to ‘survive’ very well exactly because they concentrate on understanding just a few ideas, without reflecting upon those of others, and do not bother, for instance, to learn a foreign language. Of course, the ways in which we apply ideas is crucial, and depends on the quality of the environment and timing rather than on their numbers alone.
The concept of Idea
The concept of idea in the Proposal is given various meanings and features:[9] constituting a part of memory; a linguistic expression; rational thought; rational planning; part of a mental map; a countable unit; and, choices of response. Nevertheless, in the arguments in favour of idea mapping only the last two definitions are worked out. In other words, ideas are equated to choices of response and subsequently regarded as countable units. The proof for their countability, according to the Proposal, is that surveys held in different countries yield similar views when survey respondents are asked their opinion about technology (p. 205-6).
This argument ignores, however, the fallacy of equating survey questions (choices) and their statistical analysis with an exhaustive storehouse of ideas. For the opinion-polls themselves limit the number of possible answers, as do most questionnaires. They limit choice, and therefore are conservative in principle. The closed and limiting character of surveys is expressed by:
• the ways in which questions are posed;
• the way the possible answers are arranged;
• the relationship between questionnaire and respondent; and,
• the particular point in space and time at which the survey is held.
Thus, if after a bomb threat a passenger at Heathrow Airport is asked, ‘What do you think about a possible war between Iraq and the West?’ the answer of the respondent is likely to be influenced by the following factors:
• what is meant by ‘West’ and ‘war’;
• the choice of answers given to the respondent;
• the fact that survey questions can hardly be questioned;
• the hierarchic relationship between the person conducting the survey and the respondent; and,
• the fact that the question is asked at Heathrow (after a bomb threat) so that answers may tend to reflect the vulnerability of the respondent.
We can hardly hope, therefore, that surveys could ever provide us with an ‘objective’ understanding of even one idea about just one subject in only one point of space and time. The idea in all of its detail, leave alone the understanding of all ideas in different languages, species, spaces and times will remain out of the scholastic reach of the taxonomist creating the ultimate idea map.
Genes as the biological unit and ideas as the neuronal unit of society?
The notion that a link can be made between genes and a human phenotype (p. 203), such as speech, tells us something about a statistic correlation, not about a causal relationship. The suggestion that genes for speech may have ‘enabled the social emergence of modern human communities’ indicates that genes could have causal power (p. 203, 206), and that they can be isolated as a causal source. Here the Proposal draws a parallel between genes and ideas, implying that the causal power of genes (sic!) may be equated with that of ideas.
Unfortunately, popular images of the gene as clear and distinct causal agent, constituting the basis of all aspects of organismic life have become embedded in society. Similarly, the image of a genetic programme has become hard to dislodge from popular thought about genomics. Nevertheless, these notions derive from the professional world of science, in which they once upon a time had their use in a specific and limited context. For, largely, as a consequence of the recombinant DNA revolution scientists have acquired the technical capability to target and alter specific sequences of nucleotides that earlier could only be seen as vehicles for effecting specific kinds of change. These resulted in a new production of particular proteins, and genetic engineering has become a reality. The efficacy of such interventions is what persuaded many molecular biologists of the causal power of genes.[10] If causal is understood in the immediate or practical sense of the term there is no problem. But cause in such sense makes no claim either on generality or on long-term consequences.
The focus on the power of genes is also used as a tool for persuasion. It has rhetorical power, invoked not only in securing funding and promoting research agendas but also in marketing products. And the closer the ties between market and researcher, the greater the research scientist’s investment becomes in the rhetorical power of a languages that works so well. Ascribing causal powers to genes shapes popular opinion and creates false images of how societies develop. Therefore, they are also counter-productive to effective discussions of public policy even where the issues are real and urgent. Using similar rhetoric for idea mapping aims to place more importance on the subject than could be attached to it otherwise. But just as at the end of the 20th century, the shortcomings of the image of the gene as self-replicating molecule of DNA has become easier to discern, the same is bound to happen to those of Mental Mapping. And just as the term gene may have become a hindrance to the understanding of the intercellular processes, not before long the term idea in the sense of ‘neuronal expression’ will be shown to be a hindrance to understanding cross-cultural processes.
Genetic reductionism, neuronal reductionism and ideas
The argument for genetic selection is based on the notion that a gene is more fit in evolution if it leaves more copies in the next generation. As the ideas referred to in the Proposal are subject to natural selection and linked to neurones, I assume that the same principle of natural selection is applicable to the ‘ideas’ accumulated as part of the Mental Map. But this principle confuses cause and effect, and it reifies the statistical material on which the estimation of idea survival will have to be based: It confuses random changes with selective changes. For instance, though there are more people in Japan named Suzuki than there are Macer, we would not want to give the name Suzuki any causal powers, or ascribe Darwinian fitness to a name.[11] And different families leave different numbers of offspring for reasons that are at random with respect to a particular gene. Similarly, sometimes, unselected ideas may be selected for survival, because they happen to be hosted by a person or a nation that is selected as unit of survival. To assign fitness to ideas that increase or decrease in numbers by chance is a tautology, just as is ascribing fitness to the tigers on Noah’s ark.
In biology, fact description of evolution is not at issue, but difficulties arise if we move from evolution as narrative to evolution as universal history. The difficulties are related to which unit of analysis we should adopt when we try to understand society: a whole population (what are the criteria for in- and exclusion); the individual (how do we isolate the individual from the group [and which group]; or, the smallest (neuro-)biological unit. I argue here that trying to attribute survival value to ideas and neurones is literally and figuratively meaningless. For how can we isolate ideas and neurones, and still attribute meaningful and causal agency to them? Once you kill the idea by decontexualising it, you can hardly ascribe viable meaning to it, let alone agency.
Claims that neurones (or genes) are the real object and the beneficiary of evolution are not open to corroboration or falsification: if humans and organisms are merely the temporary and mortal vehicles of immortal DNA, neurones or ideas, why then should we (objects of evolution) even bother about creating a mental map? What seems a creative idea at the level of a wise individual or flourishing society is really the manipulation by a neurone/idea whose sole intention is to multiply for survival. Just as genetic reductionism leads to absurdities, neuronal reductionism can only lead to the mystification of human societies.
The socio-political mediation of ideas
It seems to be clear that defining a unit of research is no easy matter, and part and parcel of the process of problem-solving. Developing a mental mapping project to ‘explore similarities between cultures and communities not just at the level of the individual, but as members responding inside biological communities’ (p. 205-6) is not new a new effort. Psychologists, biologists, anthropologists and sociologists have had similar aims for centuries. It is not so, as claimed in the Proposal, that science has not paid enough attention to the evolution of ‘ideas’. On the contrary, the history of anthropology, psychology and sociology make clear that the evolution and systems paradigms of ideas in the social sciences of the 19th and 20th centuries played an important role contributing politically hued, ethnocentric theories applied in colonial and post-colonial policies. Evolution theory, systems theory, chaos theory and cybernetics: they all have been adapted by ‘scientists’ and applied onto political and social movements. But in each case, exactly because they had become part of social movements, the scientific paradigms concerned turned into ideologies severely limiting their use as tools for understanding ideas other than those within the acceptable range of their political aims.
The same may be true for the adoption of the paradigm of rational-choice theory as put forward as the most adequate tool for the mental mapping of ideas (p. 205-6). By defining the number of ideas, action and subsequent responses as limited (though variable) and subsequently limiting personal history, genetics, culture, family and upbringing as the main sources of ideas (p. 203-4), it only appears as if ideas are countable. The presumed countability of ideas is based on the notion that personal history, genetics, culture, family and upbringing exist extraneous to this world: as abstractions that do not count because they somehow exist outside of our realm of experienced reality, outside of history, and outside of relations of power. But, just as in the attempts of the social sciences to apply scientific models onto society, the conceptual tools we use for defining society are culturally and socially mediated. Even though similar physiological and mental tools are available to most humans, different humans define and use them in various ways in different cultures, positions, times and circumstances. And the only way to understand these differences without becoming conceited is by realising that our own tools of understanding others are only of limited and of heuristic value.
[pic]
The Modeling of Sustainable Development and its Relevance to a Human Ideas Map for Bioethics
- Morgan Pollard .
School of Resource Science and Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, 2480, Australia
Email: morganpollard@.au
'Sustainable Development' and 'Bioethics' are broad concepts, umbrella terms within which a multitude of subsidiary terms and concepts are associated. Although they represent distinct philosophical fields with their own ideas and emphases, the two in fact have considerable overlap and remarkably similar overall goals. Both are concerned with the decisions leading to biological (i.e. human and ecological) welfare and wellbeing. Any conceptual model of sustainable development would likely include numerous bioethical principles, even if not explicitly stated as such, and similarly any map or model of bioethics would implicitly assume philosophical aspects of sustainability theory. In the interests of goal-oriented collaboration and coordination, it is useful and perhaps essential that existing principles, philosophies, terminologies and models within each field are compared, contrasted and combined. The present paper briefly outlines some central concepts and models from sustainable development theory, and gives some examples of how the philosophies of sustainability and bioethics can form a mutually beneficial symbiosis.
[pic]
Figure 1. Infinite Mutual Symbiosis
A memorable representation of key concepts essential for ecological wellbeing and human survival:
Infinite (science models, large-scale) Mutual (common, democratic)
Symbiosis (positive, cooperation) Sustain (Others, long-term, responsibilities)
Bio- (Life, ecosystem) Ability (Self, tools, rights) Ethics (Good, love)
I'll be talking about Sustainable Development and its relationship with Bioethics in the Environmental Ethics and the Behaviourome" session. Figure 1 is an Infinity symbol that represents a mutual symbiosis between Sustainability and Bioethics -these two fields of endeavour. As I was studying sustainable development I realized the similarities between the two subjects - to the point that they are quite interchangeable in their goals and directions. For example, sustainability is about the well-being and welfare of future generations, equity, biodiversity, the precautionary principle, public participation, and other issues such as that (see Appendix 1).
I'm going to discuss a few models from the past before I get to a model of my own. Through time - sustainable development was originally considered an interaction between three different major spheres of endeavour (Figure 2a);
[pic]
Figure 2. Changes to our conceptualization of the domain of sustainability:
2a) above & 2b) below: outdated models; 2c) more recently accepted model.
Source: Ronnie Harding ed. (1998) Environmental Decision-Making The Federation Press, Sydney, pp. 37-38
…as time passed it was realised that essential ecological services provide the means for human life also, so it became a more ecocentric model (Figure 2b);
[pic]
…and that was further revised with the insight that economics, rather than being an end in itself, is a means to social well-being - all within the ecological sphere (Figure 2c).
[pic]
And I believe that Ethics has traditionally been particularly anthropocentric - within the social sphere… Bioethics has been an attempt to bring in biology as a more central focus, and perhaps I could suggest Ecoethics (and environmental ethics) as a further trend or movement in that direction.
Figure 3 is another model - a Renaissance chair with four legs - Economic, Environmental, Social and Cultural legs, indicating that sustainable development is a broad, multidisciplinary, integrated concept. If any one leg of the chair is over-emphasized… (and traditionally the economic leg is the one that… um) - then the chair will be out of balance; or the equilibrium will be disturbed and this will not be sustainable.
[pic]
Figure 3: A Renaissance-style chair, with its four legs strengthened at their base by strong linkages, as a metaphor for sustainable development with its four components - economic, environmental, social and cultural. The smaller chairs illustrate possible kinds of disequilibrium. (from: Francesco di Castri (1995) "The Chair of Sustainable Development", Nature and Resources, vol.31 no.3, pp.2-7.)
The reason it’s a Renaissance chair is because in the time of the Renaissance and Enlightenment there was very broad thinking in the education. Today’s industrial or modern education is very specialised… its like vocational training and that… which may not be preparing us for dealing with the problems that we are facing on a global scale.
[pic]
Figure 4. (from Francesco di Castri 1995)
Figure 4 is another model or picture from the same article. Figure 5 illustrates sustainable development being a middle path between two extremes – of Diversity, at the far end of which you can get fundamentalism. …and Globalisation, the far end of which may result in the uniformity of global culture (Figure 6). It's debatable as to which extreme may be better.
[pic]
Figure 5: (from Pulp (1998) vol.3 issue 3)
[pic]
Figure 6: (illustration by Kirk)
Now… I'm going to start talking about a model that I’ve been, developing in my PhD - but first here's a warning (Figure 7). This might serve as, something relevant to Darryl’s Human Ideas Map perhaps as well. This is true also of the next few figures that I'm going to show you.
Figure 8 is a central part of my model. Time moves in a clockwise direction, and it's an integrated model… I feel that ideas can be integrated for mapping - although in one direction they may be infinite, because different new ideas often have space between them and open up new questions; nevertheless, in another direction they can be grouped into finite numbers of categories (Appendix 2).
And if you perhaps just try to take that to the top level… I considered Space; Time; I have here, Matter (Figure 8a) - in other words the Environment; Energy, (Figure 8c) - which is change of matter …that involves problem solving, decision making or management.
And then you also have Information (Figure 8b). The environmental characteristics lead to knowledge, and human motivations. Bioethics, being based in principles, can come in at this point along with other principle-based things to help determine and differentiate between sustainable or ethical and un-sustainable human motivations… leading back into the management section.
[pic]
Figure 7. (author unknown but appreciated)
[pic]
Figure 8: Model Core
[pic]
|[pic] |[pic] |
Another version of this model is in Figure 9 - if we try to expand out that Principles area (from Figure 8b). Up the top are the characteristics of the environment; that's the changing environment; with the management and decision-making options going around there with time; and then coming in at this side are the different principles of sustainability.
One aspect of these models, which can get very complicated - to simplify them, similar to Windows on computer programs - you can zoom in to certain sections of the model and they can expand out.
For example, if we take "Ecological Sustainability" (Figure 9; upper right) we can zoom that in, and we get something like… this (Appendix 3). These are all the characteristics of the environment on one side, and I want to rather highlight the principles over here - each of these principles can also be expanded out depending on environmental philosophy and other insights.
I won't have a chance to look at "Economic Sustainability" (Appendix 4), but I think Ethics and Bioethics are particularly related to some of these (Appendix 5; "Socio-Cultural Sustainability"). These are the institutions… and someone mentioned in response to Darryl’s thing that Epistemology, or the collection of knowledge into categories, can be related to different social institutions. The principles are feeding in again; and for example, within health, education, peace, freedom or these things, insights from Bioethics can be incorporated again into the model.
[pic]
[pic]
Figure 10. Some Principles of Sustainable Management
And quickly this time… just going to expand out this management part (Figure 9; lower right) to illustrate that, rather than keeping the model philosophical, it is important perhaps to make it operationalised – or more practically applicable to real policy and management needs (Appendix 6).
So this expansion of that section, "Sustainable Planning & Management", (Figure 10) I've divided into four: I think 'Precautionary' – the Precautionary Principle is important; 'Integrated' - the regional, multidisciplinary approach; 'Strategic' - the best available information; and 'Adaptive' to change.
The complicatedness of some of these can be reduced – like with the chair model shown before – by reducing them to easily memorized acronyms. So here's one, to make it easier to remember some of those things; the components of Sustainable Management… I thought the Tower of Pisa (Figure 11) could be an example similar to the chair out of balance, and these people are using their magic to pull the tower back into an equilibrium – (P)recautionary, (I)ntegrated, (S)trategic and (A)daptive Management.
[pic]
Figure 11. Sustainable Planning and Management (PISA Model)
So… we have the range of human activities that impact human and environmental wellbeing (Figure 12) and the symbiosis of Sustainability and Bioethics superimposed on top of this…
Sustainability was originally an Economics concept (left), and the 'Development' side of the term has helped increase its appeal and make it a more successful meme in a world that is run by economics… whereas the 'Sustainable' end of the term has given promise to conservationists… so, it's been a feeling term for all parties. To that end, at the Australian State Government level at least, if not in practice at the Federal level, it has been incorporated into political legislation; based on the recommendations of the Working Groups for Ecologically Sustainable Development.
Sustainability was traditionally to do with resource management, and keeping the amounts that the environment can replace in tune with what we take out – such as in Fishing and Agriculture; and of course Conservation - with environmental ethics, that's both fields.
And so Bioethics on the other side has these institutions feeding into it . Originally, ethics was perhaps based on principles from Religious Philosophy; and Medicine is one of the central parts of Bioethics; and parts can be enshrined in Law; and then Warfare - I talked and other speakers have spoken about prioritisation of problems… I think Bioethics has probably a lot that it can do to help with warfare, and the ethics of some of the major behaviours that threaten the environment and humans.
[pic]
Figure 12: Infinite Mutual Symbiosis relies on Human Behaviour
[pic]
Figure 13. (Source: Black Rose anarchist bookshop)
And so here's a picture (Figure 13) that represents… – while perhaps these, ah, small fish are some of us, that are the ethicists, conservationists, doctors… people who are frustrated perhaps by centralized government, big corporations, the military industry or whatever as represented by the big fish there… But with the power of cooperation and symbiosis this is what we can do…
[pic]
And just to wrap it up… throw my Infinity symbol back up to remind you (Figure 1). And as a further reminder, I’d like to replace that infinity symbol with a personal favourite infinity sign – Escher's 'Möebius Strip' which combines humans and nature… and combines art in science.
[pic]
Acknowledgements
Darryl Macer (University of Tsukuba) for the Behaviourome; Bill Boyd (Southern Cross University) for constructive conversations; and Irina Pollard (Macquarie University) for her patience.
Appendices
All appendices are example perspectives of how the core model can be expanded and viewed. 'Correct' organisation and addition to such ideas can be determined by science, ethics and democracy.
1. Ecologically Sustainable Development Principles and Objectives; from Ronnie Harding, ed. (1998) Environmental Decision-Making. The Federation Press, Sydney, pp. 27-29.
2. Human Mind Map - A Possible Architecture; composed at the Conference on Darryl's suggestion that we try to imagine and draw such a map. The core model in figure 8 is a 3D cross-section of the triangular/conical model.
3. Ecological Sustainability
4. Economic Sustainability
5. Socio-Cultural Sustainability
6. Sustainable Management and the Information Environment
Sustainable Management and the Decision-Making Process
[pic]
[pic]
[pic][pic][pic][pic]
[pic][pic]
[pic]
-----------------------
. pp. 1-56 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 20-56 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 57-59 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 60-67 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 68-71 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 72-87 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 88-94 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 95-101 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 102-108 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 109-112 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 113-121 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 122-126 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. p. 126 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. p. 127 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. p. 128 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. p. 129 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. p. 130 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. p. 131 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. p. 132 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 133-34 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 135-140 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 141-145 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
. pp. 146-150 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004). [Originally in EJAIB 13 (2003), 91-93.
[1] Cf. Nature, Volume 420, issue no. 6912, 14 November 2002. p.i, 121.
[2] See, EJAIB 12 (2002): 203-6.
[3] Ibid.: 6.
[4] Behaviourism, which originated with John B. Watson around 1913 (See, John B. Watson, Behaviourism, New York: Norton) was carried on by such well-known psychologist such as B.F. Skinner, and proceeds from the objective analysis of observable behaviour. In his controversial Beyond Freedom and Dignity (New York: Knopf, 1971), Skinner argues for a programme of psychological engineering in society and against the meaningfulness of such ideas as freedom and dignity.
[5] Die Menschen machen ihre eigene Geschichte, aber sie machen sie nicht aus freien Stuecken, nicht unter selbstgewaehlten, sonder unter unmittelbar vorgefundenen, gegebenen und ueberlieferten Umstaenden (Karl Marx , 1869, ‘Der achtzehnte Brumaire des Louis Bonaparte’. In K. Marx & F. Engels: Ausgewaehlte Schriften in zwei Baenden, Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1974. Band I: 222-317.
[6] Plato (1987) The Republic, London: Penguin Books. Pp: 200-07.
[7] Cf., one of the French fathers of the sociology: A. Comte (1967)Systeme de politique positive, ou traite de sociologie, herdr. Zeller, Osnabrueck; and one of the many students of evolution in society: L. Levy-Bruhl (1951 [1910] Les fonctions mentales dans les societes inferieures, PUF, Paris.
[8] Cf. Peter Wade, (2002) Race, nature and Culture, London, Sterling, Virginia: Pluto Press; T. Morris-Suzuki (1998) Re-inventing Japan. Time, space, nation. Armonk, New York, London: M.E. Sharpe.
[9] See, EJAIB 12 (2002): 203-6.
[10] Evelyn Fox Keller (2000) The Century of the Gene, Harvard: Harvard University Press. P. 141.
[11] The idea for this example is borrowed from Richard Lewontin (2001) It Ain’t Necessarily So. The dream of the human genome and other illusions, New York: New York Review Books. Chapter 9.
. pp. 151-169 in Macer, DRJ., ed., "Challenges for Bioethics from Asia" (Eubios Ethics Institute, 2004).
-----------------------
Physiological needs
Biosocial needs
Social needs
Aesthetic needs
S-A
Vector of healthy ontogenesis
BCF - Self-actualisation
Aesthetic needs
Social needs
Biosocial needs
Physiological
needs
Brain uses reasoning and imagination
Genes → Ideas ← Memes
Inferential or Epistemic
(facts; reasoning)
(knowledge; perceptual
experience; theory relating
to culture, beliefs & religion)
................
................
In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.
To fulfill the demand for quickly locating and searching documents.
It is intelligent file search solution for home and business.
Related searches
- do you have to have a will
- do you have to pay back fafsa
- what do you do when you re bored
- do i have any money out there
- do i have any unclaimed money
- what to do if you have flu
- do i have any offsets
- do you have to cite paraphrasing
- did gregor mendel have any siblings
- what style do you have quiz
- do you have to cite a paraphrase
- 3how old do you have to be to sign family of assistance