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Pompeii StudyDP: 1Geographical features and natural features of CampaniaThe eruption of 79AD and its impact on Pompeii and HerculaneumEarly discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuriesRepresentations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over timeDP: 2The economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupationsThe social structure: men, women, freedmen, slavesLocal political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitiumEveryday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply and sanitationReligion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombsThe influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architectureDP: 3Changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilitiesEthical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remainsValue and impact of tourism: problems and solutionsSources and Examples for Exam DP 1: Surveya) Geographical setting and natural features of CampaniaCoastal region, access to sea, good for trade, use of resources from the seaVolcanic proximity provided fertile soilIdeal for growing grapesWater from River SarnoIdeal resort townsSources: written sources, frescoes, agricultural evidence including livestock and plants, sewer systemsb) The eruption of AD79 and its impact on Pompeii and HerculaneumBest EvidenceStratigraphy – layers in the groundMount VesuviusErupted in 1631, killing 4000 people, and during the restoration after the eruption, they discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum ruinsPliny the YoungerWrote a first-person account of the eruptionDetailed the voyage of his uncle Pliny the ElderWatched the eruption from Misenum Leaves Misenum with his motherSaid that tremors were common in the areaOnly eyewitness of the event to have survivedEffect on RomePompeii and Rome had a history of being at odds (Social War of 90BCE), eruption stops any further conflicts and takes out one of Rome’s adversariesRoman control of Pompeii was limited, allowed to keep language and culture but did not have status as Roman citizensSocial War of March 90BCEPompeii joins with other Samnite towns in Italy in uprisingDemands full Roman citizenship and rightsRoman army (more experienced) overtook PompeiiansPompeii loses virtually all its independencec) early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuriesDiscoveries of bits and pieces were taken and used to decorate homesEarly ExcavatorsNameYear(s)DescriptionCharles VII and Rocque Joachim de Alcubierre1734Began excavations at HerculaneumDug 20 meters down into the volcanic rubbleWorked by the light of torches, sometimes would go out and risked suffocationDug through house walls and destroyed artifactsBest of the artifacts were set aside for the king’s collectionCommon artifacts destroyed and holes filled back inRocque Joachim “knew as much of antiquities as the moon does of lobsters” – Winckelmann (1771), art historianAttempted to dig up Pompeii but found it too difficult and returned to Herculaneum Karl Weber1750Appointed by Charles VIIBelieved that the site should be excavated systematically and documentDiscovered the Villa of Papyri in Herculaneum (1800 carbonized scrolls)FiorelliDivided Pompeii into 9 regionsNumbered insulae and buildingsPrecise locating of findsHelps give a better overall pictureWorked methodically, top down, room by room, one building at a timeSystematic, prevented collapseBetter timeline of artifacts, less destruction of the sitePublished findingsAllows other historians to access findsIncreased academic debate, permanent records, increased studyWent from treasure hunting to academic excavationSpinazzolaExcavated half Via dell’AbbondanzaReconstructed streetscape and facades of buildingsGave visitors a “snapshot” of Pompeian streetLooks with no substance, multiple collapses from unexcavated interiorsReconstructed upper storiesOften incorrect, radically altered our concepts of streetscapeMaiuri (1924-1961)Brought Pompeii to lifeIncreased public interestExtensive excavationsMuch of which fell into decayRevealed Villa of MysteriesInstantly famousStudied a stratigraphic sectionRevealed layers of deposit of eruptionStudied pre-Roman occupationWas responsible for HerculaneumGuzzo (1995 +)Negotiated keeping funds from site to $9 millionSite maintenance is costly, helps fund various projectsAttracted international teams of experts to conduct investigations and conservation projectsMore scholarly research, spread the cost of conservation, also give other countries much needed fieldworkFausto Zevi (1977 +)Halted excavations, concentrated on conservationNo new discoveries, safeguarding both excavated and unexcavated areas for future study and enjoymentPhotographed site, over 1800 picsPermanent recordIdentified poor security and incorrect conservationPrevent theft and repair poorAugust MauPublished typology of 4 painting stylesChronological dating of decorationsProblematic, too subjectiveWorks well with styles 1 & 2Breaks down on styles 3 & 4Also published work on principal buildingsWas instrumental in creating an atmosphere of international studyd) changing representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over timeNameYear(s)DescriptionJakob Phillipp Hackert1799Official royal painter of NaplesPainted ruins of Pompeii with romantic surroundingsRomanticism periodHighlighted the idyllic parts of the view, probably not a completely accurate picture of the timeFrancois Mazois1812Architect/artist454 paintingsThe Ruins of PompeiiAttempts to document his observations overshadowed by his romantic style6065982251400Early excavations in Pompeii and Herculaneum were hijacked by looters, treasure hunters and those with no real knowledge or interest in preserving the past. One of the earliest excavators at Herculaneum, Rocque Joachim, is the perfect example of the destruction caused by the ignorance of these excavations. Appointed by Charles VII of Naples, his only aim was to bring treasure for his king and therefore disregarded any artifacts that were common in nature and wouldn’t please the king. His methods were also questionable. His workmen often worked in darkness due to torches going out and risked suffocation in the tunnels they dug. Johann Winkelmann described Joachim as “[knowing] as much of antiquities as the moon knows of lobsters.” In Source A, it is clear that Winckelmann is critical of the early methods used by excavators in Pompeii and Herculaneum. His mention of how the brass letters “were torn from the walls, without first taking a copy of them and then [threw them] pell mell into a basket” shows the careless nature in which early excavators handled artifacts and the lack of documentation that they provided. This is further solidified in Source B in which Goethe states that the site was “casually ransacked as if by brigands.” Goethe takes a similar stance to Winckelmann in that he is extremely critical of the methods used by these excavators. His lamentation of the loss of many artifacts that were destroyed in the reckless process of these excavations shows how incompetent men like Joachim really were.Tells us more about time period than PompeiiDP 2: Investigating and interpreting the sources for Pompeii and Herculaneumthe economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupationsHerculaneumPompeiislower paced resort townfishingcraftsmenafter earthquake in AD62, increased demand for bricksprostitution, but little evidence of brothelsbustling center of commerce600 or so excavated private shops, bars, innsMarkets around the forum20 or so maritime warehousesPaintings of cargo vessels on the Sarno riverImages of Mercury – god of commerceWine and oil an integral part of societyAgriculture the most respectable way of earning a livingLand ownership translating to statusPottery industry spawning from the need to store goods (foods and wines)Wealthy owned vineyards because of long wait between profitsEstates not maintained by owners rather by hired help and trusted dependentsHad rooms for pressing grapes (torcularia) and fermentation (cellae vinariae) Massive capacities, thousands of litersSeveral different varieties of winesOlive oils produced in same places as winesProduced garum (fish sauce used as condiment in Roman cuisine)Fishermen sold their catches in the markets around the Forum, but some garum makers sourced their fish more directlyFoul stench of garum meant that it was probably manufactured outside the city wallsSalt plantsWool was importantDyeing of wool, washing and creation of fabric and clothCloth manufacture took place at an officina (workshop) and sold to cloth merchantsFulleries or laundries were businesses (Fullery of Stephanopoulos) Bakeries produced different sorts of breadsBread is hard and deteriorates quicklyMost bakeries sold their products to different shops, few had adjoining shops to sell their own breadCarpentersPlumbersWheelwrightsTannersTinkersIronmongersGoldsmiths and silversmithsMarble workersStone masonsGem cuttersGlass makersProstitution, 26 brothels foundEmeralds found in Oplontis cave not native to Pompeii, suggests trade with EgyptWine, olive oil, wool, fulleries, prostitution, blacksmiths, smiths, gem cutters, tanners, tinkersForum:4304261147320Commercial: food markets, included shrine to the Imperial family 00Commercial: food markets, included shrine to the Imperial family : worship of Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera) and Minerva (Athena)00Religious: worship of Jupiter (Zeus), Juno (Hera) and Minerva (Athena)4200235163888004987059152920Religious: sanctuary for Lares (household gods and city-wide gods) and deified emperor Augustus 00Religious: sanctuary for Lares (household gods and city-wide gods) and deified emperor Augustus 2466109873417204371702950042002354508500467331159575Religious: debated use, some believe it’s dedicated to Genius (family protector) of Octavian Augustus, cult of Vespasian 00Religious: debated use, some believe it’s dedicated to Genius (family protector) of Octavian Augustus, cult of Vespasian -711199299720Religious: used for worship of Apollo 00Religious: used for worship of Apollo 42094733827300572655186464711296100965Commercial: dedicated to rich and influential priestess, Eumachia, trading fabrics and linens, warehouse for fabrics and linens 00Commercial: dedicated to rich and influential priestess, Eumachia, trading fabrics and linens, warehouse for fabrics and linens 43687991033200362758215101400895927120823-544945110259Political: “court”, used for civil justice, commercial life in Pompeii, business and financial deals0Political: “court”, used for civil justice, commercial life in Pompeii, business and financial deals24730365333900362723641217Political: used for People’s Assembly and town meetings0Political: used for People’s Assembly and town meetings171796466675Political: offices for aediles in the west, center offices were for the council, east wing was for the duumvirs0Political: offices for aediles in the west, center offices were for the council, east wing was for the duumvirsb) the social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves117983017780000Diverse mix of culturesRelatively healthy, but some indications of age related and dental diseasesThere were fluid relationships between freeborn, freed slaves and slavesFreed slaves could become very wealthyWomen were an active part of society – economic, political and religious (could not vote)Julia Felix, Eumachia and Mamia were three prominent female figuresc)local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitiumPolitical system modelled on Republican RomeDemocratic electionMagistratesCouncilorsElected for a period of one yearCommanded a council of men who had all previously been magistratesMade up of freeborn malesReputable characterRespectable jobs (not actors, executioners or gladiators)Privileges: best seats in theaters and Amphitheater Had to live in the town or surroundingsUnknown minimum land requirementLife appointmentControlled finance and religionControl of Forum and streets of tombs (granted honorific tombs to major benefactors)Supervised building public buildingsImplemented standard weights and measuresAedilesDuumvirsTwo aediles appointed in election each year, started term in office on July 1Began term alongside magistrates“Junior magistrates”“Duumvirs in charge of streets, sacred and public buildings”Two duumvirs appointed in election each year, started term in office on July 1Began term alongside magistrates“Senior magistrates”Position of aedile was prerequisiteOversaw the council and implemented decrees passed by the council2718408802156002347274792729004523662219867233559422894906City council:100 members (decurions)Ex-magistratesInfluentialEliteFreeborn citizensNot actors or innkeepersLife-long positionCame available after death or disgrace of former holderAdvised the Quattuorviri0City council:100 members (decurions)Ex-magistratesInfluentialEliteFreeborn citizensNot actors or innkeepersLife-long positionCame available after death or disgrace of former holderAdvised the Quattuorviri33559431297384Legislative Branch (decuriones)Legislative Branch (decuriones)282802894906Quattuorviri:Two duumvirsElectoral rollsCivil and criminal casesBecame the quinquennial every five years to conduct censusTwo aedilesSacred and public buildingsRoads and sewerageMarketsPublic orderSponsored theater and spectacles0Quattuorviri:Two duumvirsElectoral rollsCivil and criminal casesBecame the quinquennial every five years to conduct censusTwo aedilesSacred and public buildingsRoads and sewerageMarketsPublic orderSponsored theater and spectacles10746562197323282801301776Executive BranchExecutive Branch166814576109Pompeiian Governmental StructurePompeiian Governmental Structure424122385407530607001551305Integral to political lifeExpected to use own funds to maintain imperial cultsTherefore, had to be richBoth wealthy freeborn and freedmen eligibleMany magistrates were part of this group0Integral to political lifeExpected to use own funds to maintain imperial cultsTherefore, had to be richBoth wealthy freeborn and freedmen eligibleMany magistrates were part of this group312021720782PriesthoodPriesthood1300884849630459511616075Used for the election of magistratesCity divided into voting precincts Could vote individually or as part of a group (guild)0Used for the election of magistratesCity divided into voting precincts Could vote individually or as part of a group (guild)17549125400People’s AssemblyPeople’s Assemblyd) everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply, sanitationHousingWallace-Hadrill has identified four general types of houses:Type I: one or two roomed houses, used as both residence and shop or workshop.Type II: from two to seven rooms, with larger workshops and living areas.Type III: the average Pompeian residence of between eight and thirteen rooms with a combination of public and private spaces.Type IV: the largest houses, designed for entertaining. They may have been created from a number of smaller houses remodeled to make a singly building. They included quarters for a number of slaves.Latin TermDefinitionfaucesthe entrance corridorvestibulumentrance hallatriumReception room, generally with compluvium and impluviumcompluviumopening in the roof which allowed light and rainwater into the atriumimpluviumshallow pool which collected rainwater from the compluviumtablinumroom off the atrium, used for receiving clients and conducting businessperistylecolonnade or covered walkway around a courtyard or gardencubiculuma small windowless bedroomtricliniuma dining room with space for three long couches around a serving tablelarariumfamily shrine of the lares, the spirits of the entry of housesLimitations of architectural evidenceDifficult to determine function of housesSize of house doesn’t necessarily line up with statusDifficult to determine if the house was occupied by one family or severalTownhousesWallace-Hadrill (ancient historian at Cambridge) – “interlocking jigsaw of large, medium and small houses” (on first impressions of PompeiiFlimsy houses suggest boom in population (e.g. House of Trellis)Exterior – not indicative of status or wealth, open out into raised streets, bland and not decorated, wooden doorsVitruvius (Roman author, “De architectura”) – “buildings having magnificent interiors [should also have] elegant entrance courts to correspond: for there will be no propriety in the spectacle of an elegant interior approached by a low, mean entrance.” (fauces and vestibulum)Earliest houses have no compluvium (opening in roof), shows progression and evolution of Roman architecture. Peristyles – favored way of bringing light into house, some grander houses had more than one (House of Citharist – three)Leisure ActivitiesAthleticsPalestra (adjacent amphitheater)DrinkingGamblingSpectator sportsBlood sport, gladiators and huntsNumerous inscriptions announcing blood sport events:“the gladiatorial troupe of Certus, aedile, will fight at Pompeii on 31 May. There will be a hunt and awnings.”“Good fortune to Gnaeus Alleius Maius, the leading games-giver.”MusicTheaterExecutionsFood and DiningFood and DiningCereal: barley, millet, wheatPulses: peas, beans, lentilsMeat: goat, sheep, cattle, poultry, game birdsSeafood: fish, scallops cockles, lobster, cuttlefish, garumNuts and Seeds: walnuts, almonds, chestnuts, poppyseedsVegetables: cabbage, onion, garlic, lettuces, asparagus, cucumber, leek, radish, turnipsFruit: figs, prunes, dates, pears, peaches, apples, cherries, olives, grapes, pomegranatesClothingVery little actual clothing survives, and although there is plenty of visual representation in frescoes – there is an issue with reliability;Only the upper classes commissioned works of artIndividuals posed, and so they most likely dressed up – the painting is idealizedVery little day to day lifeDoesn’t account for style changesWhat we do know is;Most males wore a knee-length tunic made from wool, worn with a beltOnly citizens were allowed to wear a togaWomen, both freed and freeborn, wore full length tunics (tunica). But married women wore a stola, a sleeveless tunic suspended from the shoulders by short strapsMany women wore a palla, a long cloak, when they went outdoors.HealthEvidence of dental problems and age-related diseasesNot a good idea to go into the baths with open wound because of gangrene riskTwins found in cellar at Oplontis show signs of Syphilis, which supposedly wasn’t introduced to Europe until Columbus BathsSocial occasionWellbeing of body and spiritArchaeologists have discovered four in PompeiiStabian (oldest)ForumCentral (under construction during the eruption)86371534174600SarnoArchaeologists have discovered two in HerculaneumSuburban (best preserved of either city)ForumDifferent sections or hours for men and womenLayout:Vestibule: often an exercise yardApodyterium: changing roomsFrigidarium: one circular cold bathTepidarium: transition room so people’s bodies could adjust to temperature changes, sometimes accompanied by laconicum (sweat room heated by brazier)Caldarium: hot room with alverus (hot, rectangular bath, capacity approx. 10) and labrum (cold, circular bath for washingSuburban Bathhouse Supposedly financed by Marcius Nonius BalbusElegantFaced seaVestibule: four red columns, fountain, bust of ApolloBack room for sexLively placesOpen nights as well as daySnacks, stroll, readingSexual activitiesWater Supply and SanitationAqueducts – covered to keep water pureUtilized the archRunning waterCastellum Aquae – water tower, at the high point of Pompeii with three holes that emptied into three tanksPrivate homesPublic bathsPublic water fountainse) religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombsReligion was essentially a political affiliationCapitoline TriadJuno (Hera)Jupiter (Zeus)Minerva (Athena)Games held in their honor on the first day of SeptemberTemple based off a similar one in Rome, represents Rome’s power in PompeiiHercules, Apollo, Venus and MercuryHerculesGreek HeraklesRegarded as the founder of HerculaneumPopular with sailors and traders because of his journeysImages and statues of him in Pompeii (statuette in Temple of Isis)Statue in the peristyle (walkway around the courtyard) of House of the DeerApolloEmerged in the 6th century BCETemple rebuilt in Hellenistic style in the 2nd century BCEAugustus accepted Apollo as his patron godNero embraced him as god of musicVenusBelieved to have been born in the waters and is therefore often depicted nude in a seashell surrounded by water nymphsSailors sought her protectionPatron goddess of PompeiiWorshipped by people of all classesUrged through graffiti to endorse and sabotage political candidates – political presenceBlamed for misfortuneMercuryGod of commerceMessenger godImperial CultCult of the emperor’s genius (household god)Set up by Augustus21 part time priests called Augustales (connects to politics)Temple of the Genius of Augustus also known as Temple of VespasianPublic RitualSacrificial banquetSacrifice animalsRigid ritual with no deviationMystery CultsCult of IsisTemple of IsisShows strong trade links between Pompeii and EgyptPossibly could have been introduced through prostitutes (who were usually foreign slaves)Inscriptions indicate one third of worshippers were womenJulia Felix was one of the worshippersChapel dedicated to Isis, Serapis and Anubis – House of the Gilded CupidsTwo daily servicesIsis – happiness, salvation and consolation from sufferingHigh-quality wall paintings provide evidenceDionysusGod of wine and fertilityLater became cult of BacchusOriginated as women only but Annia Paculla (priestess) admitted menCelebration of rites five times a monthSpread quickly Wine and feasts were part of celebrationsCommitted debaucheries while under the influence of alcoholSecretive nature worried Roman senate because of potential political conspiracySuppressed in Rome and continued to flourish in Pompeii and HerculaneumLight-heartedPaintings in the Villa of Mysteries depict rituals of this cultHousehold GuardiansDescriptionLaresProtector of the household, protector of farms and boundaries, depicted as two dancing youths, larariumPenatesStore of food, reside in the recesses of the houseGeniusForce or spirit of the head of the houseVestaGoddess of hearths and altars, prayers and sacrifices addressed to herBacchus and MercuryGod of money and patron of commerceAgathodaemonSnake wrapped around the altar to protect the hearth and bring fertilityDeath and BurialMost, aside from those within mystery cults, had no clear concept of life after deathTombs lined the streets leading to the city gates1979930176242Herculaneum has shops and villas interspersed with tombs 00Herculaneum has shops and villas interspersed with tombs 1179945249537700-5287821900786Those without families belonged to “funeral clubs”, paid a fee while alive and ensured they would be cremated00Those without families belonged to “funeral clubs”, paid a fee while alive and ensured they would be cremated399698024399590045476971907252Paterfamilias responsible for seeing to the proper burial of everyone in his family including slaves and freedmen00Paterfamilias responsible for seeing to the proper burial of everyone in his family including slaves and freedmen385156431719400037996093507913Family tombs0Family tombs11580095078095Kept in glass or terracotta urns0Kept in glass or terracotta urns151245547144120015124553255068001645233936827Most people were cremated by 1st century CE0Most people were cremated by 1st century CE198004558345000151476314239580012700589222Two most impressive outside the Nucerian and Herculaneum gates00Two most impressive outside the Nucerian and Herculaneum gates3796145138008640582275892228 necropolises outside the city gates08 necropolises outside the city gates17087272008159NecropolisesNecropolises0000PublicPrivateTemple of ApolloThe Lares (household god) was kept in a Lararium and prayed to and made sacrifices to in the homeTemple of IsisThere might also be paintings of the main gods in the homeTemple of Capitoline Triad (aka Temple of Jupiter)Jews have their personal shrinesTemple of Vespasian Egyptians had their personal godsTemple of the LaresIt is believed there was some Christianity (questionable).Temple of VenusTombs were a public display of private interment, and wealthTemple of AsclepiusMany foreign cults were only celebrated in the home, i.e. The Dionysiac Rituals (House of the Mysteries), also cults of Herakles and IsisTemple of Fortuna Augusta(Herakles/Hercules was the patron of both Pompeii and (especially) Herculaneum, found in Herculaneum: libation bowl, devotional lamp, sacred oil container, statues all suggest cult of Hercules.)Pompeian TemplesRoman TemplesTemple of the Capitoline Triad (aka Temple of Jupiter)Temple of VespasianTemple of the LaresTemple of VenusTemple of Fortuna AugustaGreek TemplesTemple of ApolloTemple of AsclepiusEgyptian TemplesTemple of IsisOther religionsJudaic adherentsVarious cults from MesopotamiaCult of DionysusCult of Heraklesf) the influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architectureGreekHouse of Vettii:1993323180340IonicIonic3961072180513CorinthianCorinthian64655178262DoricDoricPictureDescription26964415701800N/A546504254000“The punishment of Ixion”House of Vettii23246815955900“The sacrifice of Iphigenia”(Trojan War)509559000“The Alexander Mosaic”House of the Faun8491717803100Peristyle in the House of VettiiFound in frescoes, statues, architecture“Sound mind, sound body” attitude comes from the GreeksHerculaneum named after HerculesHouse of the Faun – Greek tragic masks with curly wigs, depictions of Greek theaterGreek architect Hippodamus created the grid structure for the city of PompeiiEgyptianPictureDescription98135490700“The Nile Mosaic”House of the Faun912117664600“Isis (left) welcoming Io (right)”Temple of IsisTemple of Isis was one to be reconstructed after the earthquake of AD62, suggesting its significance and importance in PompeiiDP 3: Reconstructing and conserving the pasta) changing interpretations: the impact of new research and technologiesGeneral Health (connects to DP:2, everyday life)Health is a combination of genetic and environmental factorsHealth and nutrition can be identified by the growth of bonesCan draw conclusions about diet and lifestyle of an individual through CT scan, DNA and coprolite analysisPathology (disease) (connects to DP:2, everyday life)Analysis of bones (and soft tissue where available) affords the identification of such diseases as: porotic hyprostis, HFI (Hyperostosis frontalis interna), Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Respitory disease and lice infectionDraw conclusions on the health of an individual and of a population as a wholeSoft tissue is extremely rare P&H, and bone analysis is dependent on the sample and not all diseases make into the bone until last stagesCause of DeathPLASTER CASTSPreserved impressions of soft tissue Some positioning reveals manner of deathPeter Baxter studied 41 casts, 50% displayed the pugilist pose – exposed to very high temps at death or soon after (Muscular contraction is a result of heat on protein) 200-250CCadavic spasm = total muscle contraction caused by thermal coagulation, accounts for the unusual positioning of some of the bodiesSKELETONSHave no soft tissue which is what makes scientific analysis next to impossibleThey do display the same poses as plaster casts, by do NOT maintain that pose once excavatedDNACan reveal the relationship between individuals and groups, info about sex, inherited diseases etc.Less than 2% of the DNA that can be found in fresh bones is extractable from ancient skeletonsDevelopment of polymerase chain reaction technique has enabled minute quantities of DNA to be amplified for studyHigh temperature the bodies were exposed to destroyed much of the genetic materialExampleDescriptionItalian Central Institute for Cataloguing and Documentation (1970)18000 photos of painted walls and mosaic floorsOnly 20% of everything that had been revealedDocumented before 1980 earthquake that destroyed many buildingsThe Houses in Pompeii Project (1978 – 1986)German Archaeological Institute Salvage and investigate architectural findsRecorded two houses: House of the Ancient Hunt and House of Colored CapitalsThe Via dell’Abbondanza Project (2004)New state of the art technology – surveying, photographic and computerArchaeological Superintendency of Pompeii Created photomosaic of 900-meter street (Via dell’Abbondanza)Useful digital resource for futureThe Herculaneum Conservation Project (2000)Packard Humanities InstituteAim to halt the decay of HerculaneumSolved groundwater problems by restoring ancient underground sewer systemsHouse of Relief of Telephus had a previously unknown floor, which they discovered609600000b) issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilitiesFour basic issues:Natural threatsSun bleachingRainDampAlgaeLichensHuman threatsTramplingGraffitiRubbishMuseum displaysNational Archeological Museum in Naples is “inadequate” - DeissFailed conservation Efforts0International Efforts1054793587836376491567887376976541852Italian Efforts0Italian Efforts46561092638100) ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remainsTHREE POINTS OF VIEW5003543167486628148621715962554804171821741270652218882Is it educational or immoral?How will they feel upon learning the horrors of Pompeii’s downfall?Do they soil it by denying these people the rites of their culture?Is it educational or immoral?How will they feel upon learning the horrors of Pompeii’s downfall?Do they soil it by denying these people the rites of their culture?-2852512262748Consider their rituals surrounding deathHow would they feel about their remains being used for scientific research?How does their religion tie in?Consider their rituals surrounding deathHow would they feel about their remains being used for scientific research?How does their religion tie in?18997551019810Present ItaliansPresent Italians-2872341019175Past RomansPast Romans40689521020002ViewerViewer1899578168681Scientists, archaeologists, historiansLack of outcry can be seen as acceptance of current practicesLong held tradition of displaying bodies, especially in Christian sense0Scientists, archaeologists, historiansLack of outcry can be seen as acceptance of current practicesLong held tradition of displaying bodies, especially in Christian senseIt has been accepted in scientific circles to collect and study human remains, especially in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Museums have extensive collection and displays of bodies, skeletons, skulls etc. in various stages of preservation. Keeping remains HAS come under scrutiny, often from indigenous groups seeking repatriation of the bones of their ancestors. (A case in particular is indigenous Australians, wanting the bones of their ancestors back from the British and Ashmolean Museums for proper burial. In a rare case, their cultural artefacts and skeletal remains were returned to the Aboriginal community)The assembling or positioning of human remains for dramatic effect, a common practice during early Pompeian excavations, is not acceptable today.Over the past 50 years attitudes have changed as cultural sensitivity about the display of human remains varies from community to community.The Italian view is that there is a long tradition of displaying the bodies and body parts of dead saints, bishops and priests in religious context, such as a church. Therefore, their beliefs will be at odds with other communities.The International Council of Museums (ICOM founded 1947 and which works closely with UNESCO) hasn’t banned the display of human remains, but rather it encourages sensitivity to community reactions.The plaster casts in Pompeii give us valuable information about the general health of the population, and also reveal information about the circumstances of their deaths, which has contributed to our understanding of what happened. But what then should happen to the body within?Archeologists believe that it is important to dig NOW before the site is lost to decay and seismic activity, however there are wealthy landowners that do not wish to give up their land for the sake of Pompeii’s excavation and conservation.d) value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions213959170815AwarenessAwareness396545431957MoneyMoney319474213640416185225944021219132578500276824340990295647427048InterestInterest-534256212490Broken curbstones, worn roads0Broken curbstones, worn roads10733641801620346239184719Numbers contribute to wear and tear of the site0Numbers contribute to wear and tear of the site185943013394900284594212542900-715509181011Theft0Theft996593688443082247768780012993968861500325478910917Rubbish0Rubbish-341123153000Vandalism0VandalismPossible Solutions:Blocking off sections of the siteChanneling tourist money into conservation projectsUsing technology, cameras, to police theft, vandalism and breakageSources and Examples for ExamThe eruption:ExampleDescriptionPliny the YoungerFirst-person account of the eruptionChanging nature:ExampleDescriptionRocque JoachimDangerous working conditionsStolen artifactsDestroyed buildings“knew as much about antiquities as moon does of lobsters” - WinkelmannKarl WeberSystematic approachDiscovered Villa of Papyri (thousands of scrolls) Changing representations:ExampleDescriptionJakob Phillipp Hackert1799Painting of PompeiiRomanticismIdyllic naturePompeii (movie)2014DramatizedHollywoodThe economy:ExampleDescriptionBuilding of EumachiaCommercialLinenFullery of StephanopoulosFullery businessEmeralds at OplontisSuggests trade with EgyptPublic weights and measures table at ForumCommerce, trading systemSocial structure:ExampleDescriptionSkeletons at OplontisVariety of racesVariety of gendersVariety of social classGreen bone discoloration suggests wealth because of jewelry Building of Eumachia Suggests prominent female figure Eumachia26 brothelsShow prostitutionPolitics:ExampleDescriptionPolitical graffitiCampaign slogans Basilica “Court”, civil justiceMunicipal officesOffices for aediles, duumvirs and council membersEveryday life:ExampleDescriptionHouse of TrellisFlimsy house suggests population boom Vitruvius“buildings having magnificent interiors [should also have] elegant entrance courts to correspond: for there will be no propriety in the spectacle of an elegant interior approached by a low, mean entrance”PalestraAthletics activitiesInscriptionsAnnouncing blood sports like gladiatorsSkeletons in Oplontis, twinsSuggest dental problems, age-related diseases and SyphilisSuburban BathhouseElegant, faced sea, bust of ApolloReligion:ExampleDescriptionTemple of ApolloGreek religions as well as RomanTemple of JupiterRoman religionsTemple of IsisEgyptian religionHouse of DeerStatue of Hercules in peristyleVilla of MysteriesPaintings of Dionysus cultGreek influences:ExampleDescriptionHouse of VettiiDoric, Ionic and Corinthian columnsTemple of Apollo Greek religionHouse of Vettii – The punishment of IxionReference to Greek mythologyHouse of the Faun – The Alexander MosaicReference to Greek heroEgyptian influences:ExampleDescriptionHouse of the Faun – The Nile MosaicDepiction of Egypt shows connection between Pompeii and EgyptTemple of Isis – Isis welcoming Io Reference to Egyptian mythologyImpact of new technologies:ExampleDescriptionCT scan, DNA analysis and coprolite analysisReveals details about diet and lifestyleBone analysis Identifies diseases such as lice infection, respiratory disease and tuberculosisVia dell’Abbondanza ProjectNew technology used to create photomosaic of 900-meter streetItalian and international:ExampleDescriptionPompeii: Sustainable Preservation ProjectGerman initiative Conservation and education campaignsItalian governmentCooperating with others conservation efforts ................
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