Topic 3- Conflict in the Pacific 1937-51:
Topic 3- Conflict in the Pacific 1937-51:
1.) Growth of Pacific Tensions
1- Economic and Political issues by 1937:
➢ Until 1854 Jap was isolated; backward nation – resembled medieval
➢ 1853 Perry arrived with steel hulled, steam powered fleet of ships
o Jap’s never seen such modern technology, were intrigued
➢ Jap’s refused to engage western powers like China had
o “spheres of influence” – exploited + controlled Chinese colonies
➢ Jap’s faced western military superiority – engaged west to modernise
o Jap emerged as a modern, industrialised world power within 50yrs
➢ Sino-Japanese Conflict (1894-95) – Jap’s defeated China
o Fought to extend control over Korea + northern China
o Highlighted success of modernised Jap military force
➢ 1899 – US calls for Open Door policy in China
o did not support the division of China into foreign spheres of influence – EU to respect Chinese independence/sovereignty
➢ Russo-Japanese Conflict (1904-05) – Jap’s defeated Russia
o Fought to gain control of Russian influence over Manchuria
o 1st time modern Asian nation had a major defeat over EU nation
o confirmed Jap status as a new world power
➢ 20th C – strong militarist + imperialist influences within Jap
➢ 1920s – struggle between internationalists and nationalists
o internationalists believed in western style democracy
o nationalists favoured expansion into China
➢ 1930s – nationalists won struggle
o Jap adopted aggressive, expansionary foreign policy
➢ Jap’s emerged as a rival Pacific power with territorial ambitions in China
o US had to contain Jap without provoking war
➢ 1915 – 21 Demands
o blatant challenge of US Open Door policy
o US + EU compromised – fuelled Jap bitterness
➢ Danger of a naval race developing – Washington Naval Conference
o Five-Power Naval Treaty (5:5:3) + Nine-Power Treaty (Open Door)
o Jap lost Shandong – nationalists felt western humiliation
➢ Extreme nationalists believed Jap should pursue its own interests via military expansion + abandon the international system
➢ 1920s – Economic problems
o crop failure, silk market collapse, overpopulation, shortage of raw materials all hindered Jap’s expanding industries
o Manchuria held fertile land with rich natural resources
➢ 1929 Depression made Jap economic problems more urgent
o it was seen as a cause of the internationalists policies
o fuelled extreme nationalism (western poison in Jap)
➢ 1931 Kwantung Army blew up section of the South Manchuria Railway
o created pretext to launch full-scale takeover of Manchuria
▪ 1932 all of Manchuria had been taken over
o Jap govt bowed to nationalist pressure
o Manchuria declared new state: Manchukuo
➢ 1934 Jap would no longer abide by WNC naval restrictions
o move away from internationalism, embrace policy of aggressive expansion
2- Japanese Foreign Policy 37-41:
Japans foreign policy was initially a response to western intimidation however it soon took on its own imperialistic traits that were backed heavily by new found nationalism. It was this nationalism that altered the balance of Japanese foreign policy and triggered the start of the Pacific War. It was this in conjunction with the instilled military dominance of political Japan and the string of disappointing foreign policy set backs that led to their adoption of more aggressive foreign measures, which can consequently be considered as a primary driving force on the road to the Pacific war.
➢ *look at rest of Essay
➢ Jap foreign policy played significant role in lead up to Pacific War
➢ 19C Dominant western influence swayed Jap towards rapid modernisation
- Modernisation of military + empire transformed Jap foreign policy
- Isolationist + underdevelopment imperialism + expansion
➢ Unlike Chinese (collapsed under western pressure) Jap responded in assertive, united fashion to western threat
➢ Western influence sparked modernisation + nationalism – underlined foreign policy: aggressive expansion via military dominance/force
➢ Jap modelled foreign policy on British Empire
➢ Tension between nationalists/internationalists shaped domestic + foreign policy – nationalist conquered, Jap expanded into China
➢ Depression + economic problems shaped foreign policy – rise of extreme nationalists & expansion into China to acquire coal/oil
- Traditionalists: Jap should return to state of isolation from ROW
➢ Rising Jap followed EU suit, invaded Korea + a declining China
➢ “21 Demands”, Sino-Japanese + Russo-Japanese conflicts emphasised Jap’s extreme colonial and expansionary foreign policy stance
➢ Kwantung Army – military dominance in expansion
3- US and British Policies in the Pacific 37-41:
US Polices:
➢ 1937- China incident (Japan invade China) this broke the treaty of Versailles, nine powers and Kellogs- Briand act and had the alarm bells ringing in the US
➢ Powerless to intervene in the senate interpretation of the Nye committee ‘merchants of death’
➢ Hence came the Neutrality Act:
- 1935: No one to sell arms when a war exists (eliminate merchants of death) & Stops the passenger travel of ships in the area. * Trade of raw material and oil was not covered.
- 6 months later 1936 amendment: banker not allowed to loan to countries at war
- Another amendment: inclusion of civil war eg. Spanish civil war
- 1937 Peak of isolationism. Gallup poll: 94% say "keep out" over "prevent."
- 1937 amendment: belligerent nations required to pick up US non- military goods from American soil. Hence eliminating loss of own vessels. “Cash and Carry policy”
* Loop hole existed as neutrality acts could only be enforced If FDR labeled conflict as a war. Hence they called Japanese- China war a conflict so they could aid China against the threat of Japan.
- 1937 quarantine speech which aimed to isolate the belligerent nation from trade, however this was viewed with mixed opinion and was quickly swept out of pubic scene.
➢ 1937 USS Ranay (merchant) sunk by Jap plans
➢ Ludlow Amendment- need for public vote as to whether to go to war, seen as a symbolic extent of isolation *however it didn’t go through
➢ Oct 1940 defence budget increased from 2 bill to $17 bill (naval expansion act)
➢ 1940- selective training and service act (conscription)
➢ 1940 FDR wins third term
➢ Johnson Act of 1934 (used to control reparations payments from Britain)
- Develops the Lend Lease bill “loan the hose to put out the neighbors fire”
- To support Britain in great Arsenal of Democracy
➢ The Wilsonian internationalist came out of the closet in Atlantic Charter (Aug 1941)- where he met Churchill and promoted free speech and free trade.
➢ Winter 41 and FDR agrees ‘lend lease’ for USSR
➢ By 1940 Japs depended on US for long list of strategic materials include 80 of oil.
➢ US didn’t commit to Brit calls for support when Jap demanded closure of Burma supply road in June 1940
➢ Sept Vichy government allowed Japs to move 25 000 troops into nth Indochina (Tonkin)… US announced intention to expand embargo on goods
➢ 25th July embargo began with scrap metal.
➢ December embargo expanded: cooper, brass, iron and pig iron
➢ Hull did not include oil as he viewed “wrong war, with wrong enemy, in the wrong place, at the wrong time”
➢ Beginning of 41 evidence of Br, US and Dutch co-operation in tightening economic noose
➢ Br and US tanker embargo- forced shipping of oil in only Jap vessels
➢ June 42 Hitler attack USSR and created debate between courses of Jap advance- northerners called for attack on Siberia… southerners on Sth Est. Asia (arguing secured nth flank with USSR preoccupation with in Germany in the West.
➢ 28th July following Jap permission into south Indochina, US with agreement of Br and Dutch froze all assets and total ban on oil…ending ¾ of trade and 9/10 of oil supply.
➢ “Felt like a fish in a pond in which water was gradually draining away”
British Policies:
➢ British severely underestimated Japs
➢ Underlying sense of racism
➢ “50% of Jap iron ore came from Malaya and 1/3 of cotton from India thus Britain did have the capacity to hurt Japan”- A.Best
➢ British policy fluctuated between two option:
- British ambassador argued for more moderate line to be taken, for fear that antagonism would be directed at them
- Foreign minister called for support to China and stronger links with Washington.
➢ Position taken to provide greater assistance to China as Jap victory would be death knell for Brit colonies.
➢ Following annulment of Nine Power treaty (1922) and establishment of the “New Order” (1938)… British admiralty couldn’t spare ships for prioritisation of European theatre… hence call for economic sanction
➢ Sanction required international co-operation- “tightening of economic noose around Japan.”
➢ June 1940- Japan demanded Brit close Burma Road supply route with China
➢ Brit called for US support but they weren’t committed
➢ 17th July Brit agreed under the critics of China and US who said it was appeasement
➢ By Oct Br was encouraged by greater US involvement and considered reopening.
4- Strategic and political reasons for bombing Pearl Harbor:
Strategic:
➢ Yamamoto- Commander of first Fleet was brain child and chief strategist of attack on P.H.
➢ He was a realist and saw that Japan had no chance of surviving against US in a long war.
➢ taking out the only viable threat the US by attacking pacific fleet at P.A:
- destroying their air craft carriers
- attacking submarine base and oil reserves
- destroying majority of pacific fleet
- destroying base to extent of relocation to west coast
➢ Hoped to delay US entry in Pacific for two years thus allowing relatively unchallenged drive south for resources.
➢ Hoped would delay US enough to allow Japs to set up a defensive perimeter of naval and air bases to protect it’s vast seized territories.
➢ Aimed to pressure US into negotiation and truth, if they saw that a counter offensive on the defensive perimeter was too costly
➢ Massive strategic gamble on Yamamoto’s behalf and he knew it.
➢ “The destruction of US naval strength in such a preemptive strike could win the time Japan needed to take oil fields of Dutch East Indies, Malay and Philippines”- Costello
➢ Admiral Yamamoto- “if we fail we better give up the war”
➢ Hoped to restore national pride similar to Russo- Japan war
➢ Hoped to reaffirm racial pride and Asian superiority
Political:
❖ 1937- Failure to bring war against China to quick conclusion left Jap with number of problems:
- Drained already limited Jap budget and resources
- China neighboring with USSR posed threat from them in nth.
- China being supplied by Western colonies in sth est. Asia.
- Gradual escalation of US economic sanctions
❖ European war and success of Hitler had created “power vacuum in South East Asia in 1940”
❖ Japs complained of ABCD encirclement (US, Br, Ch, Dutch)
❖ Japs ambitions boosted by triumphant and ease of success of her ally
❖ Vacuum strengthened by breaking of Anti- Comintern Pact (Hitler invaded USSR June 41)
❖ Outcome of diplomatic maneuvering was favourable and gave Japs perfect opportunity to push south.
❖ Japs pushed south to seize resources (capitalizing on fall of France) US response was increase restrictive economic pressures.
➢ June 1940- Japs call on Britain to close Burma supply road to nationalist forces in China…18th July-
➢ 25th July- Hence came freezing of Jap assets in US and restriction on certain metals as a result of:
- Intelligence gathered on Jap ‘southern advance policy’
➢ 22 Sept- Jap pressures Vichy government allowed Japan to move into northern Indo-China
➢ 26th Sept- US imposes total embargo on scrap metal to Jap
➢ 1941 Germany attacked USSR… Japs had plans to attack Siberia… US feared Jap attack on USSR… Roosevelt “Marshaled all his efforts to deter Japanese aggression in the north”- Iriye (more embargo’s)
➢ Washington instituted a de facto embargo of Oil Shipments to Jap
❖ (July 24th 1941) Vichy government allows Jap establishment of sth bases in Indochina within bombing range of Singapore, Manila, Jakarta.- Direct threat to Western spheres of Influence
➢ July 28th- US retaliation= total ban on assets and total ban on oil, Br and Nth adopt similar measurers… Japs oil imports reduced by 90% (no US oil reached Jap after Aug 1) –Japs had 18 months worth left
➢ National guard mobalised in the Philippians
❖ Japan entered into negotiations and prepared for war at the same time
❖ Negotiations reached climax on Nov 26th- Secretary of State Hull gave his note to Jap diplomats calling for withdraw from Indochina as well as China. Completely unacceptable even for moderators.
❖ Orders given for planned attack on P.H fist week of December
2.) Course of the Pacific War:
1- Japanese advance (41-41) and impact of the fall of Philippines, Singapore, Burma and Dutch East Indies:
➢ Seizing opportunity of P.A and European power vacuum
➢ Massive gamble and Yamamoto knew it Japs needed to:
- Germany to continue keeping Europe busy
- Br and Dutch unable to come to aid of colonies
- USSR occupied with German invading (secured northern attack)
- China needed to be easily contained
- Jap troops needed to secure supply lines
- US needed to take time to recover from P.H
➢ Negotiations had failed with US
➢ Need for expansion due to economic strangle hold (international embargo)
➢ Japs knew they couldn’t win a long war with the US so needed to act quickly
➢ Attack on P.A occurred almost simultaneously with a dramatic advance through South East Asia- aimed at eliminating Br, US, Dutch power in the area.
➢ Strategic aim to quickly establish defensive perimeter and supply lanes to home country
➢ Theoretical aim to establish ‘New Order’ and “Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere”- rationale to justify economic expansion (created Aug 1940)
➢ 7/8 December- attacks on P.A, Mid, Wake, Guam to break US line of Comms between P.H and Manila
➢ 7/8 December:
- advance into central Thailand (to protect left right flank from Br advance from Burma)
- assault on northern Malaya
- bombing on US air bases in Philippians
- invasion of Hong Kong to reduce Br interference
➢ Guam fell on the 10th, Wake on 23rd, Hong Kong 25th and after bombing Philippians invasion began on 10th
➢ Early success depended greatly on surprise
Rising Sun- “6 Months of Glory”:
Philippines:
➢ Jan 10th invasion
➢ US bases were a stumbling block for Japs
➢ US landed on Batan Island on the 8th (nth of Philippines- used as launch pad)
➢ MacArthur decided on ‘forward defence strategy’- to attack invading force before it landed using air superiority
➢ MacArthur granted $10 mill and 100 B-17’s
➢ By Oct 41 he had 135 000 troops and 227 aircraft and confidently announced Philippines as key defence post
➢ When P.H bombed MacArthur ignored warning and left his aircraft in neat rows- they were fucked up
➢ Landed troops to take over 3 US bases and US troops began to withdraw to Battan Peninsula and jungle warfare began
➢ FDR was concerned so he MacArthur and large portion of troops back to Australia- “I shall return”
➢ New wave of attacks by Japs on 28th of March, hit allied forces in southern defensive positions, who were weakened by malnutrition, disease and prolonged jungle fighting
➢ 9th April- US forces in Bataan surrender
➢ 6th May US forces at Corregidor surrender completing conquest
➢ Bataan POW death march- 10 000 of 75 000 died
➢ 4 months to securing Philippines and Jap advance was slowing
➢ MacArthur had overestimated his strength and didn’t take advantage of his warnings. He unlike other had ability to retreat back to Australia
Hong Kong:
➢ Fell in 2 week after attack on 8th December, capture of 12000 Br troops
Thailand:
➢ 8th December- after brief conflict Thailand agreed to let Jap troops move through and supported their push onto Malaya
Malay and Singapore:
➢ Japs hoped to eliminate their biggest colonial threat- the Br
➢ Used tanks, vehicles and bicycles to push through jungle
➢ Br sent chief battleships- ‘ Prince of Wales’ and the ‘Repulse’ to intercept Japs naval transport on East Coast. Japs subs spotted and sunk them (10th December)
➢ This highlighted absence of Br air power and allowed Japs to launch from east coast leaving it exposed
➢ Japs battle hardened and experienced troops coordinated navy, army and air attacks well
➢ By the end of first week of Jan entire northern region was lost- tanks moved south from Siam and supported by inland troops from beachhead in nth west Malaya
Singapore and Impact:
➢ Feb 7th to 15th
➢ Allied troops retreated towards Singapore noticing absence of defenses
➢ Percival in charge of south west pacific Br
➢ Defensive guns of Singapore were directed south but it was a myth they couldn’t turn north. They lacked the correct ammunition- they had ‘armour piercing’ for ships which was ineffective against infantry
➢ Allies suffering from heat, exhaustion, disease and malnutrition
➢ Japs landed continuously on Singapore island
➢ Alexandria Hospital Massacre – 14th
➢ Anti air craft guns ran out of ammo and the Jap planes reeked havoc
➢ Japs could use a base to launch at Australia and Dutch East Indies
➢ ‘Australia looks to the United States’- Curtin
➢ Low morale greatly military blunder in Brit history- “fighting reputation is at stake and the honour of the British Empire”- Percival
➢ Japs succeeded in ushering beginning of ‘new world’
➢ British notion of ‘white supremacy’ in south east Asia was shattered
➢ Australia felt vulnerable and dismayed and British inability, they called in 7th division from Europe.
➢ 15th Feb 1942- 138 000 surrender to only 35000 short supplied Jap troops
Burma:
➢ As Singapore fell, 2 Jap divisions went into Burma
➢ British now weakened steadily withdrew
➢ Japs looked to Burma to cut the supply road to China and establish their on to Thailand- 26th April 42
Dutch East Indies:
➢ Key goal was oil- captured northern fields by leap forging on Dec 17th
➢ Another force moved further sth est. and reached Java on the 19th Dec
➢ As troops landed on Java Aust, Br and Dutch ships were sent disrupt them and their convoys. Under command of Doorman
➢ After three day battle the entire allied fleet was destroyed0 27th Feb
➢ 8th March Dutch surrendered to resentment of other allies
➢ 98 000 troops became POW’s
New Guinea and Solomon Islands:
➢ 8th march Jap landed on New Guinea
➢ 30th march Japs began occupation of Solomon’s
➢ Guadalcanal (southern Solomon’s) constructed into key naval and air base
Australia:
➢ Hindsight suggests Japs never intended to occupy
➢ Feb 42 Jap planes bombed Darwin, second raid soon after
➢ 11 ships and 20 planes destroyed
➢ Government buildings damaged
➢ 243 killed, 350 wounded
➢ Mass panic and evacuation
➢ Submarine entered Sydney harbour
Japans Problems:
➢ ‘Victory disease’- arrogance of conquest- expanded over supplies
➢ P.H had not been knockout blow- US still had carriers
➢ Doolittle raid was clear indication of US determination
➢ Australia served as ideal allied base
➢ Jap economy never going to match US
➢ Native uprisings- administration of 140mill people many languages.
➢ Maintain and defend 6000km of supply lines
➢ Supervising nearly 300 000 POW who’s duty was passive resistance
➢ Lack of cooperation between navy, army and air
➢ East Asian war remained priority only for navy
➢ Internal divisions and lack of communication- Midway navy lied and said lost 1 carrier, 1 damaged and 1 missing truth was 4 sunk
➢ Consequent bundles- army moved in without air and naval support as a result of no carriers
➢ March 42New policy of continued advance to force negotiations
➢ No clear indication of second phase of defence and consolidation
➢ Overextension of defensive perimeter and inevitable allied counter
2- Turning Points- Battle of Coral Sea, Midway, Guadalcanal and New Guinea:
Coral Sea:
➢ Allied aim was to secure naval and sea lanes around Aust
➢ Control of it was Torres Straight- the gateway to the Nth.
➢ May 42- Japs launch invasion south towards Port Moresby
➢ Intercepted by US bombers from carriers
➢ 1st time naval battle was fought without coming in view of direct contact
➢ US lost the carrier Lexington and 50planes
➢ Jap lost 100men and may aircraft- fleet was forced to turn back
➢ Significance- allowed allies control of the Torres- ‘gateway to nth’
- First time Jap offensive had been unsuccessful since the start in 37
- Port Moresby and possibly Aus had been saved
- Allied defensive perimeter held
Midway:
➢ Yamamoto sought to draw out allies in decisive naval battle to destroy carriers
➢ Japs had armada of100 ships and 20 subs set in ambush
➢ US had ‘magic’ and full knowledge of Jap strategy
➢ Recon planes confirmed movement of Japs
➢ 4th June Jap carriers attacked Midway base with little effect as US planes had taken shelter
➢ Nimit zhen executed his own trap and fucked 330 Jap planes and carriers up as they refueled between raids.
➢ Significance- All four Japs sunk
- Decisive victory for US as they only lost one carrier (Yorktown) and one destroyer.
- Allies now had vital advantage in carriers and corresponding air support- “the tide had turned; the sun was beginning to set.”
New Guinea:
➢ Since the 8th of March 42 Japs had been in Guinea
➢ Allied base was in south east at Milne Bay
➢ Japs attacked on 25th Aug and pushed south along the Kokoda Track.
➢ Allies had support of natives
➢ Aust 39th battalion- 137 killed and 266 wounded yet they the track long enough to receive support from the newly returned middle east vets.
➢ Japs pushed them back until they where 50km of Moresby
➢ Japs were exhausted, short on supplies and near starvation, they also lacked crucial artillery and naval/air support due to drain of Guadalcanal battle
➢ They were forced to retreat however were never forced out of New Guinea until surrender in Sept 1945.
➢ Terrible condition of tropical downfalls, humidity, dysentery, malaria, and dengue fever
➢ Significance- First retreat Japs had experienced and greatly demoralized troops as they were forced to scramble back under allied advance.
- Possibly saved Aust.
- Japs South Sea Force got closest to Aust soil than any other.
Guadalcanal: (Solomon Islands)
➢ Guadalcanal had potential to dominate the Solomon sea and the important easterly sea land to Aust.
➢ US eventually launched first major offensive against Japs here on 7th Aug 42- navy landed 19 000 marines on the islands
➢ Japs garrison of 4000 collapsed in 2 days on the Tulagi island, progress slower in Guadalcanal
➢ Japs reinforced 1500 men then another 3000 on 21st Aug then October a further 20 000.
➢ Meanwhile three separate naval engagements were being fought- allies had strategic advantage of ‘magic’
➢ Fighting dragged on in the jungles of Guadalcanal until 7th Feb 43 when the Japs realised the futility of it and withdrew remaining forces.
➢ Significance- naval battles of coral sea and midway had culminating effect of Jap navy
- Jap navy unable to support army and so led to internal conflict
- First gaps were appearing in the defensive perimeter of the GEACPS
3- Strategies used by Allied forces against Japanese (42-45):
➢ Dual-pronged attack (1942)
o MacArthur – army campaign in south-west pacific
o Nimitz – naval campaign in central pacific
➢ “Magic” (1942)
o Intelligence decoding system
o Allowed for Allies to shift from defensive to offensive (Midway)
➢ Blockade of Japan (1943)
o Effects were really felt by 1945
o More effective as strong Jap naval force starts to deteriorate
➢ ‘Leap-frogging’/Island hopping (1943)
o had to push back Jap across countless km and islands, attacked only those islands towards Jap that were strategically important + too large to ignore – others left to ‘wither on the vine’
o Saipan, Iwo Jima, Okinawa
➢ ‘Leap-frogging’/Island hopping (cont.)
o Major military and political advantage of avoiding frontal assaults and thus reducing the number of US casualties
➢ Cartwheel (1943-1944)
o Encirclement strategy of isolating Rabaul through Allied-held islands in late 1944.
o Rabaul: +100,000 men, hundreds aircraft, heavily fortified
o Once encircled left to ‘wither on the vine’
➢ Bombing of Japanese mainland (Tokyo Raids 1945 + Doolittle Raids 1942)
o Doolittle Raids: let Jap’s know US were coming, boost US morale
o Tokyo Raids – General LeMay
▪ Low level incendiary attacks (instead of precision bombing)
▪ Bombers could carry more bombs – B-29: 3500-mile range
▪ Flew at night, avoid antiaircraft threats
▪ Firebombs set Tokyo ablaze
▪ Japan’s 5 main cities destroyed
➢ Gaining naval + air superiority
o Need to control sea lanes – lines of communication (Solomon Is)
o Naval advantage – counter Jap advances (Solomon Islands)
o Air Cover – dominate sea + aircrafts (PH + Midway)
➢ Germany first
o Development of ARCADIA – support Allies in Europe/N Africa
o US deviated from this plan, directed resources to Pacific
▪ Most of US resources in EU/Africa NOT Pacific
➢ Submarines
o Mainly used against merchant shipping
o 1945 – began planting thousands of undetectable mines
➢ Jap maintaining a 5-front war
o Jap concentrated on numerous fronts, stretched resources – Allied
1. MacArthur – S/W pacific
2. Nimitz – central pacific
3. Burma + Indian frontier
4. China
5. Soviets in Manchuria
3.) Civilians at War:
❖ Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (announced Aug 1940) was false ideal/ propaganda for southern expansion
❖ in… reality was much different. “More exploitation than liberation”- Wilmont
- It called for Asians nations to band together to free them from western domination and to work together for mutual economic benefit.
- Japan would play the role of military protector
- “free Asian from white mans yoke”- yoke= white mans work harness
- Reality was exploitation under the pressure of war, desire to help other nations was forgotten under Japanese prioritisation and struggle of survival
- Real purpose was to establish Japanese supremacy in the area.
- “Military at least saw it as establishment of Japanese empire”- Calvoocoressi
❖ Nov 1943 Japan held a meeting for governments of occupied- China, Manchuria, Burma, Thailand and India in which they pledged for Asian independence
- discussed economic co-operation (little progress
- Dutch East Indies not included as too valuable for oil, or possible bargaining chip with allies after war
1- Social, economic and political effects on civilians in occupied territories:
1. Forced labour in Philippians, Burma, Malaya (Singapore), Dutch East Indies, Manchuria
2. Japs could never fully control territories and resistance rose up in rural areas
3. Exploitation of trade, raw materials and food and people
4. Politically make- shift puppet governments set up… military ultimately in control
5. Starvation and disease
6. Slave labour used to fuel Jap war effort
7. “occupation fed the flames of nationalism”
8. resistance generally formed in rural areas
9. Thailand became ally and treated good by Japs
10. ‘Comfort women’200 000 taken from occupied territories to pleasure soldiers, only 30% survived.
11. Economies collapsed as Jap currency tried to be set up
❖ Essentially once Japan gained control they:
- removed colonial government (usually western democracy)
- establish Japanese culture
- establish themselves as superiors
❖ Typical actions of Japan in occupied territories:
- damage to infrastructure and property
- economies and trade restricted to suit Japanese war needs
- Japanese currency introduced without controls (became worthless and black markets quickly established)
- repression of resistance movements
- neighborhood organisations set up- social control (rationing, quash anti-Japanese thoughts
- forced labour (Thai-Burma railway- 300000 Asians worked ¾ died)
❖ Propaganda messages includes: “Asia for Asians”, “Live by traditional oriental principles”, “The protector, the light and the leader of Asia”
Social
➢ civilians were often promised equality, but were treated poorly + brutally
➢ no freedom of speech or press
➢ millions under forced labour
➢ Jap’s exploited food, raw materials for own advantage
➢ People were forced from villages to cities
➢ Strong resistance in countryside’s
➢ Property destructed
➢ Disease – malaria ect. (death rate from disease x2 Jap)
➢ Starvation
➢ Food rationing + confiscated (except for Jap) [famine of 1944: Indochina]
Political
➢ Jap est. puppet govt in Philippines, Burma
➢ Used committees of existing political parties
➢ Used well known politicians to take over govt
➢ Jap’s overran govt
➢ Reforms – conscription
➢ Assimilation policies – language
Economic
➢ Economy and trade directed towards Jap
➢ Economies exploited for Jap gains
➢ Infrastructure destructed
➢ Resources exploited – supply lines; oil
2- Life under occupation- collaboration, resistance & slave labour:
Korea: (Jap colony since 1910)
• Indication of what was to come for other territories
• Gov positions reserved for Japs
• 1937 reforms for conscription
• Korean avg. income was 30% of Japs
• Death rate from disease double during war
• Discrimination intensified
• Numerous assimilation policies
• Labour conscripted often beaten
Taiwan: (Jap colony 1928)
• Similar to Korea
• Fewer rights
• Chinese newspaper banned
Manchuria: (1937)
• Instrument of Jap power
• Kwantung army ruled
• No political org. permitted
• Peasants land taken
• Forced labour
• Exploited extensively for fertile land and mines
Philippians: (conquered May 42)
- conquered Filipina and US army led by MacArthur
- MacArthur- “I shall return” leaving Filipinos to fend for themselves, white man humiliated
- Filipino’s promised equality but treated shit, 1000’s forced labourers, no freedom of speech in press
- Puppet government set up… Jap military remained firmly in charge
- Old president who had fled to US told his country to co-operate
- Political elite went along with Japs especially
- Japs set bout eliminating US influence and culture- (music and movies banned, Americans locked up)
- Strong Filipino resistance in the country side- hundreds of thousands joined guerilla groups such as communist “Huckbalaps/ Hucks”- sabotaged Jap outposts encouraged social revolution, redistributed land to peasants
- Japs never had enough troops to effectively control whole nation
- Jap responded brutally with raids and to any other resistance (hung for not bowing)
- Japanese seized food crops and raw material for Jap use first
- Conditions worsened as tide turns against Jap
- 1944 Filipino’s starving
- 45 MacArthur returned to find devastation and in Sept General Yamashita surrended
-
Indonesia (Dutch East Indies): (March 42 military rule imposed)
• Oil was the aim
• “Occupation fed the flames of nationalism’- Calvocoressi
• Dutch commander surrended after 8 days even though US & Brit were prepared to keep fighting
• Before invasion Jap propagandas messages spread saying that “white mans rule would come to an end” and “yellow men would rule for 90 days” then Java would get freedom.
• Some cases of local uprising against Dutch before invasion
• Jap divided into Indonesia into 3 parts and controlled with different parts of military
• Initially welcomed but short lived
• Japanese military police (Kempetai) were feared
• Food confiscated and used by military
• Terror tactics used to encourage local support
• Millions of natives (10 in Java alone) forced into manual labour
• Dutch anthem replaced by Japanese and Indonesian
• Nationalism encouraged in schools
• Nationalists worked with Japanese and against them (preaching co-prosperity then diverting Jap arms to resistance groups)
• Tides began to turn and Japs allowed Indonesian military groups (Peta) to fight against allied invasion
• Japs said they would get independence after the war and they seized the opportunity.
Indochina-French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambo): (occupied Sep 1940)
• Didn’t need to invade
• Vichy government collaborated with Germans hence Japs
• Excessively plundered
• Indochina provided, rice, raw material and labour
• Great strategic advantage to Japs- supplies sent to China, airfields- bombers could reach to Singapore
• People forced from villages to cities
• Many rice crops changed to jute (rope) send many to starve (20 000) in famine of 44
• Exploitation of mines, oilfields and railways
• Much resistance and sabotage by Ho Chi Minh and his Viet Minh.
• Liberation army formed and supported by the US
• Eventually Japan controlled whole of Vietnam
Thailand: (Ally Dec 41)
• Sided and then declared war on US
• Brief resistance
• Gave the Japs more territory and 3mill new people
• Economy and trade directed towards Japan- access to food
• ‘Free Thailand Movement’ began and fed to Br and US
• Thai government remained surface ally to Japs but secretly favor of allies
• Thai government continued with real power after Japs surrender
• Overall escaped much damage and destruction
Burma: (April 42)
• Long history of resistance with Br and initially sided with Japs
• British administration removed and fled to India
• Resistance became rife, the Karens (minority ethnic groups) in assistance with Brit officers waged guerilla war on the Japs
• As US and Chinese fighting in north and Br and commonwealth pushed in from the south it became battle grounds- people suffered
• Forced labour Thai-Burma railway
• Disease- epidemics of smallpox, cholera and bubonic plague
• Aung San became head of puppet government and later formed org. to fight Japs.
Malaya: (Feb 42)
• General Percival surrended at Singapore and the military took control
• Divided into 8 provinces, 4 went to Thailand
• No real suggestion of Malayan independence
• Chinese inhabitants were brutalized and shot
• Exploited economy and people
• Food rationed except for Japs- starvation
• Hospitals looted for supplies and Disease and Malaria spread
• Widespread resistance and gurrieallea groups despite retaliation
Resistance
➢ Occurred in Philippines, Indochina, Malaya, Manchukuo
➢ Originated in the countryside’s
➢ Took the form of guerrilla warfare
o Hand-to-hand conflict
Collaboration
➢ Dutch East Indies – welcomed Jap with food, arrested Dutch ect
➢ Thailand – sided with Jap Army, avoided much destruction/damage
➢ Burma – sided with Jap, received training (resistance in rural)
Slave Labour
➢ Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Malaya
➢ Involved forced manual labour
➢ Labourers in China + Korea treated worst
➢ Involved mining, steel production, heavy construction under armed guards
➢ Imprisoned by night, flogged
➢ 70,000 Koreans + Chinese died in Jap custody
o work accidents, beaten to death, worked to death
3- Effect of the war on the home fronts of Japan and Australia:
* look at sheets & corresponding quotes.
Australia:
“Although civilian hardship were not to be compared with those suffered by the belligerent peoples in Europe- or Asia- by the winter of 1942 Australians were more severely rationed, regimented and censored then they had ever been since the early convict days” – Ward
- Government/ Political:
➢ Aust ‘looks to the US’ – Curtain
➢ MacArthur gave new sense of hope to Australia “changed the popular belief of a nation” yet caused many disputes between commanders and diminished Aust role in New Guinea
➢ National Security Act- wide ranging power for military emergency
➢ Many civil liberties ignored
➢ Enemy aliens placed in internment camps
➢ Conscription was controversial issue
❖ PM Curtin introduced “limited conscription”
❖ 1943 all men 18-33 were called into militia
❖ AIF (served overseas)
❖ AMF served in Aust territories- PNG (huge debate to extend range north, finally agreed to extend into SWP.
➢ Women gained greater role
❖ Over 65,000 joined WRANS, WAAAF, AWAS
❖ 1942 over 500,000 were working Aust industry – munitions
❖ Women wage earners increased by 10%
- Social:
➢ Up to a million GI’s passed through Aust during war- ‘overpaid, oversexed and over here’ – led to Americanisation of culture (hamburgers, gum and coca cola)
➢ 10 000 aussie women became US war brides
➢ Nov 42= battle of Brisbane (clash between Aust and US troops)
➢ Abo’s joined military (3000)
➢ Aust lost 33 826 during the war and thousands other came back scared (POW experience)
- Censorship:
➢ Department of information set up (under Calwell)
➢ Truth about Darwin bombing and HMAS Sydney wasn’t full revealed
➢ Newspapers printed blank pages in protest
➢ Letter home censored
➢ Propaganda hate talks ‘ringed by menace’ – underlying racism
- Economy:
➢ Federal government took over tax control from states= increase tax
➢ Made state governments reliant on ‘charity handouts’- difficult to go back to old system’
➢ Taxable income bracket lowed to 104 pounds per year= increased number of tax payers by 250%
➢ More taxes introduced- wartime company tax, gift tax, entertainment tax, payroll tax
➢ Government more interventionist in what business would produces, what raw materials they could use and what labour they could hire
➢ Director General of Manpower established and enforced all males and females over 16 to register for war- work If needed
➢ Men in reserved occupations (war effort jobs) could not change
➢ Men in non- reserved jobs were steered towards war effort jobs
➢ “Manpower became a familiar word, as a department was set up to control the allocation of men to the most necessary tasks”- Ward
➢ Even peoples property could be sold to the government
➢ Rationing on petrol, tea, beer, butter and meat.
➢ In 1944 when threat of invasion had passed challenges facing government were as much economic as military (men decommissioned to rejoin workforce)
➢ War eliminated unemployment and ushered in a sustained period of economic growth
- Military Attack:
➢ Traditional reliance on Britain (collapse of Singapore – 15th Feb 42- left Aust exposed)
➢ Threat came to reality 2 days after when Darwin was bombed (19th Feb 42)
➢ Large areas of Aust controlled PNG already in Jap hands (Rabaul)
➢ 243 killed in the 60 bombings of Darwin
➢ 80 000 tones of Aust shipping (503 deaths including 203 on the clearly marked hospital ship- ‘Centaur’
➢ Mini sub raid on Sydney 31st May 42 (21 killed when HMAS Kuttabul was sunk)
➢ Random raids on Newcastle and Sydney coasts- aim to cause panic and draw resources away from PNG.
➢ Debate over planed invasion of Australia:
- Aust initially included in GEACPS
- Yet Army was already overextended and proved inpractable
- More realistic objective was to cut Aust off from US (thus eliminate it as a base and supplies)
Japan:
➢ Govt military dominated – Diet
o Democracy abandoned 1930s
o National Mobilisation Bill 1938
▪ Power over industry, labour, the press
o National defence security laws ended individual freedom
➢ Censorship was designed to protect public morale
o Newspapers became a medium for propaganda – strengthen unity
o Mass media = conveyor belt for govt handouts
o As late as 1944 only 2% believed they would lose the war
o By 45 his increased to 68%
➢ Police had enormous power during the war
o Kempetai – military police
o Tokko – thought police
o Imprisoned citizens based on non-conformity (ideology: Marxism)
➢ Local organisations were formed in neighbourhood
o Collected taxes, dispersed food rations, organised air raid drills
➢ Economy by 1945 was crippled
o Similarly with Nazi Germany the Jap economy took time to become fully geared for war effort *(This reflected the complacency inspired by early victories and poor planning for the long war with US)
o Output increased from 42-44 but then became hampered by bombing as the US strategic bombing survey concluded- “Japans economy was in large measure destroyed twice, once by cutting of imports, secondly by air attack”
o Runaway inflation + thriving black market
o 1944 rice was x50 its fixed price
➢ Women + children took greater roles (under Factor law Wartime Exemption 43)
o Was against Jap tradition for women (indication of desperateness)
o 1944 over 14 mil women workers, over 400,000 school children to countryside
o School days cut short to allow for more work (up to 11 hours per day
➢ Slave labour used in occupied territories – China + Korea
o Mining, steel production, heavy construction – flogging,
o 70,000 Koreans + Chinese died in Jap custody
➢ Rationing
o Food rationing introduced as early as 1940
o Rice + fuel strictly rationed
o Food restriction led to malnutrition and increase disease (tuberculosis)
o Black market developed as food became harder to find
▪ Bartering possessions for fresh fruit + veg
o Nationwide drive for steel – war material production
➢ Bombing occurred in Jap towards end of the war
o 1942 Doolittle Raid on Tokyo
o 1944 bombing raids in Tokyo – fire storms
▪ killed 80,000 - 100,000; 1.8 mil homeless
▪ by July: 500,000 killed, industry down 40%
4.) End of the Conflict
1- Reasons for use of A bomb and subsequent controversy:
➢ “Use of the bomb was not a question it was an answer” at the time
➢ “Never a question of if but when”
➢ 9th March 334 bombers dropped 2000 tones of bombs creating fire storm that killed 83000… end of March 75 km square of Jap cites was destroyed… May and June the raids continued and 42km square of Tokyo destroyed………Despite these alarming stats the Japs showed no signs of surrender or even wanting negotiate peace or armistice.
➢ Okinawa (12000 US killed) and Iwo Jima operations were clear signs of Japs determination to continue to fight. They alone lost 100 000
➢ Kamikaze raids were another indication of the mind set of Gary’s.- ‘Bushido’ (fighting spirit)
➢ Euro theatre of war ceased – Manhattan Project shifted to East
➢ In this atmosphere the new and uniformed president Truman was told of the existence of the A bomb.
➢ End the war with A-bomb rather than risk continued fighting over negotiations, unnecessary US deaths
➢ Price of invading Japan = 1 mil Allied deaths
➢ A-bomb would curve Stalin’s perception of US
➢ End the war quickly before USSR had chance to invade Japan
➢ USSR would fear waging war with US
➢ Brynes persuaded Truman A-Bomb was essential to ending war
➢ “A-bomb stopped the war and saved American lives”
Controversy:
➢ Soviets had received word from Japs that they would surrender if emperors positions was safeguarded
➢ Didn’t take the example explosion on deserted island option as feared that it might not work
➢ Truman in his own diary entry believed the Japs were almost ready to surrender
➢ More damage done to Tokyo by bombing firestorms not A bomb
➢ Invasion would be costly but the Philippines had been with cost of 31 000 and around 156 000 Jap casualties
➢ The Germans had fought to the end
➢ Public was overwhelmingly behind the bomb at the time (85% yes)
➢ Emperor was allowed to stay despite of initial threat
➢ Great hatred of Jap in US due to attack on PH, POW treatment. 1/3 said it should cease to exist as a country
➢ Japs were starving and supplies were not entering the country
➢ It was incredibly expensive and if not used was politically damaging to Truman
➢ Eisenhour was against it “I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon”
➢ Historians note the Japs would have surrendered in shock of Soviet declaration and safeguard of emperor
➢ Strategic bombing survey concluded that ‘certainly’ the Japs would have surrendered before end of year
2- Reasons for Japanese defeat:
➢ Imperial Navy had a doctrine geared to fighting and winning one decisive battle
➢ Perimeter defence concept was a weakness
o Outposts could not be equipped on the scale needed
o Stretched resources
➢ Had to maintain 6000km of supply lines over land + sea
➢ Had to supervise nearly 300,000 POW’s
➢ Lacked shipping resources
➢ Lack of cooperation between Navy and Imperial Army
o Committed majority of army to China Incident (Korea, Manchuria)
o Ineffective use of resources – lack of communication
➢ Division of resources between conflicting priorities
➢ Technological backwardness
➢ A bomb + soviet attack on Manchuria
➢ “Victory disease” – born from overwhelming successes
o associated with planning of major offensives
3- War Crimes Tribunals and the status of the Emperor:
➢ Surrender occurred on 2nd September in Tokyo bay aboard the battleship Missouri
➢ Status of the emperor:
➢ US largely condemned emperor as they believed he allowed the undeclared action of war at PH
➢ Emperor denied it saying the message took longer to type than expected and didn’t reach US on time… this was contrary to the famous Times interview.
➢ ‘The Photograph’ was the most famous visual image of the occupation
- No mistaking who possessed the authority
- Mac towered over Horohito, he war an open collard shit with ‘no neck tie,’ he wore no medals, stood casually with arms on hips, age difference reinforced generals seniority ‘could have been his father’
- This was contrary to the emperor who stood stiffly in full morning dress.
- “the iconography of height, posture, age and locale placed the emperor in an inferior position”- Dower
- “Idea of the photograph was MacArthur’s, and his decision to make it public revealed the deft touch of a man who had spent much of his career practicing public relations”- Dower
- Single stroke it established Mac’s authority and the fact that he would stand by the emperor
➢ The Japanese would not surrender if the Emperor was taken out of position- fear of communism, uprising/ rebellion if the occurred
➢ The allies made it clear that the emperor would be removed, yet after the surrender he was surprisingly allowed to stay on yet not as god figure.
➢ SCAP’s Legal brief of emperors role in the war concluded he possessed a ‘lack of knowledge of true state affairs’
➢ This was mainly done ‘in the interest of a peaceful occupation and rehabilitation of Japan, prevention of revolution and communism.’
➢ He was considered a god.
➢ The mystique surrounding the emperor was soon dissipated
➢ It was deemed that to trial the emperor as a war criminal would be sacrilegious, blasphemous and a denial of spiritual freedom to the Jap people
➢ general uprising would be inevitable… paramount, national importance that Japan harbour no lasting resentment
➢ Hence SCAPS commitment to saving and using the emperor was firm… he ensured the emperor wore new clothes, maintained personal security and redefined the throne as the centre piece of the new democracy.
➢ MacArthur said –the execution of the emperor to Japanese people would be similar to the death of Jesus Christ to us
o War trials began on 29th April 1946
o 28 accused in Tokyo and 7 were hung include 2 former PM
o 1000’s other trialed in pacific region and around 900 hung
o Nation had no value to pay to suffering SE nations
o Thousands of political prisoners were freed
o Many ‘high diet’ members were ‘purged’ prevented from entering public office for some time
4- Allied occupation of Japan to 1951:
➢ Emperor allowed to remain on the throne but the real emperor was MacArthur
➢ Real power lay solely in the Americans and MacArthur
➢ Soviets refused to send troops as they would have to work under the US
➢ US originally had 500 000 but reduced to 150 000 after realised not threat
➢ Unlike Germany Japan was not governed solely by the military, Jap government remained in office yet policies were determined by SCAP (mac)
➢ Jap people treated mac like an emperor
➢ He wanted to recreate Jap in US image
➢ They believed they had to change the jap mindset from reactionary militants to freedom loving democrats
➢ He devised a 7 point plan:
- Disarm the soldiers
- Give women suffrage
- Send the soldiers home
- Dismantle war industry
- Hold free election
- Form trade unions
- Provide open instruction in schools
➢ First though people had to be fed, army soup kitchens set up cost the US$1mill per day
➢ Demilitarisation:
- Soviets had 400000 jap POW never went home
- Korea was returned to Koreans
- Manchuria taken over by the soviets
- US took Marshall Marinas
- Armament factories destroyed
- War trials began on 29th April 1946
- 28 accused in Tokyo and 7 were hung include 2 former PM
- 1000’s other trialed in pacific region and around 900 hung
- Nation had no value to pay to suffering SE nations
- Thousands of political prisoners were freed
➢ MacArthur drew up a new constitution in the American image
➢ Reforms on trade unions, economy, women, land, police, education.
➢ By 1947 reforms had taken shape yet the ‘cold war’ was threatening.
➢ However Korean war started and Jap economy boomed as it provided trade base of US troop and supplies for the war effort
➢ Production and exports shot up greatly
➢ Mac was replaced as SCAP in April 1951
➢ 8th September 1951 48 countries signed peace treaty with Japan giving it back its independence but stripping it of all territory acquired since 1868
➢ Occupation formally ended in April 42.
➢ It’s the most successful example of social engineering.
➢ Initial fear of Americans- rumors had spread of rap and pillage… many women fled the cities
➢ Japan had never been occupied before they had no idea of what to expect or of how to behave. They were confused, dazed, weary and half starved.
➢ Popular resentment was initially directed against the national leaders; in particular the generals and admirals had led Jap into a hopeless war.
➢ Overwhelming majority of civilians and servicemen faithfully executed ordered to surrender- impressive example of charismatic authority of the Japanese Throne.
➢ Efficiency with which Mac’s headquarters carried out demilitarization was remarkable. It was enforced thoroughly and Jap war machine was dismantled or destroyed in a remarkably short time.
➢ SCAP introduced tens of thousands of men and women to an entirely new awareness of what is meant by the freedom and dignity of the individual.
➢ *From 1945 to 1952 the popular attitude towards SCAP as institution was a compound of apprehension, admiration, disappointment and boredom.
➢ Policy of SCAP underwent an important alteration less than three years into occupation. In early months of 48 it was apparent that main policy was to rebuild Japan as an ally of US against communism.
➢ In the atmosphere of Korean War and Chinese revolution to became obvious that in they eyes of SCAP rehabilitation and revival became more important than reform… began to have second thoughts over dissolution of Jap militarism.
➢ Strikes once viewed as signs of democracy were now considered potentially dangerous
➢ 1950 the National Police Reserve was enlarged into a well army, with a navy and air force also came into existence… most of country felt confused at this rearmament.
➢ First Phase of occupation was somewhat of a bloodless social and cultural revolution:
- October 45 government was instructed to free political prisoners.
- Trains returned to the cities full of foragers who had traveled to the country in search of food
- Education was decentralized- co-ed + juniors high schools
➢ Most important action taken by SCAP was development of new constitution:
- Firstly monarchy should be retained yet subject to will of people
- Secondly war was to be foresworn forever
- Thirdly all forms of feudalism must be abolished
- Emperor was defined as a symbol of the state and unity of the people
- All should enjoy fundamental human rights
- Freedom of thought and right to maintain minimum standard of living
- Equal education
- These all captured imagination of the masses and gave them a real sense of spiritual liberation
➢ Second phase of Reconstruction:
- Hastened by the cold war essentially
- Mac wanted end to occupation earlier
- Peace conference was delayed due to disagreements between countries
- Reparations were terminated and Japan allowed private trade with foreign countries
- US shaped a moderately right wings Japan to serve as international asset
- By the end of 1951 industrial production was roughly equal to what it had been 20 years earlier
➢ Japs felt saddened when Mac dismissed
➢ Treaty placed no limitations on economy or trade and Japs right to self defence… ‘increasingly assume responsibility for own defence’
➢ Treaty came into force on 28th of April 1952… occupation formally ceased and Japan was once again and independent nation.
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