October 13-14, 2007 Web Surfing Tracker of A Mad Schizophrenic
Aum Gung Ganapathaye Namah
Namo tassa bhagavato arahato samma-sambuddhassa
Homage to The Blessed One, Accomplished and Fully Enlightened
In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Web Surfing Tracker
A Collection of Articles, Notes and References
References
(October 13-14, 2007)
(Revised: Tuesday, January 15, 2008)
References Edited by
A Mad Schizophrenic
What’s in a name? That which we call a rose
By any other name would smell as sweet.
- William Shakespeare
Copyright © 2008-2013 A Mad Schizophrenic
The following educational writings are STRICTLY for academic research purposes ONLY.
Should NOT be used for commercial, political or any other purposes.
(The following notes are subject to update and revision)
For free distribution only.
You may print copies of this work for free distribution.
You may re-format and redistribute this work for use on computers and computer networks, provided that you charge no fees for its distribution or use.
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8 "... Freely you received, freely give”.
- Matthew 10:8 :: New American Standard Bible (NASB)
The attempt to make God just in the eyes of sinful men will always lead to error.
- Pastor William L. Brown.
1 “But mark this: There will be terrible times in the last days.
2 People will be lovers of themselves, lovers of money, boastful, proud, abusive, disobedient to their parents, ungrateful, unholy,
3 without love, unforgiving, slanderous, without self-control, brutal, not lovers of the good,
4 treacherous, rash, conceited, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God—
5 having a form of godliness but denying its power. Have nothing to do with them.
6 They are the kind who worm their way into homes and gain control over weak-willed women, who are loaded down with sins and are swayed by all kinds of evil desires,
7 always learning but never able to acknowledge the truth.
8 Just as Jannes and Jambres opposed Moses, so also these men oppose the truth--men of depraved minds, who, as far as the faith is concerned, are rejected.
9 But they will not get very far because, as in the case of those men, their folly will be clear to everyone.”
- 2 Timothy 3:1-9 :: New International Version (NIV)
The right to be left alone – the most comprehensive of rights, and the right most valued by a free people
- Justice Louis Brandeis, Olmstead v. U.S., 1928.
15 I know thy works, that thou art neither cold nor hot: I would thou wert cold or hot.
16 So then because thou art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out of my mouth.
- Revelation 3:15-16 :: King James Version (KJV)
6 As he saith also in another place, Thou art a priest for ever after the order of Melchisedec.
- Hebrews 5:6 :: King James Version (KJV)
3 Without father, without mother, without descent, having neither beginning of days, nor end of life; but made like unto the Son of God; abideth a priest continually.
- Hebrews 7:3 :: King James Version (KJV)
Therefore, I say:
Know your enemy and know yourself;
in a hundred battles, you will never be defeated.
When you are ignorant of the enemy but know yourself,
your chances of winning or losing are equal.
If ignorant both of your enemy and of yourself,
you are sure to be defeated in every battle.
-- Sun Tzu, The Art of War, c. 500bc
There are two ends not to be served by a wanderer. What are these two? The pursuit of desires and of the pleasure which springs from desire, which is base, common, leading to rebirth, ignoble, and unprofitable; and the pursuit of pain and hardship, which is grievous, ignoble, and unprofitable.
- The Blessed One, Lord Buddha
3 Neither let the son of the stranger, that hath joined himself to the LORD, speak, saying, The LORD hath utterly separated me from his people: neither let the eunuch say, Behold, I am a dry tree.
- Isaiah 56:3 :: King James Version (KJV)
19:12 For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it.
- Matthew 19:12 :: King James Version (KJV)
21 But this kind does not go out except by prayer and fasting.
- Matthew 17:21 :: Amplified Bible (AMP)
Contents
Color Code
A Brief Word on Copyright
References
Educational Copy of Some of the References
Color Code
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A Brief Word on Copyright
Many of the articles whose educational copies are given below are copyrighted by their respective authors as well as the respective publishers. Some contain messages of warning, as follows:
Republication or redissemination of the contents of this screen are expressly prohibited
without the written consent of “so and so”.
According to the concept of “fair use” in US copyright Law,
The reproduction, redistribution and/or exploitation of any materials and/or content (data, text, images, marks or logos) for personal or commercial gain is not permitted. Provided the source is cited, personal, educational and non-commercial use (as defined by fair use in US copyright law) is permitted.
Moreover,
• This is a religious educational website.
o In the name of the Lord, with the invisible Lord as the witness.
• No commercial/business/political use of the following material.
• Just like student notes for research purposes, the writings of the other children of the Lord, are given as it is, with student highlights and coloring. Proper respects and due referencing are attributed to the relevant authors/publishers.
I believe that satisfies the conditions for copyright and non-plagiarism.
• Also, from observation, any material published on the internet naturally gets read/copied even if conditions are maintained. If somebody is too strict with copyright and hold on to knowledge, then it is better not to publish “openly” onto the internet or put the article under “pay to refer” scheme.
• I came across the articles “freely”. So I publish them freely with added student notes and review with due referencing to the parent link, without any personal monetary gain. My purpose is only to educate other children of the Lord on certain concepts, which I believe are beneficial for “Oneness”.
References
Some of the links may not be active (de-activated) due to various reasons, like removal of the concerned information from the source database. So an educational copy is also provided, along with the link.
If the link is active, do cross-check/validate/confirm the educational copy of the article provided along.
1. If the link is not active, then try to procure a hard copy of the article, if possible, based on the reference citation provided, from a nearest library or where-ever, for cross-checking/validation/confirmation.
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Educational Copy of Some of the References
FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY
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Internet Connection: ‘Sreyas’, TC 25/2741, PRA No. A47, Ambuja Vilasom Road, Pulimoodu, Thiruvananthapuram 695001, Kerala, India
IP Address: 59.91.241.116
Saturday, October 13, 2007 1051 p.m. – Sunday, October 14, 2007 0525 a.m. IST
Amun
Amun
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Amun
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Read: Saturday, October 13, 2007 – Sunday, October 14, 2007
Amun (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imen, Greek Ἄμμων Ammon, and Ἅμμων Hammon, Egyptian Yamanu[citation needed]) was the name of a deity, in Egyptian mythology, who gradually rose to become one of the most important deities in Ancient Egypt, before fading into obscurity.
Picture
Amun in hieroglyphs
Contents
1 Origin of name
2 Creator
3 King
4 Fertility God
5 Sun God
6 Decline
7 Derived terms
8 References
9 External links
Origin of name
Amun's name is first recorded in Egyptian records as ỉmn, meaning "The hidden (one)". Since vowels were not written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, Egyptologists have reconstructed the name to have been pronounced *Yamānu (/jamaːnu/) originally. The name survived in Coptic as {{{1}}}, Amoun.
Creator
Amun and Mut
Gradually, as god of air, he came to be associated with the breath of life, which created the ba, particularly in Thebes. By the First Intermediate Period this had led to him being thought of, in these areas, as the creator god, titled father of the gods, preceding the Ogdoad, although also part of it. As he became more significant, he was assigned a wife (Amunet being his own female aspect, more than a distinct wife), and since he was the creator, his wife was considered the divine mother from which the cosmos emerged, who in the areas where Amun was worshipped was, by this time, Mut.
Amun became depicted in human form, seated on a throne, wearing on his head a plain deep circlet from which rise two straight parallel plumes, possibly symbolic of the tail feathers of a bird, a reference to his earlier status as a wind god.
Having become more important than Menthu, the local war god of Thebes, Menthu's authority became said to exist because he was the son of Amun. However, as Mut was infertile, it was believed that she, and thus Amun, had adopted Menthu instead. In later years, due to the shape of a pool outside the sacred temple of Mut at Thebes, Menthu was replaced, as their adopted son, by Chons, the moon god.
King
Bas-relief depicting Amun as king.
Amun-Min
When the armies of the Eighteenth dynasty evicted the Hyksos rulers from Egypt, the victors' city of origin, Thebes, now held the mantle of the most important city in Egypt. Therefore, Amun became nationally important. The Pharaohs attributed all their successful enterprises to Amun, and they lavished much of their wealth and captured spoil on the construction of his temples.
Because of the adoration now given to Amun, visiting Greek travelers to Egypt would report back that Amun, king of the Egyptian gods, was one in the same, and therefore became identified with, the Greek king of the gods Zeus. As did Amun's consort Mut become associated with Zeus's consort Hera.
As the Egyptians considered themselves oppressed during the period of Hyksos' rule, the victory under the supreme god Amun, was seen as his championing of the less fortunante. Consequently, Amun was viewed as upholding the rights of justice to the poor, and became titled Vizier of the poor, and by aiding those who travelled in his name, he became the Protector of the road. Since he upheld Ma'at, those who prayed to Amun were required first to demonstrate that they were worthy, by confessing their sins.
Fertility God
When, subsequently, Egypt conquered Kush, they identified the chief deity of the Kushites as Amun. This deity was depicted as Ram headed, more specifically a woolly Ram with curved horns, and so Amun started becoming associated with the Ram. Indeed, due to the aged appearance of it, they came to believe that this had been the original form of Amun, and that Kush was where he had been born.
However, since rams, due to their rutting, were considered a symbol of virility, Amun also became thought of as a fertility deity, and so started to absorb the identity of Min, becoming Amun-Min. This association with virility led to Amun-Min gaining the epithet Kamutef, meaning Bull of his mother, in which form he was often found depicted on the walls of Karnak, ithyphallic, and with a scourge.
Sun God
Picture
Amun-Ra in hieroglyphs
Amun-Ra
As Amun's cult grew bigger, Amun rapidly became identified with the chief God that was worshipped in other areas, Ra-Herakhty, the merged identities of Ra, and Horus. This identification led to a merger of identities, with Amun becoming Amun-Ra. As Ra had been the father of Shu, and Tefnut, and the remainder of the Ennead, so Amun-Ra was likewise identified as their father.
Ra-Herakhty had been a sun god, and so this became true of Amun-Ra as well, Amun becoming considered the hidden aspect of the sun (e.g. during the night), in contrast to Ra-Herakhty as the visible aspect, since Amun clearly meant the one who is hidden. This complexity over the sun led to a gradual movement towards the support of a more pure form of deity.
During the eighteenth dynasty, the pharaoh Akhenaten (also known as Amenhotep IV) introduced the worship of the Aten, a god whose power was manifested both literally and symbolically in the sun's disc. He defaced the symbols of the old gods and based his new religion upon one new god: the Aten. However, this abrupt change was very unpopular, particularly with the previous temple priests, who now found themselves without any of their former power. Consequently, when Akhenaten died, his name was striken from the Egyptian records, and all of his changes were swiftly undone. It was almost as if this monotheistic sect had never occurred. Worship of the Aten was replaced and worship of Amun-Ra was restored. The priests persuaded the new underage pharaoh Tutankhaten, whose name meant "the living image of Aten", to change his name to Tutankhamun, "the living image of Amun".
Decline
After the Twentieth dynasty moved the center of power back to Thebes, the powerbase of Amun's cult had been revivified, and the authority of Aten began to weaken. Under the Twenty-first dynasty the secondary line of priest kings of Thebes upheld his dignity to the best of their power, and the Twenty-second favoured Thebes.
The sarcophagus of a priestess of Amon-Ra cerca 1000 B.C.E at the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History.
As the sovereignty weakened, the division between Upper and Lower Egypt asserted itself; thereafter, Thebes would have rapidly decayed had it not been for the piety of the kings of Nubia towards Amun, whose worship had long prevailed in their country. Thebes was at first their Egyptian capital, and they honoured Amun greatly, although neither their wealth nor culture were sufficient to affect much change.
However, in the rest of Egypt, the popularity of his cult was rapidly overtaken by the less divisive cult of the Legend of Osiris and Isis, which had not been associated with the heretical Akhenaten. And so there, his identity became first subsumed into Ra (Ra-Herakhty), who still remained an identifiable figure in the Osiris cult, but ultimately, became merely an aspect of Horus.
In areas outside of Egypt where the Egyptians had previously brought the worship of Amun, his fate was not as dreadful. In Nubia, where his name was pronounced Amane, he remained the national god, with his priests at Meroe and Nobatia, via an oracle, regulating the whole government of the country, choosing the king, and directing his military expeditions. According to Diodorus Siculus, they were even able to compel kings to commit suicide, although this behaviour stopped when Arkamane, in the 3rd century BC, slew them.
Likewise, in Libya there remained a solitary oracle of Amun in the Libyan Desert at the oasis of Siwa. Such was its reputation among the Greeks that Alexander the Great journeyed there after the battle of Issus and during his occupation of Egypt in order to be acknowledged the son of Amun. Even during this occupation, Amun, identified as a form of Zeus, continued to be the great god of Thebes throughout its decay.
Derived terms
Several words derive from Amun via the Greek form Ammon: ammonia and ammonite. Ammonia, as well as being the chemical, is a genus name in the foraminifera. Both these foraminiferans (shelled Protozoa) and ammonites (extinct shelled cephalopods) have/had spiral shells resembling a ram's, and Ammon's, horns. The regions of the hippocampus in the brain are called the cornu ammonis – literally "Amun's Horns", due to the horned appearance of the dark and light bands of cellular layers.
References
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
Adolf Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion (London, 1907)
David Klotz, Adoration of the Ram: Five Hymns to Amun-Re from Hibis Temple (New Haven, 2006)
Ed. Meyer, article "Ammon" in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie
Pietschmann, articles "Ammon" and "Ammoneion" in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopädie.
External links
Ancient Egypt: the Mythology - Amon
Wiki Classical Dictionary: Ammon
Leiden Hymns to Amun
Leiden Hymns to Amun
Strong's H0528 Amon in the Bible
Ancient Egypt-related topics
Architecture · Art · Chronology · Cuisine · Dynasties · Geography · History · Mathematics · Medicine · Religion · Pharaohs · People · Language · Sites · Technology · Writing
Egyptology · Egyptologists · Egyptology portal
Retrieved from ""
Categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since September 2007 | Egyptian gods | Solar gods | Fertility gods | Sky and weather gods | Deities in the Hebrew Bible
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Personal Note
Cross refer to the naga emblem in the female head dress...
According to Sreekanteswaram G. Padmanabha Pillai. (May 1980) Sabdataravali Malayalam Dictionary (Malayalam) (9th edition) Kottayam, Kerala, India: Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-operative Society Ltd./National Book Stall, page 1067, Naga-r, Naga-ru was an ornament worn by women on their head...as a head dress...probably in olden times...in South India...especially in Kerala...among the Nair caste women...
Written around 1131 p.m. Saturday, October 13, 2007
Revised around 1140 p.m. Saturday, October 13, 2007
Also note...the baby cross held in their hands...and the huge hook...ana-thoti...held by the King...
Written around 1141 p.m. Saturday, October 13, 2007
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Summary
Bas relief of the Egyptian god Amun. Originally from Steindorff, Blūtezeit des Pharaoneureiches, taken from 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, now in the public domain.
Amun5
Chem
Description English: Line drawing of Amun-ka-Mut-ef. The god Min is frequently depicted in the same manner.
Description
Published in The Gods of the Egyptians Volume 1 by E. A. Wallis Budge, circa 1904. It is clearly stated by the British Museum that Budge's works are out of copyright [1] and so any republication of his book, in part or in full is fully allowed. We are republishing part, a plate from his book. It is fully within the public domain.
Amon-Re
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Loincloth
A loincloth is a one-piece male garment, sometimes kept in place by a belt, which covers the genitals and, at least partially, the buttocks.
...
Loincloths are and have been worn:
in societies where no other clothing is needed or wanted
as an undergarment or swimsuit
for symbolical purposes, e.g. in asceticism to express soberness
Mohandas Gandhi wore a dhoti, a Hindu loincloth, as a way of identifying with the poorest Indians, even though he knew it could be taken as a sign of primitiveness...
...
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Dhoti
The dhoti, called Laacha in Punjabi, mundu in Malayalam, dhuti in Bangla, vaetti in Tamil, pancha in Telugu, dhotar in Marathi and panche in Kannada,dhoti in Pakistan is the traditional garment of men's wear in South Asia, especially India. It is a rectangular piece of unstitched cloth, usually around 5 yards long, wrapped about the waist and the legs, and knotted at the waist.
...
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Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 1. A - Armati /
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Tutankhamun
Read: Sunday, October 14, 2007
Tutankhamun
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Tutankhamun
Tutankhaten, Tutankhamon,[1] possibly Nibhurrereya (as referenced in the Amarna letters)
Preceded by:
Smenkhkare? or
Neferneferuaten? Pharaoh of Egypt
18th Dynasty Succeeded by:
Ay
Mask of Tutankhamun's mummy, the popular icon for ancient Egypt at The Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
Reign 1333 BC – 1324 BC
Praenomen
Nebkheperure
Lord of the forms of Re
Nomen
Tutankhaten
Living Image of the Aten
Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema
Living Image of Amun,
ruler of Upper Heliopolis
Horus
name
Kanakht Tutmesut
The strong bull, pleasing of birth
Nebty
name
Neferhepusegerehtawy
One of perfect laws,
who pacifies the two lands[2]
Wer-Ah-Amun
Great of the palace of Amun
Neb-r-Djer
Lord of all
Golden
Horus
Wetjeskhausehetepnetjeru
Who wears crowns and pleases the gods
Heqa-maat-sehetep-netjeru
Ruler of Truth, who pleases the gods
Wetjes-khau-itef-Re
Who wears the crowns of his father, Re
Wetjes-khau-Tjestawy-Im
Who wears crowns, and binds the two lands therein
Consort(s) Ankhesenamen
Burial KV62
Tutankhamen receives flowers from Ankhesenamen
Nebkheperure Tutankhamun (alternately spelled with Tutenkh-, -amen, -amon), Egyptian twt-ˁnḫ-ı͗mn; *tuwt-ʕankh-yamān, was a Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty (ruled 1333 BC – 1324 BC in the conventional chronology), during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. His original name, Tutankhaten, meant "Living Image of Aten", while Tutankhamun meant "Living Image of Amun". He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters. He was likely the eighteenth dynasty king 'Rathotis', who according to Manetho, an ancient historian, had reigned for nine years—a figure which conforms exactly with Flavius Josephus' generally accurate version of Manetho's Epitome.[3]
Contents
1 Significance
2 Parentage
3 Reign
4 Events after his death
5 Name
6 Cause of death
7 Discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb
8 Tutankhamun in popular culture
8.1 Tutankhamun's appearance and controversy
8.1.1 Skin tone
8.2 2005 research and findings
8.3 Gallery depicting close relations to Tutankhamun
8.4 Exhibitions
8.5 In fiction
9 2007 discoveries in Tutankhamun's tomb
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Significance
In historical terms, Tutankhamun is of only moderate significance, and most of his modern popularity stems from the fact that his tomb in the Valley of the Kings was discovered almost completely intact. However, he also is significant as a figure among those who managed the beginning of the transition from the heretical Atenism of his predecessors Akhenaten and perhaps Smenkhkare back to the familiar Egyptian religion. As Tutankhamun began his reign at age nine, his vizier and eventual successor Ay was probably making most of the important political decisions during Tutankhamun's reign. Nonetheless, Tutankhamun is, in modern times, one of the most famous of the pharaohs, and the only one to have a nickname in popular culture ("King Tut"). The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of Tutankhamun's nearly intact tomb (subsequently designated KV62) received worldwide press coverage and sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun remains the popular face.
Parentage
Tutankhamun's parentage is uncertain. An inscription calls him a king's son, but it is not clear which king was meant. Most scholars think that he was probably a son either of Amenhotep III (although probably not by his Great Royal Wife Tiye), or more likely a son of Amenhotep III's son Akhenaten around 1342 BC. However, Professor James Allen argues that Tutankhamun was more likely to be a son of the short-lived king Smenkhkare rather than Akhenaten. Allen argues that Akhenaten consciously chose a female co-regent named Neferneferuaten as his successor rather than Tutankhamun which would have been unlikely if the latter had been his son.[4] Tutankhamun was married to Ankhesenpaaten (possibly his sister), and after the re-establishment of the traditional Egyptian religion the couple changed the –aten ending of their names to the –amun ending, becoming Ankhesenamun and Tutankhamun. They are known to have had two children, both stillborn girls—whose mummies were discovered in his tomb. The "boy king" died at the age of nineteen by reasons still disputed. Some believe that he was murdered by his advisors, but it is also possible that he died from injuries suffered in an accident or while at war. He was buried in the Valley of the Kings, in a small tomb today known as KV62, that was not intended for a king.
The first theory was that he was a son of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye. This theory seems unlikely since Tiye would have been more than fifty years old at the time of Tutankhamun's birth. Another theory is that Tutankhamun was the son of Smenkhkare and Meritaten. This is possible, but not plausible. Smenkhkare came on the scene when Akhenaten entered year 14 of his reign and it is thought that during this time Meritaten married Smenkhkare. So, if Smenkhkare is the father of Tutankhamun, he would have needed at least a three year reign, because if it had been shorter, Tutankhamun would have been barely seven when he came to the throne. However, if there had been lengthy co-regency between Amenhotep III and Akhenaten, Amenhotep definitely could be Tutankhamun's father.
The current theory is that he was the son of Akhenaten and his minor wife Kiya. Queen Kiya's title was "Greatly Beloved Wife of Akhenaten" so it is possible that she could have borne him an heir. Supporting this theory, images on the tomb wall in the tomb of Akhenaten show that a royal fan bearer standing next to Kiya's death bed, fanning what is either a princess or more likely a wet nurse holding a baby, which would indicate that the wet nurse was holding the boy-king-to-be.
Reign
cartouches of his birth and throne names are displayed between rampant Sekhmet lioness warrior images (perhaps with his head) crushing enemies from several ethnicites, while Nekhbet flies protectively above
During Tutankhamun's reign, Akhenaten's Amarna revolution (Atenism) was being reversed. Akhenaten had attempted to supplant the traditional priesthood and deities with a god who was until then considered minor, Aten. In Year 3 of Tutankhamun's reign (1331 BC), when he was still a boy of about eleven and probably under the influence of two older advisors (Akhenaten's vizier Ay and perhaps Nefertiti), the ban on the old pantheon of deities and their temples was lifted, the traditional privileges were restored to their priesthoods, and the capital was moved back to Thebes. The young pharaoh adopted the name Tutankhamun, changing it from his birth name Tutankhaten. Because of his age at the time these decisions were made, it is generally thought that most if not all the responsibility for them falls on his advisors. Also, King Tutankhamun restored all of the traditional deities and restored order to the chaos that his relative had caused. Many temples devoted to Amun-Ra were built. Tutankhamun's wooden box depicts him going to war against Hittites and Nubians suggesting that he may have gone to war in the last few years of his reign, and perhaps even died from injuries suffered in the campaign.
Events after his death
A now-famous letter to the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I from a widowed queen of Egypt, asking for one of his sons as a husband, has been attributed to Ankhesenamun (among others). The royal lineage of Egypt was carried by its women. Marriage to a woman of the royal line was essential for a male pharaoh, even if he came from outside the lineage. Suspicious of this good fortune, Suppiluliumas I first sent a messenger to make inquiries about the truth of the young queen's story. After receiving reports that the situation was as related to Suppiluliuma I, he sent his son, Zannanza, accepting her offer. However, Zannanza got no further than the border before he was killed, according to the Hittite archives. If Ankhesenamun were the queen in question, and his death a strategic murder, it was probably at the orders of either Horemheb or Ay, who both had the opportunity and the motive to kill him.
Name
Tutankhamun's nomen (left) or birth name and praenomen or throne name.Under Atenism, Tutankhamun was named Tutankhaten, which in Egyptian hieroglyphs is:
Technically, this name is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉtn.
At the reintroduction of the old pantheon, his name was changed. It is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉmn ḥq3-ỉwnw-šmˁ, and often realized as Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema, meaning "Living image of Amun, ruler of Upper Heliopolis". On his ascension to the throne, Tutankhamun took a praenomen. This is translated as nb-ḫprw-rˁ, and realized as Nebkheperure, meaning "Lord of the forms of Re". The name Nibhurrereya in the Amarna letters may be a variation of this praenomen.
Cause of death
The golden mask of the "boy king"
For a long time the cause of Tutankhamun's death was unknown, and it is still the root of much speculation. How old was the king when he died? Did he suffer from any physical abnormalities? Had he been murdered? Some of these questions were finally answered in early 2005 when the results of a set of CT scans on the mummy were released, but many still remain to be solved.
The body originally was inspected by Howard Carter’s team in the early 1920s, although they were primarily interested in recovering the jewellery and amulets from the body. To remove these objects from the body, which often were stuck fast by the hardened embalming resins used, Carter's team cut up the mummy into various pieces: the arms and legs were detached, the torso cut in half and the head was severed. Hot knives were used to remove it from the golden mask to which it was cemented by resin.
Since the body was placed back in its sarcophagus in 1926, the mummy has subsequently been X-rayed three times: first in 1968 by a group from the University of Liverpool, then in 1978 by a group from the University of Michigan, and finally in 2005 a team of Egyptian scientists led by Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, Dr. Zahi Hawass, who conducted a CT scan on the mummy.
X-rays of his mummy, which were taken previously, in 1968, had revealed a dense spot at the lower back of the skull. This had been interpreted as a subdural hematoma, which would have been caused by a blow. Such an injury could have been the result of an accident, but it also had been suggested that the young pharaoh was murdered. If this were the case, there are a number of theories as to who was responsible. One popular candidate was his immediate successor Ay and other candidates included his wife and chariot-driver. Interestingly, there seem to be signs of calcification within the supposed injury, which if true, meant Tutankhamun lived for a fairly extensive period of time (on the order of several months) after the injury was inflicted.[5]
Much confusion had been caused by a small loose sliver of bone within the upper cranial cavity, which was discovered from the same X-ray analysis. Some people have suggested this visible bone fragment for the supposed head injury. In fact, since Tutankhamun's brain was removed post mortem in the mummification process, and considerable quantities of now-hardened resin introduced into the skull on at least two separate occasions after that, had the fragment resulted from an injury while he was alive, some scholars, including the 2005 CT scan team, say it almost certainly would not still be loose in the cranial cavity. But other scientists suggested, that the loose sliver of bone was loosened by the embalmers during mummification, but that it had been broken before. A blow to the back of the head (from a fall or an actual blow), is said to have caused the brain to move forward, hitting the front of the skull, breaking small pieces of the bone right above the eyes.[6]
Discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb
Main article: KV62
Tomb of Tutankhamun in the Valley of the Kings
Tutankhamun seems to have faded from public consciousness in Ancient Egypt within a short time after his death, and he remained virtually unknown until the early twentieth century. His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, it seems clear that these robberies took place within several months at most of the initial burial. Subsequently, the location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by stone chips from subsequent tombs, either dumped there or washed there by floods. In the years that followed, some huts for workers were built over the tomb entrance, clearly not knowing what lay beneath. When at the end of the twentieth dynasty the Valley of the Kings burials were systematically dismantled, the burial of Tutankhamun was overlooked, presumably because knowledge of it had been lost and even his name may have been forgotten.
For many years, rumors of a "Curse of the Pharaohs" (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had first entered the tomb. However, a recent study of journals and death records indicates no statistical difference between the age of death of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not. Indeed, most lived past seventy.
Senet board game
Ancient Egyptian senet games similar to the one displayed at the right, were found in the tomb.[7]
Some of the treasures in Tutankhamun's tomb are noted for their apparent departure from traditional depictions of the boy king. Certain cartouches where a king's name should appear have been altered, as if to reuse the property of a previous pharaoh—as often occurred. However, this instance may simply be the product of "updating" the artifacts to reflect the shift from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun. Other differences are less easy to explain, such as the older, more angular facial features of the middle coffin and canopic coffinettes. The most widely accepted theory for these latter variations is that the items were originally intended for Smenkhkare, who may or may not be the mysterious KV55 mummy. Said mummy, according to craniological examinations, bears a striking first-order (father-to-son, brother-to-brother) relationship to Tutankhamun.[8]
Tutankhamun in popular culture
Main article: Egypt in the European imagination
If Tutankhamun is the world's best known pharaoh, it is partly because his tomb is among the best preserved, and his image and associated artifacts the most-exhibited. He also has entered popular culture—he has, for example, been commemorated in the whimsical song "King Tut" by the American comedian Steve Martin. He was also the namesake of one of Batman's arch enemies in the 1960s American television series "Batman" with Adam West.
In 1939, The Three Stooges spoofed the discovery of King Tutankhamun with their short film We Want Our Mummy.
In 1939, slapstick comedy trio the Three Stooges filmed We Want Our Mummy, in which they explored the tomb of the midget King Rutentuten (and his Queen, Hotsy Totsy). A decade later, they were crooked used chariot salesmen in Mummy's Dummies, in which they ultimately assist a different King Rootentootin (Vernon Dent) with a toothache.
As a side effect, the interest in this tomb and its alleged "curse" led to horror movies featuring a vengeful mummy. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his forward to the 1977 edition of Carter's The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, "The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt's kings has become in death the most renowned."
Tutankhamun's appearance and controversy
A rendering of Tutankhamun on the cover of National Geographic in 2005 - considered controversial by some because it exhibits hazel eyes and a mid-range of skin tones
See also: Racial characteristics of ancient Egyptians
In 2005, three teams of scientists (Egyptian, French, and American), in partnership with the National Geographic Society, developed a new facial likeness of Tutankhamun. The Egyptian team worked from 1,700 three-dimensional CT scans of the pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams worked plastic moulds created from these—but the Americans were never told who the subject of the reconstruction was.[9] All three teams created silicone busts of their interpretation of what the young monarch looked like.
Skin tone
Although modern technology can reconstruct Tutankhamun's facial structure with a high degree of accuracy based on CT data from his mummy,[10] correctly determining his skin tone is impossible. The problem is not a lack of skill on the part of Ancient Egyptians. Egyptian artisans distinguished quite accurately among different ethnicities, as can be seen clearly in the image, above at "Reign", where the enemies being vanquished are displayed under the rampant lioness with Tutankhamun's head. Sometimes they depicted their subjects in totally unreal colors, the purposes for which aren't completely understood. The colours may have had ritual significance. Thus no absolute consensus on King Tut's skin tone is possible.
Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for mission programs, said, in response to some protesters of the King Tut reconstruction—
The big variable is skin tone. North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.' We will never know for sure what his exact skin tone was or the colour of his eyes with 100% certainty. … Maybe in the future, people will come to a different conclusion.[11]
2005 research and findings
Tutankhamun coffinette
On March 8, 2005, Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass revealed the results of a CT scan performed on the pharaoh's mummy. The scan uncovered no evidence of a blow to the back of the head and no evidence suggesting foul play. There was a hole in the head, but it appeared to have been drilled, presumably by embalmers. A fracture to Tutankhamun's left thighbone was interpreted as evidence that the pharaoh badly broke his leg before he died and his leg became severely infected; however, members of the Egyptian-led research team recognized, as a less likely possibility, that the fracture was caused by the embalmers. Altogether 1,700 images were produced of Tutankhamun's mummy during the 15-minute CT scan.
Much was learned about the young king's life. His age at death was estimated at nineteen years, based on physical developments that set upper and lower limits to his age. The king had been in general good health and there were no signs of any major infectious disease or malnutrition during his childhood. He was slight of build, and was roughly 170 cm (5 ft 7 in) tall. He had large front incisor teeth and the overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged. He also had a pronounced dolichocephalic (elongated) skull, although it was within normal bounds and highly unlikely to have been pathological. Given the fact that many of the royal depictions of Akhenaten (possibly his father, certainly a relative), often is featured with such an elongated head, it is likely an exaggeration of a family trait, rather than a distinct abnormality. The research also showed that the pharaoh had cleft palate.[12] A slight bend to his spine also was found, but the scientists agreed that there was no associated evidence to suggest that it was pathological in nature, and that it was much more likely to have been caused during the embalming process. This ended speculation based on the previous X-rays that Tutankhamun had suffered from scoliosis. (However, it was subsequently noted by Dr. Zahi Hawass that the mummy found in KV55, provisionally identified as Tutankhamun's father, exhibited several similarities to that of Tutankhamun—a cleft palate, a dolichocephalic skull and slight scoliosis.)[13]
Painting of Tutankhamun at war, perhaps the injury that led to his death resulted from a crash of such a chariot
The 2005 conclusion by a team of Egyptian scientists, based on the CT scan findings, confirmed that Tutankhamun died of gangrene after breaking his leg. After consultations with Italian and Swiss experts, the Egyptian scientists found that the fracture in Tutankhamun's left leg most likely occurred only days before his death, which had then become gangrenous and led directly to his death. The fracture was not sustained during the mummification process or as a result of some damage to the mummy as claimed by Howard Carter. The Egyptian scientists also have found no evidence that he had been struck on the head and no other indication that he was murdered, as had been speculated previously. Further investigation of the fracture led to the conclusion that it was severe, most likely caused by a fall from some height—possibly a chariot riding accident due to the absence of pelvis injuries—and may have been fatal within hours[1].
Despite the relatively poor condition of the mummy, the Egyptian team found evidence that great care had been given to the body of Tutankhamun during the embalming process. They found five distinct embalming materials, which were applied to the body at various stages of the mummification process. This counters previous assertions that the king’s body had been prepared carelessly and in a hurry. In November 2006, at the annual meeting of the Radiological Society of North America, Egyptian radiologists stated that that CT images and scans of the king's mummy revealed Tutankhamun's height to be 180 centimetres or 5 feet 11 inches tall, a revision upward from the earlier estimates.[2]
Gallery depicting close relations to Tutankhamun
A wooden statue head of Queen Tiye, thought to be Tutankhamun's Grandmother, part of the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin collection
Fragmentary statue of Akhenaten, perhaps Tutankhamun's father, on display at the Cairo Museum
Plaster face of a young Amarna-era woman, thought to represent Queen Kiya, the likely mother of Tutankhamun, on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Canopic jar depicting an Amarna-era Queen, usually identified as being Queen Kiya, on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
The iconic image of Queen Nefertiti, perhaps the step-mother of Tutankhamen, part of the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin collection
Another statue head depicting Nefertiti, now part of the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin collection
Fragmentary statue thought to represent Ankhesenamun, sister and wife to Tutankhamun, on display at the Brooklyn Museum
Statue of an unnamed Amarna-era princess, a likely a sister (or step-sister) to Tutankhamun, part of the Ägyptisches Museum Berlin collection
It is important to note that the first reconstruction by the English, Australian, and American scientists depicted North African phenotypes, which were common during that time.
Currently on display in the UK at the Science Museum:
First Reconstruction
Reconstruction of Tutankhamun's step-mother Nefertiti:
Nefertiti
Exhibitions
The splendors of Tutankhamun's tomb are among the most traveled artifacts in the world. They have been to many countries, but probably the best-known exhibition tour was the Treasures of Tutankhamun tour, which ran from 1972-1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors came to see the exhibition, some queueing for up to eight hours and it was the most popular exhibition ever in the Museum. The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the USA, USSR, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The exhibition in the United States was organized by the Metropolitan Museum of Art and ran from from 17 November, 1976 through 15 April, 1979. It was attended by more than eight million people in the United States.
An excerpt from the site of the American National Gallery of Art:
"...55 objects from the tomb of Tutankhamun included the boy-king's solid gold funeral mask, a gilded wood figure of the goddess Selket, lamps, jars, jewelry, furniture, and other objects for the afterlife. This exhibition established the term 'blockbuster.' A combination of the age-old fascination with ancient Egypt, the legendary allure of gold and precious stones, and the funeral trappings of the boy-king created an immense popular response. Visitors waited up to 8 hours before the building opened to view the exhibition. At times the line completely encircled the West Building."[14]
In 2005, hoping to inspire a whole new generation of museum visitors, Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched a new tour of Tutankhamun's treasures, this time called "Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs." It was expected to draw more than three million people.[15]
The exhibition started in Los Angeles, California, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, and Chicago. The fourth location is Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the fifth will be London before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008.
Some attendees of the current exhibition have been disappointed in the show, and have accused the exhibitors of using false or misleading advertising regarding its contents. The exhibition is marketed around Tutankhamun, but more than half of the artifacts are from the reigns of Tutankhamun's immediate predecessors in the eighteenth dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun's burial artifacts.
Also, the advertising for the exhibition features an image in gold of the face of Tutankhamun, strongly reminiscent of his famous death mask, which is not among the objects in the exhibit. In reality, the image is a close-up photograph of a 40 cm (16") canopic vessel that held the king's liver. The item is labeled in most of the advertising as a "canopic coffinette" or "miniature coffin", but attendees have complained about feeling misled.[16][17][18]
In fiction
Tutankhamun/Tutankhaten appears in P.C. Doherty's trilogy of Ancient Egyptian novels, An Evil Spirit Out of the West (2003), The Season of the Hyaena (2005) and The Year of the Cobra (2005).
Tutankhamun is also the major character in a series of historical novels by the American author Lynda Robinson.
The historical novel Tutankhamun-Speak my Name (2005) ISBN 1-41206325-6 by Anthony Holmes is the comprehensive (678 page) story of the life of the young king from his birth to Kiye, the concubine of Akhenaten, until his death 6,666 days later and beyond into the afterlife of his KA in the tomb eventually discovered by Howard Carter.
Tutankhamun appears as a 10-year-old mummy in the Discovery Kids show Tutenstein.
King Tut, as played by Victor Buono, was a villain on the Batman TV series aired in 1966-1968. Mild-mannered Egyptologist William Omaha McElroy, after suffering a concussion, came to believe he was the reincarnation of Tutankhamun. His response to this knowledge was to embark upon a crime spree that required him to fight against the "Caped Crusaders", Batman and Robin.
2007 discoveries in Tutankhamun's tomb
On September 24, 2007, it was announced that a team of Egyptian archaeologists led by Zahi Hawass, discovered eight baskets of 3,000 year old doum fruit in the treasury of Tutankhamun's tomb.[19] Doum comes from a type of palm tree native to the Nile Valley. The doum fruit are traditionally offered at funerals.
Twenty clay pots bearing Tutankhamun's official seal were also discovered. According to Dr Hawass, the containers probably contain provisions that were destined to travel with the pharaoh to the afterlife. He said the containers will be opened soon. The objects discovered in the tomb were originally discovered, but not opened or removed from the tomb, by Howard Carter.[20]
See also
Racial characteristics of ancient Egyptians
References
^ Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. p.128. Thames & Hudson. 2006. ISBN 0-500-28628-0
^ Digital Egypt for Universities: Tutankhamun. University College London. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ Manetho's King List.
^ Allen, James P. (2006). "The Amarna Succession", Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane (Online publication in PDF), Memphis, TN: University of Memphis, pp. 7, 12-14. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen: A True Story, 1999
^ Michael R. King, Gregory M.Cooper, Who Killed King Tut?: Using Modern Forensics to Solve a 3300-Year-Old Mystery (With New Data on the Egyptian CT Scan), New Ed edition,13 Sep 2006
^ Welcome to Senet. Texas Humanities Resource Center (December 17, 2004). Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ C. Nicholas Reeves, The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure, London: Thames & Hudson, November 1, 1990
^ Handwerk, Brian. "King Tut's New Face: Behind the Forensic Reconstruction", National Geographic News, May 11, 2005. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ discovery reconstruction.
^ Henerson, Evan. "King Tut's skin colour a topic of controversy", U-Daily News - L.A. Life, June 15, 2005. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ Handwerk, Brian. "King Tut Not Murdered Violently, CT Scans Show", National Geographic News, March 8, 2005, p. 2. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ Nefertiti and the Lost Dynasty, National Geographic Channel 2007.
^ NGA - Treasures of Tutankhamun (11/1976). National Gallery of Art. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ King Tut exhibition. Tutankhamun & the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. Treasures from the Valley of the Kings. Arts and Exhibitions International. Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ Coyne, Jason. Review of King Tut (Tutankhamun) Exhibit in Chicago at the Field Museum- Underwhelming and misadvertised - Where is the death mask? (Blog post). Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ Chicago: Field Museum: Traveler Reviews. TripAdvisor LLC (August 3, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ Chicago: Field Museum: Traveler Reviews. TripAdvisor LLC (June 21, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-08-05.
^ The Plateau, Official website of Dr. Zahi Hawass.
^ The Plateau, Official website of Dr. Zahi Hawass.
Further reading
Howard Carter, Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. Courier Dover Publications, June 1, 1977, ISBN 0-486-23500-9 The semi-popular account of the discover and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible
C. Nicholas Reeves, The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London: Thames & Hudson, November 1, 1990, ISBN 0-500-05058-9 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paperback) Fully covers the complete contents of his tomb
T. G. H. James, Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, September 1, 2000, ISBN 1-58663-032-6 (hardcover) A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects
Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Sarwat Okasha (Preface), Tutankhamen: Life and Death of a Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0-8212-0151-4 (1976 reprint, hardcover) /ISBN 0-14-011665-6 (1990 reprint, paperback)
Thomas Hoving, The search for Tutankhamun: The untold story of adventure and intrigue surrounding the greatest modern archeological find. New York: Simon & Schuster, October 15, 1978, ISBN 0-671-24305-5 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-8154-1186-3 (paperback) This book details a number of interesting anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb
Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen: A True Story. Putnam Adult, April 13, 1998, ISBN 0-425-16689-9 (paperback)/ISBN 0-399-14383-1 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-613-28967-6 (School & Library Binding)
Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, Treasures of Tutankhamun. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976, ISBN 0-345-27349-4 (paperback)/ISBN 0-670-72723-7 (hardcover)
Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The Mummy of Tutankhamun: the CT Scan Report, as printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005.
Michael Haag, "The Rough Guide to Tutankhamun: The King: The Treasure: The Dynasty". London 2005. ISBN 1-84353-554-8.
John Andritsos, Social Studies of ancient Egypt: Tutankhamun. Australia 2006
External links
End Paper: A New Take on Tut's Parents by Dennis Forbes (KMT 8:3 . FALL 1997, KMT Communications)
The mummy's curse: historical cohort study (Mark R Nelson, British Medical Journal 2002;325:1482
Original photographs and descriptions of objects found in the tomb by Carter and his team at the Griffith Institute, Oxford University
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Akhenaten
Read: Tuesday, January 15, 2008
Akhenaten
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Akhenaten / Amenhotep IV
Amenophis IV, Naphu(`)rureya, Ikhnaton[1]
Preceded by:
Amenhotep III Pharaoh of Egypt
18th Dynasty Succeeded by:
Smenkhkare
Picture
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a style typical of the Amarna period, on display at the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo
Reign 1353 BC – 1336 BC[4] or
1352 BC – 1336 BC[5] or
1351–1334 BC[6]
Praenomen
Picture
Neferkheperure-waenre
Beautiful are the Manifestations of Re[3]
the one of Re
Nomen
Picture
Akhenaten
Servant of the Aten[2]
(after Year 4 of his reign)
Picture
Amenhotep
Horus
name
Picture
Kanakht-Meryaten
The strong bull, beloved of the Aten
Nebty
name
Picture
Wernesytemakhetaten
Great of kingship in Akhetaten
Golden
Horus
Picture
Wetjesrenenaten
Who displays the name of the Aten
Consort(s) Nefertiti, Kiya
Meritaten, Ankhesenpaaten
Issue Smenkhkare? Meritaten, Meketaten,
Ankhesenpaaten,
Neferneferuaten Tasherit,
Neferneferure, Setepenre, Tutankhamun,
Ankhesenpaaten-ta-sherit?
Father Amenhotep III
Mother Tiye
Died 1336 BC or 1334 BC
Burial Royal Tomb of Akhenaten[7]
Major
Monuments Akhetaten, Gempaaten, Hwt-Benben
Akhenaten(or rarely alt: Ikhnaton)[1] meaning Effective spirit of Aten, first known as Amenhotep IV (sometimes read as Amenophis IV and meaning Amun is Satisfied) before his first year, was a Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. He is especially noted for attempting to compel the Egyptian population in the monotheistic worship of Aten, although there are doubts as to how successful he was at this. He was born to Amenhotep III and his Chief Queen Tiye and was their younger son. Akhenaten was not originally designated as the successor to the throne until the untimely death of his older brother, Thutmose.
Amenhotep IV succeeded his father after Amenhotep III's death at the end of his 38-year reign, possibly after a coregency lasting between either 1 to 2 or 12 years. Suggested dates for Akhenaten's reign (subject to the debates surrounding Egyptian chronology) are from 1353 BC-1336 BC or 1351 BC–1334 BC. Akhenaten's chief wife was Nefertiti, made world-famous by the discovery of her exquisitely moulded and painted bust, now displayed in the Altes Museum of Berlin, and among the most recognised works of art surviving from the ancient world.
Contents
1 The Implementation of Atenism
2 Akhenaten's international relations
3 Plague and pandemic
4 Pharaoh and family depictions
4.1 Family and relations
5 Burial and succession
6 Speculative theories
6.1 First "individual"
6.2 Moses and Akhenaten
6.3 Oedipus theory
6.4 Akhenaten's genetic make-up
7 In the arts
8 Notes
9 Further reading
10 External links
The Implementation of Atenism
Main article: Atenism
This religious reformation appears to have begun with his decision to celebrate a Sed festival in his third regnal year — a highly unusual step, since a Sed-festival, a sort of royal jubilee intended to reinforce the Pharaoh's divine powers of kingship, was traditionally held in the thirtieth year of a Pharaoh's reign.
Year five marked the beginning of construction on his new capital, Akhetaten ('Horizon of Aten'), at the site known today as Amarna. In the same year, Amenhotep IV officially changed his name to Akhenaten ('Effective Spirit of Aten') as evidence of his shifting religious perspective. Very soon afterward he centralized Egyptian religious practices in Akhetaten, though construction of the city seems to have continued for several more years. In honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak, close to the old temple of Amun. In these new temples, Aten was worshipped in the open sunlight, rather than in dark temple enclosures, as had been the previous custom. Akhenaten is also believed to have composed the Great Hymn to the Aten.
Initially, Akhenaten presented Aten as a variant of the familiar supreme deity Amun-Ra (itself the result of an earlier rise to prominence of the cult of Amun, resulting in Amun becoming merged with the sun god Ra), in an attempt to put his ideas in a familiar Egyptian religious context. However, by Year 9 of his reign Akhenaten declared that Aten was not merely the supreme god, but the only god, and that he, Akhenaten, was the only intermediary between Aten and his people. He ordered the defacing of Amun's temples throughout Egypt, and in a number of instances inscriptions of the plural 'gods' were also removed.
Aten's name is also written differently after Year 9, to emphasise the radicalism of the new regime, which included a ban on idols, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten, who by then was evidently considered not merely a sun god, but rather a universal deity. It is important to note, however, that representations of the Aten were always accompanied with a sort of "hieroglyphic footnote", stating that the representation of the sun as All-encompassing Creator was to be taken as just that: a representation of something that, by its very nature as something transcending creation, cannot be fully or adequately represented by any one part of that creation.
Akhenaten's international relations
Important evidence about Akhenaten's reign and foreign policy has been provided by the discovery of the Amarna Letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence discovered in modern times at el-Amarna, the modern designation of the Akhetaten site. This correspondence comprises a priceless collection of incoming messages on clay tablets, sent to Akhetaten from various subject rulers through Egyptian military outposts, and from the foreign rulers (recognized as "Great Kings") of Mitanni, Babylon, Assyria and Hatti. The governors and kings of Egypt's subject domains also wrote frequently to plead for gold from Pharaoh, and also complained of being snubbed and cheated by him.
Early on in his reign, Akhenaten fell out with the king of Mitanni, Tushratta, who had been courting favor with his father against the Hittites. Tushratta complains in numerous letters that Akhenaten had sent him gold plated statues rather than statues made of solid gold; the statues formed part of the bride price which Tushratta received for letting his daughter Tadukhepa be married to Amenhotep III and then Akhenaten. Amarna letter EA 27 preserves a complaint by Tushratta to Akhenaten about the situation
I...asked your father, Mimmureya, for statues of solid cast gold, one of myself and a second statue, a statue of Tadu-Heba (Tadukhepa), my daughter, and your father said, "Don't talk of giving statues just of solid cast gold. I will give you ones made also of lapis lazuli. I will give you, too, along with the statues, much additional gold and (other) goods beyond measure." Every one of my messengers that were staying in Egypt saw the gold for the statues with their own eyes. Your father himself recast the statues [i]n the presence of my messengers, and he made them entirely of pure gold....He showed much additional gold, which was beyond measure and which he was sending to me. He said to my messengers, "See with your own eyes, here the statues, there much gold and goods beyond measure, which I am sending to my brother." And my messengers did see with their own eyes! But my brother (ie: Akhenaten) has not sent the solid (gold) statues that your father was going to send. You have sent plated ones of wood. Nor have you sent me the goods that your father was going to send me, but you have reduced (them) greatly. Yet there is nothing I know of in which I have failed my brother. Any day that I hear the greetings of my brother, that day I make a festive occasion...May my brother send me much gold. [At] the kim[ru fe]ast...[...with] many goods [may my] brother honor me. In my brother's country gold is as plentiful as dust. May my brother cause me no distress. May he send me much gold in order that my brother [with the gold and m]any [good]s, may honor me.(EA 27)[8]
While Akhenaten was certainly not a close friend of Tushratta, he was evidently concerned at the expanding power of the Hittite Empire under its powerful ruler Suppiluliuma I. A successful Hittite attack on Mitanni and its ruler Tushratta would have disrupted the entire international balance of power in the Ancient Middle East at a time when Egypt had made peace with Mitanni; this would cause some of Egypt's vassals to switch their allegiances to the Hittites, as time would prove. A group of Egypt's allies who attempted to rebel against the Hittites were captured, and wrote letters begging Akhenaten for troops, but he did not respond to most of their pleas. Evidence suggests that the troubles on the northern frontier led to difficulties in Canaan, particularly in a struggle for power between Labaya of Shechem and Abdi-Heba of Jerusalem, which required the Pharaoh to intervene in the area by dispatching Medjay troops northwards. Akhenaten pointedly refused to save his vassal Rib-Hadda of Byblos whose kingdom was being besieged by the expanding state of Amurru under Abdi-Ashirta and later Aziru, son of Abdi-Ashirta, despite Rib-Hadda's numerous pleas for help from the pharaoh. Rib-Hadda wrote a total of 60 letters to Akhenaten pleading for aid from the pharaoh. Akhenaten wearied of Rib-Hadda's constant correspondences and once told Rib-Hadda: "You are the one that writes to me more than all the (other) mayors" or Egyptian vassals in EA 124.[9] What Rib-Hadda did not comprehend was that the Egyptian king would not organize and dispatch an entire army north just to preserve the political status quo of several minor city states on the fringes of Egypt's Asiatic Empire.[10] Rib-Hadda would pay the ultimate price; his exile from Byblos due to a coup led by his brother Ilirabih is mentioned in one letter.[11] When Rib-Hadda appealed in vain for aid to Akhenaten and then turned to Aziru, his sworn enemy to place him back on the throne of his city, Aziru promptly had him dispatched to the king of Sidon where Rib-Hadda was almost certainly executed.[12]
William L. Moran[13] notes that the Amarna corpus of 380+ letters counters the conventional view that Akhenaten neglected Egypt's foreign territories in favour of his internal reforms. There are several letters from Egyptian vassals notifying Pharaoh that the king's instructions have been followed:
To the king, my lord, my god, my Sun, the Sun from the sky: Message of Yapahu, the ruler of Gazru, your servant, the dirt at your feet. I indeed prostrate myself at the feet of the king, my lord, my god, my Sun...7 times and 7 times, on the stomach and on the back. I am indeed guarding the place of the king, my lord, the Sun of the sky, where I am, and all the things the king, my lord, has written me, I am indeed carrying out--everything! Who am I, a dog, and what is my house...and what is anything I have, that the orders of the king, my lord, the Sun from the sky, should not obey constantly? (EA 378)[14]
When the loyal but unfortunate Rib-Hadda was killed at the instigation of Aziru[15], Akhenaten sent an angry letter to Aziru containing a barely veiled accusation of outright treachery on the latter's part.[16] Akhenaten wrote:
Say to Aziru, ruler of Amurru: Thus the king, your lord (ie: Akhenaten), saying: The ruler of Gubla (ie: Byblos), whose brother had cast him away at the gate, said to you, "Take me and get me into the city. There is much silver, and I will give it to you. Indeed there is an abundance of everything, but not with me [here]." Thus did the ruler (Rib-Hadda) speak to you. Did you not write to the king, my lord saying, "I am your servant like all the previous mayors (ie: vassals) in his city"? Yet you acted delinquently by taking the mayor whose brother had cast him away at the gate, from his city.
Picture
Bust of Akhenaten
He (Rib-Hadda) was residing in Sidon and, following your own judgment, you gave him to (some) mayors. Were you ignorant of the treacherousness of the men? If you really are the king's servant, why did you not denounce him before the king, your lord, saying, "This mayor has written to me saying, 'Take me to yourself and get me into my city'"? And if you did act loyally, still all the things you wrote were not true. In fact, the king has reflected on them as follows, "Everything you have said is not friendly."
Now the king has heard as follows, "You are at peace with the ruler of Qidsa. (Kadesh) The two of you take food and strong drink together." And it is true. Why do you act so? Why are you at peace with a ruler whom the king is fighting? And even if you did act loyally, you considered your own judgment, and his judgment did not count. You have paid no attention to the things that you did earlier. What happened to you among them that you are not on the side of the king, your lord? Consider the people that are training you for their own advantage. They want to throw you into the fire....If for any reason whatsoever you prefer to do evil, and if you plot evil, treacherous things, then you, together with your entire family, shall die by the axe of the king. So perform your service for the king, your lord, and you will live. You yourself know that the king does not fail when he rages against all of Canaan. And when you wrote saying, 'May the king, my Lord, give me leave this year, and then I will go next year to the king, my Lord. (ie: to Egypt) If this is impossible, I will send my son in my place'--the king, your Lord, let you off this year in accordance with what you said. Come yourself, or send your son [now], and you will see the king at whose sight all lands live. (EA 162)[17]
This letter shows that Akhenaten paid close attention to the affairs of his vassals in Canaan and Syria. Akhenaten commanded Aziru to come to Egypt and proceeded to detain him there for at least one year.[18] In the end, Akhenaten was forced to release Aziru back to his homeland when the Hittites advanced southwards into Amki thereby threatening Egypt's series of Asiatic vassal states including Amurru.[19] Sometime after his return to Amurru, Aziru defected to the Hittite side with his kingdom.[20] While it is known from an Amarna letter by Rib-Hadda that the Hittites "seized all the countries that were vassals of the king of Mitanni",[21] Akhenaten managed to preserve Egypt's control over the core of her Near Eastern Empire which consisted of present day Palestine as well as the Phoenician coast while avoiding conflict with the increasingly powerful Hittite Empire of Suppiluliuma I. Only the Egyptian border province of Amurru in Syria around the Orontes river was permanently lost to the Hittites when its ruler Aziru defected to the Hittites. Finally, contrary to the conventional view of a ruler who neglected Egypt's international relations, Akhenaten is known to have initiated at least one campaign into Nubia in his regnal Year 12.[22]
Plague and pandemic
This Amarna period is also associated with a serious outbreak of a pandemic, possibly the plague, or polio, or perhaps the world's first recorded outbreak of influenza, which came from Egypt and spread throughout the Middle East, killing Suppiluliuma I, the Hittite King. Influenza is a disease associated with the close proximity of water fowl, pigs and humans, and its origin as a pandemic disease may be due to the development of agricultural systems that allow the mixing of these animals and their wastes.[23] Some of the first archaeological evidence for this agricultural system is during the Amarna period of Ancient Egypt, and the pandemic that followed this period throughout the Ancient Near East may have been the earliest recorded outbreak of influenza.[24] However, the precise nature of this Egyptian plague remains unknown and Asia has also been suggested as a possible site of origin of pandemic influenza in humans.[25][26][27]The prevalence of disease may help explain the rapidity with which the site of Akhetaten was subsequently abandoned. It may also explain why later generations considered the gods to have turned against the Amarna monarchs. The black plague has also been suggested by Zahi Hawass due to the fact that at Amarna the traces of the plague have been found.[28]
Pharaoh and family depictions
Picture
A portrait of Akhenaten (or possibly his successor Smenkhkare) depicted in the naturalistic style of the late-Amarna period, associated with the sculptor Thutmose
Styles of art that flourished during this short period are markedly different from other Egyptian art, bearing a variety of affectations, from elongated heads to protruding stomachs, exaggerated ugliness and the beauty of Nefertiti. Significantly, and for the only time in the history of Egyptian royal art, Akhenaten's family was depicted in a decidedly naturalistic manner, and they are clearly shown displaying affection for each other. Nefertiti also appears beside the king in actions usually reserved for a Pharaoh, suggesting that she attained unusual power for a queen. Artistic representations of Akhenaten give him a strikingly bizarre appearance, with an elongated face, slender limbs, a protruding belly, wide hips, and an overall pear-shaped body. It has been suggested that the pharaoh had himself depicted in this way for religious reasons. Until Akhenaten's mummy is located and identified, proposals of actual physical abnormalities are likely to remain speculative, though there is a strong possibility that Akhenaten may have had Marfan's Syndrome.
Following Akhenaten's death, a comprehensive political, religious and artistic reformation returned Egyptian life to the norms it had followed previously during his father's reign. Much of the art and building infrastructure that was created during Akhenaten's reign was defaced or destroyed in the period immediately following his death. Stone building blocks from his construction projects were later used as foundation stones for subsequent rulers temples and tombs.
Family and relations
Picture
Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their children
See also: Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt Family Tree
Amenhotep IV was married to Nefertiti at the very beginning of his reign, and the couple had six known daughters and possibly two sons (the sons with his other wife Kiya). This is a list with suggested years of birth:
1. Smenkhkare?– year 35 or 36 of Amenhotep III's reign (though not of Nefertiti)
2. Meritaten – year 1.
3. Meketaten – year 3, possibly earlier.
4. Ankhesenpaaten, later Queen of Tutankhamun – year 4.
5. Neferneferuaten Tasherit – year 8.
6. Neferneferure – year 9.
7. Setepenre – year 9.
8. Tutankhaten–year 8 or 9 – renamed himself Tutankhamun later.
His known consorts were:
1. Nefertiti, his Great Royal Wife early in his reign.
2. Kiya, a lesser Royal Wife.
Also suggested as his consorts were his daughters:
1. Meritaten, recorded as Great Royal Wife late in his reign, though it is more likely that she got this title due to her marriage to Smenkhkare, Akhenaten's co-regent;
2. Meketaten, Akhenaten's second daughter. The reason for this assumption is Meketaten's death due to childbirth in the fourteenth year of Akhenaten's reign.
3. Ankhesenpaaten, his third daughter. After his death, Ankhesenpaaten married Akhenaten's successor Tutankhamun.
Both Meritaten and Ankhesenpaaten apparently had children – Meritaten-ta-sherit and Ankhesenpaaten-ta-sherit, respectively –, but there are doubts not only regarding their parentage but their existence as well. Both appear only in texts which had belonged to Kiya, and were usurped by the princesses later, and it was suggested that they might have been the daughters of Kiya, or were fictional, replacing Kiya's daughter in those scenes.[29]
Two other lovers have been suggested, but are not widely accepted:
1. Smenkhkare, Akhenaten's successor and/or co-ruler for the last years of his reign. Rather than a lover, however, Smenkhkare is likely to have been a half-brother or a son to Akhenaten. Some have even suggested that Smenkhkare was actually an alias of Nefertiti or Kiya, and therefore one of Akhenaten's wives.
2. Tiye, his mother. Twelve years after the death of Amenhotep III, she is still mentioned in inscriptions as Queen and beloved of the King. It has been suggested that Akhenaten and his mother acted as consorts to each other until her death. This would have been considered incest at the time. Supporters of this theory (notably Immanuel Velikovsky) consider Akhenaten to be the historical model of legendary King Oedipus of Thebes, Greece and Tiye the model for his mother/wife Jocasta.
Burial and succession
Akhenaten planned to relocate Egyptian burials on the East side of the Nile (sunrise) rather than on the West side (sunset), in the Royal Wadi in Akhetaten. His body was probably removed after the court returned to Thebes, and reburied somewhere in the Valley of the Kings. His sarcophagus was destroyed but has since been reconstructed and now sits outside in the Cairo Museum. He was buried In 1336 B.C., in a pink granite sarcophagus.
There is much controversy around whether Amenhotep IV succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, Amenhotep III, or whether there was a coregency (lasting as long as 12 years according to some Egyptologists). Current literature by Eric Cline, Nicholas Reeves, Peter Dorman and other scholars comes out strongly against the establishment of a long coregency between the 2 rulers and in favour of either no coregency or a brief one lasting 1 to 2 years, at the most.[30] Other literature by Donald Redford, William Murnane, Alan Gardiner and more recently by Lawrence Berman in 1998 contests the view of any coregency whatsoever between Akhenaten and his father.[31]
Similarly, although it is accepted that Akhenaten himself died in Year 17 of his reign, the question of whether Smenkhkare became co-regent perhaps 2 or 3 years earlier or enjoyed a brief independent reign is unclear. If Smenkhkare outlived Akhenaten, and became sole Pharaoh, he likely ruled Egypt for less than a year. The next successor was certainly Tutankhaten (later, Tutankhamun), at the age of 9, with the country perhaps being run by the chief vizier (and next Pharaoh), Ay. Tutankhamun is believed to be a younger brother of Smenkhkare and a son of Akhenaten, and possibly Kiya although one scholar has suggested that Tutankhamun may have been a son of Smenkhkare instead. It has also been suggested that after the death of Akhenaten, Nefertiti reigned with the name of Neferneferuaten.[32]
With Akhenaten's death, the Aten cult he had founded gradually fell out of favor. Tutankhaten changed his name to Tutankhamun in Year 2 of his reign (1332 BC) and abandoned the city of Akhetaten, which eventually fell into ruin. His successors Ay and Horemheb disassembled temples Akhenaten had built, including the temple at Thebes, using them as a source of easily available building materials and decorations for their own temples.
Finally, Akhenaten, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamun, and Ay were excised from the official lists of Pharaohs, which instead reported that Amenhotep III was immediately succeeded by Horemheb. This is thought to be part of an attempt by Horemheb to delete all trace of Atenism and the pharaohs associated with it from the historical record. Akhenaten's name never appeared on any of the king lists compiled by later Pharaohs and it was not until the late 19th century that his identity was re-discovered and the surviving traces of his reign were unearthed by archaeologists.
Speculative theories
Akhenaten's status as a religious revolutionary has led to much speculation, ranging from the mainstream to New Age esotericism.
First "individual"
Akhenaten has been called "the first individual in history", as well as the first monotheist, first scientist, and first romantic.[33] As early as 1899 Flinders Petrie declared that,
If this were a new religion, invented to satisfy our modern scientific conceptions, we could not find a flaw in the correctness of this view of the energy of the solar system. How much Akhenaten understood, we cannot say, but he certainly bounded forward in his views and symbolism to a position which we cannot logically improve upon at the present day. Not a rag of superstition or of falsity can be found clinging to this new worship evolved out of the old Aton of Heliopolis, the sole Lord of the universe.[34]
H.R. Hall even claimed that the pharaoh was the "first example of the scientific mind".[35]
Moses and Akhenaten
The idea of Akhenaten as the pioneer of a monotheistic religion that later became Judaism has been considered by some scholars.[36][37][38][39][40][41] One of the first to mention this was Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in his book Moses and Monotheism.[42] Freud argued that Moses had been an Atenist priest forced to leave Egypt with his followers after Akhenaten's death. Freud argued that Akhenaton was striving to promote monotheism, something that the biblical Moses was able to achieve.[43] Following his book, the concept entered popular consciousness and serious research.[44][45]
Other scholars and mainstream Egyptologists point out that there are direct connections between early Judaism and other Semitic religious traditions.[46] They also state that two of the three principal Judaic terms for God, Yahweh, Elohim (meaning roughly "the lofty one", morphologically plural), and Adonai (meaning "our lord", also morphologically plural) have no connection to Aten.[citation needed] Freud commented on the connection between Adonai, the Egyptian Aten and the Syrian divine name of Adonis as a primeval unity of language between the factions;[47] in this he was following the argument of Egyptologist Arthur Weigall, but the argument was groundless as 'Aten' and 'Adonai' are not, in fact, linguistically related.[48]
Akhenaten does seem to appear, according to the conventional Egyptian chronology, in history almost two-centuries before the first archaeological and written evidence for Judaism and Israelite culture is found in the Levant. Abundant visual imagery of the Aten disk was central to Atenism, which celebrated the natural world, while such imagery is not a feature of early Israelite culture [49], Although Pottery found throughout Judea dated to the end of the 8th century BC have seals resembling a winged sun disk burned on their handles, presumedly thought to be the royal seal of the Judean Kingdom[50] the Ahmed Osman also claimed that Akhenaten's maternal grandfather Yuya was the same person as the Biblical Joseph. Egyptologists reject this view because Yuya had strong connections to the city of Akhmin in Upper Egypt, which is indicated in his title "Overseer of the Cattle of Min at Akhmin.[51] Hence, he most likely belonged to the regional nobility of Akhmim. This makes it very unlikely that he was an Israelite, as most Asiatic settlers tended to cloister around the Nile delta region of Lower Egypt [52][53]. Some Egyptologists, however, give him a Mitannian origin. It is widely accepted that there are strong similarities between Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten and the Biblical Psalm 104, though this form is found widespread in ancient Near Eastern hymnology both before and after the period and whether this implies a direct influence or a common literary convention remains in dispute.
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Cross Reference
The Book of Psalms (King James Version)
Psalm 104
104:1 Bless the LORD, O my soul. O LORD my God, thou art very great; thou art clothed with honour and majesty.
104:2 Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment: who stretchest out the heavens like a curtain:
104:3 Who layeth the beams of his chambers in the waters: who maketh the clouds his chariot: who walketh upon the wings of the wind:
104:4 Who maketh his angels spirits; his ministers a flaming fire:
104:5 Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever.
104:6 Thou coveredst it with the deep as with a garment: the waters stood above the mountains.
104:7 At thy rebuke they fled; at the voice of thy thunder they hasted away.
104:8 They go up by the mountains; they go down by the valleys unto the place which thou hast founded for them.
104:9 Thou hast set a bound that they may not pass over; that they turn not again to cover the earth.
104:10 He sendeth the springs into the valleys, which run among the hills.
104:11 They give drink to every beast of the field: the wild asses quench their thirst.
104:12 By them shall the fowls of the heaven have their habitation, which sing among the branches.
104:13 He watereth the hills from his chambers: the earth is satisfied with the fruit of thy works.
104:14 He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man: that he may bring forth food out of the earth;
104:15 And wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil to make his face to shine, and bread which strengtheneth man's heart.
104:16 The trees of the LORD are full of sap; the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath planted;
104:17 Where the birds make their nests: as for the stork, the fir trees are her house.
104:18 The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats; and the rocks for the conies.
104:19 He appointed the moon for seasons: the sun knoweth his going down.
104:20 Thou makest darkness, and it is night: wherein all the beasts of the forest do creep forth.
104:21 The young lions roar after their prey, and seek their meat from God.
104:22 The sun ariseth, they gather themselves together, and lay them down in their dens.
104:23 Man goeth forth unto his work and to his labour until the evening.
104:24 O LORD, how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all: the earth is full of thy riches.
104:25 So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts.
104:26 There go the ships: there is that leviathan, whom thou hast made to play therein.
104:27 These wait all upon thee; that thou mayest give them their meat in due season.
104:28 That thou givest them they gather: thou openest thine hand, they are filled with good.
104:29 Thou hidest thy face, they are troubled: thou takest away their breath, they die, and return to their dust.
104:30 Thou sendest forth thy spirit, they are created: and thou renewest the face of the earth.
104:31 The glory of the LORD shall endure for ever: the LORD shall rejoice in his works.
104:32 He looketh on the earth, and it trembleth: he toucheth the hills, and they smoke.
104:33 I will sing unto the LORD as long as I live: I will sing praise to my God while I have my being.
104:34 My meditation of him shall be sweet: I will be glad in the LORD.
104:35 Let the sinners be consumed out of the earth, and let the wicked be no more. Bless thou the LORD, O my soul. Praise ye the LORD.
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Cross Reference
Akhenaten
...
As early as 1899 Flinders Petrie declared that,
If this were a new religion, invented to satisfy our modern scientific conceptions, we could not find a flaw in the correctness of this view of the energy of the solar system. How much Akhenaten understood, we cannot say, but he certainly bounded forward in his views and symbolism to a position which we cannot logically improve upon at the present day. Not a rag of superstition or of falsity can be found clinging to this new worship evolved out of the old Aton of Heliopolis, the sole Lord of the universe.[34]
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Oedipus theory
Another claim was made by Immanuel Velikovsky.[54] Velikovsky argued that Moses was neither Akhenaten, nor one of his followers. Instead, Velikovsky identifies Akhenaten as the history behind Oedipus and moved the setting from the Greek Thebes to the Egyptian Thebes. His theory also includes that Akhenaten had an incestuous relationship with his mother, Tiye. Velikovsky also posited that Akhenaten had elephantiasis, producing enlarged legs – Oedipus being Greek for "swollen feet." As part of his argument, Velikovsky uses the fact that Akhenaten viciously carried out a campaign to erase the name of his father, which he argues could have developed into Oedipus killing his father. This point seems to be disproved, however, in that Akhenaten in fact mummified and buried his father in the honorable traditional Egyptian fashion prior to beginning his monotheistic revolution.
Akhenaten's genetic make-up
The rather strange and eccentric portrayals of Akhenaten, with a sagging stomach, thick thighs, larger breasts, and long, thin face - so different from the athletic norm in the portrayal of Pharaohs - has led certain Egyptologists to suppose that Akhenaten suffered some kind of genetic abnormality. Various illnesses have been put forward. On the basis of his longer jaw and his feminine appearance, Cyril Aldred [55] suggested he may be suffering from Froelich's Syndrome. However, this is unlikely because this disorder results in sterility and Akhenaten is believed to have fathered numerous children - at least six daughters by Nefertiti, and possibly his successor Tutankhamen by a minor wife.
Another suggestion by Burridge [56] is that Akhenaten may have suffered from Marfan's Syndrome. Marfan's syndrome, unlike Froelich's, does not result in any lack of intelligence or sterility. It is associated with a sunken chest, long curved spider-like fingers (arachnodactyly), occasional congenital heart difficuties, a high curved or slightly cleft palate, and a highly curved cornea or dislocated lens of the eye, with the requirement for bright light to see well. Marfan's sufferers tend towards being taller than average, with a long, thin face, and elongated skull, overgrown ribs, a funnel or pigeon chest, and larger pelvis, with enlarged thighs and spindly calves. [57]. Marfan's syndrome is a dominant characteristic, and sufferers have a 50% chance of passing it on to their children[58]. All of these symptoms appear in depictions of Akhenaten and of his children. It is interesting that recent CT scans of Tutankhamun report a cleft palate and a longer head than normal.
A third alternative [59] relates to some form of religious symbolism. Because the god Aten was referred to as "The mother and father of all human kind," it has been suggested that Akhenaten was made to look androgynous in artwork as a symbol of the androgyny of the god. Akhenaten did refer to himself as "The Unique One of Re," and it maybe that he used his control of the artistic expression to distance himself from the populace and the common people, though such a radical departure from the idealised traditional representation of the image of the Pharaoh would be truly extraordinary. It should be observed that representations of other persons than Akhenaten in the 'Amarna style' are equally less than flattering - a carving of his father Amenhotep III as a languid, overweight figure may be noted.[citation needed] Equally, Nefertiti is shown in some statues as well past her prime, with a severe face and a stomach swollen by repeated pregnancies.
In the arts
Thomas Mann, in his fictional biblical tetralogy Joseph and His Brothers (1933-1943), makes Akhenaten the "dreaming pharaoh" of Joseph's story.
Savitri Devi: play Akhnaton: A Play (Philosophical Publishing House [London], 1948)
Anthony Holmes: historical novel Tutankhamun-Speak my Name published in 2005 portrays Akhenaten as the Aten obsessed, but loving father of Tutankhamun. He fakes his death to join the Israelite monotheists and becomes Aaron, the brother of his real life sibling Thutmoses who had modified his name to Moses.
Tom Holland: historical novel The Sleeper in the Sands (Little, Brown & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-316-64480-3)
Mika Waltari: historical novel The Egyptian, first published in Finnish (Sinuhe egyptiläinen) in 1945, translated by Naomi Walford (G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1949, ISBN 0-399-10234-5; Chicago Review Press, 2002, paperback, ISBN 1-55652-441-2)
Edgar P. Jacobs: comic book, Blake et Mortimer: La Mystère de la Grande Pyramide vol. 1+2 (1950), adventure story in which the mystery of Akhenaten provides much of the background.
The Egyptian, motion picture (1954, directed by Michael Curtiz, Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation), based on the novel by Mika Waltari.
Gwendolyn MacEwen: historical novel King of Egypt, King of Dreams (1971, ISBN 1-894663-60-8)
Agatha Christie: play, Akhnaton (Dodd, Mead and Company [New York], 1973, ISBN 0-396-06822-7; Collins [London], 1973, ISBN 0-00-211038-5)
Nefertiti: The Musical is a stage musical based on the Amarna period in the life of Akhenaten. Book by Christopher Gore and Rick Gore, Music by David Spangler.
Allen Drury, historical novels, A God Against the Gods (Doubleday, 1976) and Return to Thebes (Doubleday, 1976)
Naguib Mahfouz, novel, Akhenaten, Dweller in Truth (1985) العائش فى الحقيقة
Philip Glass: opera, Akhnaten: An Opera in Three Acts (1983; CBS Records, 1987)
Andree Chedid, novel, " Akhenaten and Nefertiti's dream"
Wolfgang Hohlbein, German novel, Die Prophezeihung (The Prophecy), in which Echnaton is killed by Ay and curses him into eternal life until a prophecy is fulfilled.
Moyra Caldecott: novel Akhenaten: Son of the Sun (1989; eBook, 2000, ISBN 1-899142-86-X; 2003, ISBN 1-899142-25-8)
The Akhenaten Adventure P.B. Kerr: fiction Akhenaten is said to be the holder of 70 lost Djinn
Pauline Gedge, The Twelfth Transforming: (1984) fiction, An historical novel set in the reign of Akhenaten, details the construction of Akhetaten and fictionalized accounts of his sexual relationships with Nefertiti, Tiye and successor Smenkhare.
Dorothy Porter, verse novel, Akhenaten (1991)
Julian Cope, track on 1992 album Jehovahkill
Judith Tarr, historical fantasy, Pillar of Fire (1995)
Carol Thurston, fiction, The Eye of Horus (William Morrow & Co., 2000), posits the "Akhenaten was Moses" theory.
Moyra Caldecott: novel The Ghost of Akhenaten (eBook, 2001, ISBN 1-899142-89-4; 2003, ISBN 1-84319-024-9)
Lynda Robinson, historical mystery, Drinker of Blood (2001, ISBN 0-446-67751-5)
Spelled 'Akenhaten', he appears as a major character in the first of a trilogy of historical novels by P. C. Doherty, "An Evil Spirit out of the West".
The song 'Cast Down the Heretic' by the death metal band Nile on the album Annihilation of the Wicked.
The song 'Son Of The Sun' by Swedish Symphonic Metal band Therion on the album Sirius B.
Ikhnaton is referenced in a section of the epic progressive rock song Supper's Ready by the English rock band Genesis
Notes
^ a b In English, IPA: [ˌɑkəˡnɑtən], or approximately "AHK-en-AHT-en";[1] his royal name Amenhotep in English is IPA: [ˌɑmənˈhotɛp], or approximately "AH-mun-HOE-tep"[2]
^ Peter Clayton, Chronicle of the Pharaohs, Thames and Hudson, 2006 paperback, p.120
^ Clayton, op. cit., p.120
^ Encylopaedia Brittanica
^ Michael Rice, Who's Who in Ancient Egypt, Routledge, 1999
^ Jürgen von Beckerath, Chronologie des Pharaonischen Ägypten. Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, (1997) p.190
^ Amarna Royal Tomb
^ William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992., pp.87-89
^ Moran, op. cit., pp.203
^ [3]
^ Trevor Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites, Clarendon Press, 1998. p.186
^ Bryce, op. cit., p.186
^ Moran, op. cit., p.xxvi
^ Moran, op. cit., pp.368-69
^ Bryce, op. cit., p.186
^ Moran, op. cit., pp.248-250
^ Moran, op. cit., pp.248-249
^ Bryce, op. cit., p.188
^ Bryce, op. cit., p.188
^ Bryce, op. cit., p.189
^ Moran, op. cit., EA 75, p.145
^ A.R. Schulman, "The Nubian War of Akhenaten" in L'Egyptologie en 1979: Axes prioritaires de recherchs II (Paris: 1982), pp.299-316 Akhenaten's Year 12 campaign is mentioned in Amada stela CG 41806 and on a separate companion stela at Buhen.
^ Scholtissek C, Naylor E (1988). "Fish farming and influenza pandemics". Nature 331 (6153): 215. PMID 2827036.
^ Ancient Egypt Online Akhenaten Accessed 21 Feb 2007
^ Choi B, Pak A (2001). "Lessons for surveillance in the 21st century: a historical perspective from the past five millennia". Soz Praventivmed 46 (6): 361-8. PMID 11851070.
^ Webby R, Webster R (2001). "Emergence of influenza A viruses". Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 356 (1416): 1817-28. PMID 11779380.
^ Shortridge K (1992). "Pandemic influenza: a zoonosis?". Semin Respir Infect 7 (1): 11-25. PMID 1609163.
^ Arielle Kozloff, in "Bubonic Plague in the Reign of Amenhotep III?" (KMT, 17, 3 (Fall 2006), pp. 36-46) discusses the evidence, arguing that the epidemic was caused by Bubonic plague over polio. However, her argument that "polio is only fractionally as virulent as some other diseases" ignores the evidence that diseases become less virulent the longer they are present in the human population, as demonstrated with syphilis and tuberculosis.
^ Aidan Dodson & Dyan Hilton, The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt, Thames & Hudson (2004), p.154
^ Nicholas Reeves, Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet, Thames & Hudson, 2000. p.77
^ Lawrence M. Berman, 'Overview of Amenhotep III and His Reign,' in Amenhotep III: Perspectives on his Reign, ed: David O'Connor & Eric Cline, op. cit, p.23
^ Pocket Guides: Egypt History, p.37, Dorling Kindersley, London 1996.(the Neferneferuaten part is taken from Wikipedia Nefertiti entry)
^ Discussions of such Akenatenolatry can be found on Akhenaten, Deep Thought
^ Sir Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt (edit. 1899), Vol. II, p. 214.
^ H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 599.
^ Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays.
^ Gunther Siegmund Stent, Paradoxes of Free Will. American Philosophical Society, DIANE, 2002. 284 pages. Pages 34 - 38. ISBN 0871699265
^ Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism. Harvard University Press, 1997. 288 pages. ISBN 067458739
^ N. Shupak, The Monotheism of Moses and the Monotheism of Akhenaten. Sevivot, 1995.
^ Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: History, Fantasy, and Ancient Egypt. Routledge, 2000. 219 pages. ISBN 0415301866
^ William F. Albright, From the Patriarchs to Moses II. Moses out of Egypt. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 36, No. 2 (May, 1973), pp. 48-76. doi 10.2307/3211050
^ S. Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Volume XXIII (1937-1939), "Moses and monotheism". London: Hogarth Press, 1964.
^ Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays
^ Laurence Gardner, Bloodline of the Holy Grail, Lost Secrets of the Sacred Ark,
^ Gary Greenberg, The Moses Mystery: The African Origins of the Jewish People
^ Curtis, Samuel (2005), "Primitive Semitic Religion Today" (Kessinger Publications)
^ Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism: Three Essays
^ Assmann, Jan. (1997). Moses the Egyptian. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; pp. 23-24, fn. 2.
^ The first commandment prohibits the making of images of God. Judaism is an aniconic religion.
^ The Bible Unearthed p. 255-257
^ [4]
^ Montete, Pierre (1964), "Eternal Egypt" (New American Press)
^ Redford, Donald B. (1993), "Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times" (Princeton University Press)
^ Immanuel Velikovsky, Oedipus and Akhnaton, Myth and History, Doubleday, 1960
^ Aldred, C. (1988). "Akhenaten, King of Egypt". (Thames and Hudson, Ltd.,)
^ Burridge, A., (1995) "Did Akhenaten Suffer From Marfan's Syndrome?" (Akhenaten Temple Project Newsletter No. 3, Sept. 1995)
^ Lorenz, Maegara "The Mystery of Akhenaton: Genetics or Aesthetics" [5]
^ "Did Akhenaton Suffer from Marfan's Syndrome" [6]
^ Reeves, Nicholas (2005) "Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet" (Thames and Hudson)
Further reading
Aldred, Cyril [1988] (1991). Akhenaten: King of Egypt. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27621-8.
Bilolo, Mubabinge [1988] (2004). "Sect. I, vol. 2", Le Créateur et la Création dans la pensée memphite et amarnienne. Approche synoptique du Document Philosophique de Memphis et du Grand Hymne Théologique d'Echnaton, new ed. (in French), Munich-Paris: Academy of African Thought.
Rita E. Freed, Yvonne J. Markowitz, and Sue H. D'Auria (ed.) (1999). Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten - Nefertiti - Tutankhamen. Bulfinch Press. ISBN 0-8212-2620-7.
Devi, Savitri, A Son of God (full text) (Philosophical Publishing House [London], 1946); subsequent editions published as Son of the Sun: The Life and Philosophy of Akhnaton, King of Egypt (Supreme Grand Lodge of A.M.O.R.C., 1956); part III of The Lightning and the Sun is focused on Akhnaten.
Holland, Tom, The Sleeper in the Sands (novel), (Abacus, 1998, ISBN 0-349-11223-1), a fictionalised adventure story based closely on the mysteries of Akhenaten's reign
Hornung, Erik, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, translated by David Lorton (Cornell University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8014-3658-3)
Montserrat, Dominic (2000). Akhenaten: History, Fantasy and ancient Egypt. Routledge. OCLC 0-415-30186-6.
O'Connor, David; Eric Cline (1998). Amenhotep III: Perspectives on His Reign. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-10742-9.
Phillips, Graham, Act of God: Moses, Tutankhamun and the Myth of Atlantis, (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1998, ISBN 0-283-06314-9); republished as Atlantis and the Ten Plagues of Egypt: The Secret History Hidden in the Valley of the Kings (Bear & Co., 2003, paperback, ISBN 1-59143-009-7)
Redford, Donald B., Akhenaten: The Heretic King (Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-691-03567-9)
Reeves, Nicholas (2001). Akhenaten: Egypt's False Prophet. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05106-2.
Velikovsky, Immanuel (1960). Oedipus and Akhnaton: Myth and History. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-00529-6.
El Mahdy, Christine (1999). Tutankhamen: The Life and Death of a Boy King. Headline. ISBN 0-7472-6000-1.
External links
Akhenaten and the Hymn to the Aten
The City of Akhetaten
A profile discussing his familial relations
The Great Hymn to the Aten
A Re-examination of the Long Coregency from the Tomb of Kheruef by Peter Dorman
The Bible - Book of the Pharaohs
M.A. Mansoor Amarna Collection
Moses and Akhenaten: The Secret History of Egypt at the Time of the Exodus
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten YouTube film
Retrieved from ""
Categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements since September 2007 | Atenism | Pharaohs of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt | Amarna Period | Religious leaders | 14th century BC births | 14th century BC deaths | Founders of religions | Historical deletion in ancient Egypt
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AmonRaMummy
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Thebes, Egypt
Luxor (Arabic: Al-Uqṣur =? The palaces) الأقصر and al-Karnak الكرنك are the modern-day Arabic names of the towns situated at or near the sites of two important temples that stood on the outskirts of the city.
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Strong's H0528 Amon in the Bible
Lexicon Results for 'Amown (Strong's H528)
The Lord Almighty, the God of Israel, says: "I am about to bring punishment on Amon god of Thebes,* on Pharaoh, on Egypt and her gods and her kings, and on those who rely on Pharaoh. - Jer 46:25
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Published on internet: Tuesday, January 15, 2008
Revised: Tuesday, January 15, 2008
Information on the web site is given in good faith about a certain spiritual way of life, irrespective of any specific religion, in the belief that the information is not misused, misjudged or misunderstood. Persons using this information for whatever purpose must rely on their own skill, intelligence and judgment in its application. The webmaster does not accept any liability for harm or damage resulting from advice given in good faith on this website.
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“Thou belongest to That Which Is Undying, and not merely to time alone,” murmured the Sphinx, breaking its muteness at last. “Thou art eternal, and not merely of the vanishing flesh. The soul in man cannot be killed, cannot die. It waits, shroud-wrapped, in thy heart, as I waited, sand-wrapped, in thy world. Know thyself, O mortal! For there is One within thee, as in all men, that comes and stands at the bar and bears witness that there IS a God!”
(Reference: Brunton, Paul. (1962) A Search in Secret Egypt. (17th Impression) London, UK: Rider & Company. Page: 35.)
Amen
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