Building Construction (2nd Edition)-All Numbers



Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 1 - Building Construction & The Fire Service

"By the Numbers"

▪ Life span of a building may be 50 to 100 years or more.

▪ Model building codes usually have 5 major construction classifications: Fire-resistive, Non-combustible, Masonry (ordinary), Heavy Timber, and Wood Frame.

▪ Each model building code classification is divided into 1, 2, or 3 subclassifications.

▪ Wood Frame has 2 subclassifications based on whether plaster or gypsum board protects the wood frame.

▪ The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that the intensity of thermal radiation is a function of the 4th power of the absolute temperature of the thermal radiation source (T4).

▪ A temperature of 70oF is approximately 530o (294oK) in the absolute temperature scale.

▪ Laws of physics state that as the distance from a source of heat is doubled, the thermal radiation level is reduced 4 times.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 2 - Design Principles

"By the Numbers"

▪ America's most prominent 20th century architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, called buildings "machines for living".

▪ 20th century modernist, Le Corbusier's design philosophy was "less is more".

▪ Mies van der Rohe introduced buildings with very clean rectangular lines in the early 1960s.

▪ The 3 model building codes UBC, Standard Building Code, & BOCA) are working together to create a single code package called the International Building Code (IBC).

▪ In the future, the IBC/IFC will be ran by the International Code Council, composed of representative from the 3 model code groups.

▪ A commonly adopted bulding code is the NFPA Life Safety Code® (NPFA 101).

▪ The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 requires public facilities to be accessible to those who qualify as inpaired due to vision, speech, hearing, neuromuscular, learning, or mental illness.

▪ Drinking fountains must have a spout no more than 36" above the floor under ADA guidelines.

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Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 3 - Building Classifications

"By the Numbers"

▪ Test furnace procedures are described in NFPA 251, Standard methods of Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials, and in the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) E-119 Standard.

[pic]

▪ Primary points of failure for a fire resistance test include: failure to support an applied load, temperature increase of 250oF above ambient on the unexposed side, passage of heat/flame sufficient to ignite cotton, excessive temperature on steel members, or point temperature increase.

▪ Fire resistance ratings are expressed in several intervals such as 20 minutes, 45 minutes, or 1, 2, 3, or 4 hours.

▪ Building materials can be classified in 2 general categories: fire-resistant or non-fire-resistant, OR combustible or non-combustible.

▪ The most commonly used test for determining combustibility is ASTM E136, Standard Test Method for Behavior of Materials in a Vertical Tube Furnace of 750oC.

▪ NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction, details the requirements for building classifications and subclassifications.

|3-Digit Building Classification Codes |

|1st Digit |Fire resistance rating of exterior bearing walls |

|2nd Digit |Fire resistance rating of structural frames or columns |

|3rd Digit |Fire resistance rating of floor construction |

▪ The Uniform Building CodeTM has 1 classification under Type I and 3 classifications under Type II.

▪ Most codes will NOT allow a wood frame school (Type V-A construction) to be more than 1 story in height.

|Type I Construction Fire Resistance Ratings |

|Bearing walls, columns, beams |3 to 4 hours |

|Floors |2 to 3 hours |

|Roofs |1 to 2 hours |

 

|5 Major Building Classifications |

|Type |Alternate Name(s) |Description/Details |

|I |Fire-resistive |Partitions that separate occupancies usually have a fire resistance of 1 to 2 hours |

| | |Less likely to collapse |

| | |Usually permit the use of combustible materials such as interior finishes, roof coverings, exterior |

| | |veneers/trim, nailing strips, windows/doors, and roof structures and platforms. |

| | |Contents of building contributes most of the fuel for a fire |

| | |Does NOT provide total fire protection |

| | |2 most common construction methods: reinforced concrete or protected steel frame |

|II |Non-combustible |Types are Protected & Unprotected (most common) |

| | |3 subclassifications (3rd subclass has NO fire resistance) |

| | |Materials other than steel can be used (ie-concrete block, glass, aluminum) |

| | |Unprotected steel buildings will NOT provide structural stability under fire conditions |

|III |Exterior protected |Usually has exterior walls of masonry & partially or wholly combustible internal members |

| |(Masonry) |Combustible materials are protected by insulating materials such as plaster or gypsum |

| |(Ordinary) |Smaller dimension wood than Type IV |

| | |2" x 10" joists for floor construction are common |

| | |Combustible concealed spaces between floor & ceiling joists & between studs in partition walls |

| | |The structure itself contributes fuel to a fire |

| | |Unlike Type I & II, a significant fire can result in a vacant Type III building |

| | |Exterior masonry walls may collapse if internal combustible members fail |

|IV |Heavy Timber |External walls usually masonry with combustible internal members |

| | |Beams, columns, floors, & roofs made of solid or laminated wood of greater dimension than Type III |

| | |Concealed spaces are not permitted between structural members |

| | |Use extensively in factories, mills, & warehouses in the 19th century, rarely used today |

| | |Primary fire hazard: massive structural members & contents of building |

| | |If members are NOT involved in a prolonged fire, the charring can be sandblasted away and members may continue|

| | |to be used |

| | |Exterior masonry walls may collapse if internal combustible members fail |

| | |Minimum 6" x 10" joists for floor construction |

|V |Wood Frame |All major structural components permitted to be combustible |

| | |Primary method of construction is using a wood frame to provide primary structural support |

| | |Obtaining 1 hour fire resistance for structural members is attained by covering them with plaster or |

| | |fire-rated gypsum |

| | |Combustible concealed voids are more extensive than Type III |

| | |Can become totally involved & be completely destroyed |

| | |Codes require cetain height & spacing limits for wood frame |

| | |Usually constructed using the light-frame method developed 150 years ago by George Washington Snow |

| | |(engineer/lumber dealer) |

| | |Light-frame construction replaced the use of heavy timber wood framing |

| | |Variation of Type V is brick veneer (relies on wood frame for structural support) |

| | |Brick veneer adds little to fire resistance except some possible reduction in communication of fire between |

| | |buildings |

 

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 4 - The Way Buildings are Built-Structural Principles

"By the Numbers"

Understanding of many of the equations in this chapter can be found by looking at the calculations of different loads found in the chapter.

▪ Kinetic energy while a gas is in motion:

E = 1/2mv2

E=energy

m=mass

v=velocity

▪ Equation for increase of force due to velocity of wind:

p=Cv2

p=static pressure

C=0.00256 (a constant)

v=velocity

|In the Midwestern states, maximum wind velocity is calculated at 70 mph |[pic] |

|(100 mph in coastal areas). | |

 

▪ Seismic forces may be 3-dimensional and are dynamic in nature.

▪ Earthquakes usually last less than 1 minute.

[pic]

▪ Forces of gravity have 2 classes: live and dead loads.

▪ Water has a density of about 62.4 lbs. per cubic foot (psf).

▪ Snow load calculated for a roof is commonly 20 to 30 pounds per square foot.

▪ 6 inches of water on a roof will add an additional live load of 30 psf.

|Minimum Live Load Uniform Weight Distribution |

|Occupancy Type |Minimum psf |

|Hospital Rooms |40 psf |

|Offices |50 psf |

|Library Reading Rooms |60 psf |

|Retail Stores |75 psf |

|School Corridors |80 psf |

|Light Manufacturing |100 psf |

|Library Stack Rooms |150 psf |

▪ The failure point of structural steel is about 36,000 psi.

▪ Standard truss shapes can span distances of 22 to 70 feet.

▪ Space frames are structures that are developed in 3 dimensions and are economical like 2 dimension trusses.

▪ Space frames are 3 dimensional truss structures.

▪ Stud-wall frame construction typically uses 2x4 inch wood studs.

▪ Stud spacing for stud wall frame construction typically is 12 to 16 inches but may be as much as 24 inches.

▪ Dividing the yeild/failure point of a material by 2 would give you a safety factor of 2.

▪ 4x4 inch wood is the minimum dimensions for wood used in post and beam construction.

▪ Shell structures are 3 dimensional that have a thickness that is small compared to other dimensions.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 5 - Building Materials

"By the Numbers"

▪ No commonly use material can withstand 10,000oF.

▪ Allowable compressive strength parallel to wood grain varies from 325 to 1,850 psi for commercial grades, with a variance of a factor of 6.

▪ Most structural lumber has a moisture content of 19% or less.

▪ To be considered solid lumber, boards must have nominal thickness of 2 inches, dimensional lumber must have nominal thickness of 2 to 4 inches, and timbers must have a nominal thickness of 5 inches.

▪ Dimensional lumber is available in lengths from 8 to 16 feet, in 2 feet increments.

▪ Solid lumber members used for rafters can be found in lengths up to 24 feet.

▪ Laminated members are produced in depths from 3 to 75 inches and lengths up to 100 feet.

▪ The 3 types of non-veneered wood panels are oriented strand board, wafer board, and particle board.

▪ Oriented strand board uses long strand-like wood particles, with strands in the same direction, that are compressed and glued into 3 to 5 layers.

▪ A span rating of 32/16 indicates that a panel may be used as roof sheathing on rafters spaced 32 inches apart or as subflooring on joints 16 inches apart.

▪ Structural panels can be as small as 4 feet in width.

|Wood Ignition Temperatures |

|Wood Type (0.10 ounces, 2 1/2 inches long) |Self-Ignition Temperature |

|Western Red Cedar |378oF |

|Paper Birch |399oF |

|White Pine |406oF |

|White Oak |410oF |

|Long Leaf Pine |428oF |

|Heat of Combustion Values |

|Substance |Btu per Pound |

|Corrugated Fiber Carton (dry) |5,970 Btu |

|Wrapping Paper (dry) |7,106 Btu |

|Newspaper (dry) |7,883 Btu |

|Wood Shavings (dry) |8,248 Btu |

|Wood Sawdust-Oak (dry) |8,493 Btu |

|Wood Bark-Fir (dry) |9,496 Btu |

|Wood Sawdust-Pine (dry) |9,676 Btu |

▪ The 2 methods of fire-retardant treatment for wood are pressure impregnation and surface coating.

▪ The design strength of fire-retardant structural lumber is 10% to 20% less than nontreated lumber.

▪ Some building codes may permit use of 4 feet of fire-retardant treated plywood as a party wall separation.

▪ Temperatures between roof covering and roof sheathing can reach 170oF due to solar radiation.

▪ Degradation of roofs using fire retardant treated plywood can occur after 3 to 5 years.

▪ Bricks are manufactured by firing them in a kiln at temperatures up to 2,400oF, which turns them into a ceramic material.

▪ The most common size of hollow concrete block used is 8" x 8" x 16".

▪ A brick wall 8 inches thick and 4 x 4 feet would weight about 1,267 pounds.

▪ Mortar is available in 5 basic types with strengths ranging from 75 psi to 2,500 psi.

▪ Concrete cured at or above 100oF will not reach its proper strength.

▪ Normal design strength of concrete is normally reached after 28 days.

▪ Ultimate compressive strength of concrete varies from 2,500 psi to 6,000 psi.

▪ Common structural steel has less than 3/10 of 1% carbon, while cast iron has 3 to 4% carbon.

|Structural Steel Types |

|Steel Type |ASTM Number |

|Structural Steel |ASTM A36 |

|Structural Steel (42,000 psi minimum yield point) |ASTM A529 |

|High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Maganese Vanadium Steel |ASTM A441 |

|High-Strength Low-Alloy Columbian-Vanadium Structural Steel |ASTM A572 |

|High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel |ASTM A242 |

|High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel (50,000 psi minimum yield point) |ASTM A588 |

|Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel |A514 7 |

▪ Rolling of steel consist of repeatedly passing ingots of steel heated to 2,200oF between large rollers.

▪ The most commonly used structural steel is ASTM A36.

▪ In terms of stress and strain, ASTM A36 structural steel undergoes pronounced deformation at 36,000 psi, called the yield point, and breakage at the "ultimate" stress point.

▪ Bridge Strands have strengths as high as 300,000 psi, but have very little ductility.

▪ At 1,000oF, the yield point of steel will drop from 36,000 psi to 18,000 psi.

▪ At 1,200oF, the yield point of steel will drop 10,000 psi which is a 72% loss of strength.

▪ Steel has a density of about 490 lbs./ft2.

▪ A steel beam 20 foot long which is heated uniformly to 1,000oF will expand about 1.4 inches.

▪ A steel column encased in 3 inches of concrete with a siliceous aggregate would have a fire resistance of 4 hours.

▪ Spray-on coatings for steel protection have densities ranging from 12 to 40 lbs./ft2.

▪ Intumescent coatings are applied a fraction of an inch thick and provide up to 3 hours fire resistance.

▪ Aluminum has a melting point of 1,220oF.

▪ Tempered glass is about 4 times stronger than ordinary (annealed) glass.

▪ Laminated glass consists of 2 layers of glass with a transparent layer of vinyl bonded in the center.

▪ Glass blocks are typically available in sizes from 6x6 to 8x8 inches with a thickness of 3 or 4 inches.

▪ Wired glass is produced in a thickness of 1/4 inch.

▪ The maximum allowable area for a 1/4 inch piece of wired glass is 1,296 square inches and would provide a 45 minute fire rating if set in a listed fire door or window (for a 90 minute rating, maximum allowable area is 100 square inches).

▪ A 45 minute rating for a fire-rated glass panel can be attained for panels as large as 3,325 sq. inches.

▪ Fire-rated glass blocks are available in ratings of 45, 60, and 90 minutes for use in window assemblies.

▪ An alternative to using fire-rated glass where required is to install special deflecting sprinklers in combination with heat-strengthened or tempered glass in which the sprinkler wets the entire surface of the glass (provides up to 2 hour fire rating).

▪ Special deflecting sprinklers and protected glass panels used for fire resistance is limited to 13 feet in height with a 36 inch high pony wall being required at the base of the glazing.

▪ Gypsum board consists of calcined gypsum, starch, water, and other additives sandwiched between 2 paper faces.

▪ Gyspum board thicknesses range from 1/4 to 3/4 inch.

▪ 1 inch gypsum is only used as coreboard.

▪ Gypsum board can provide an assembly fire-resistance rating from 1 to 4 hours.

▪ The 2 major types of plastic are thermosetting and thermoplastic.

▪ There are 2 major types of plastic that are divided into 20 to 30 major groups.

▪ In 1980, 60 billion lbs. of plastic was produced.

▪ Even plastics with low flammability are subject to deterioration and may evolve toxic gases at temperatures above 500oF.

▪ Foam plastics used as building materials must be separated from the interior of the building with 1/2 inch gypsum or equivalent, by building code.

▪ Automatic sprinklers are required in addition to a thermal barrier (1/2 inch gypsum) when foam plastic with a thickness of greater than 4 inches is used.

▪ Per 1993 edition of BOCA National Building Code, if the separation distance of a combustible exterior veneer is less than 5 feet, the material is limited to 10% of the wall surface and resist a radiant energy source of 12.5 kW/m2 (separation of 25 feet is 3.5 kW/m2)

▪ Fabric roofs weigh about 2 lbs./ft2.

▪ For thermal insulation of membrane structures, 2 layers of fabric can be used several inches apart (air space acts as thermal barrier).

 Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 6 - Foundations

"By the Numbers"

▪ Foundations are divided into 2 types:  Shallow and Deep.

▪ High-rise structures require foundations that extend 100 feet or more.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 7 - Structural Systems

"By the Numbers"

▪ Reinforced concrete of protected steel framing are found in Type I fire-resistive buildings.

▪ Use of unprotected steel results in a Type II building classification (non-combustible).

▪ Wood an masonry together are found in ordinary construction Type II and mill construction Type IV.

▪ 3 methods are used to reinforce concrete: ordinary, PRE-tensioned, and POST-tensioned.

▪ Standard size reinforcing bars vary from 0.375" to 2.257".

▪ 2 methods of prestressing concrete are PRE-tensioning and POST-tensioning.

▪ Flat slab concrete varies from 6 to 12 inches thick.

▪ Reinforcing steel is placed in the bottom of waffle construction formwork to provide reinforcement in 2 directions (AKA 2-way slabs).

▪ Precast concrete was not common until after World War II.

▪ Precast solid slabs are used for short spans up to 30 feet.

▪ Precast tee-slabs are used for spans up to 120 feet.

▪ Precast units may have a cement topping up to 1 1/2 inch thick.

▪ Concrete structural systems can have fire-resistance ratings from 1 to 4 hours.

▪ Steel trusses are frequently used in 3 dimensional space frames.

▪ 2 common basic steel trusses are the open-web joint and joist girder.

▪ Open-web steel joists are made with depths up to 6 feet and spans up to 144 feet (2 foot or less depth and 40 foot span is most common).

▪ Top and bottom chords of open-web steel joists can be made from 2 angles, 2 bars, or a tee-shaped member with diagonal members being flat bars continuous round bar (AKA bar joint) welded to top and bottom chords.

▪ Steel rigid frames with inclined roof members are widely used for 1 story industrial buildings and farm buildings.

▪ Steel rigid frames usually span 40 to 200 feet.

▪ 1 story rigid frame structures must be braced diagonally to prevent lateral deflection.

▪ Steel arches can span in excess of 300 feet.

▪ Steel wire strengths can be as high as 300,000 psi.

▪ Steel columns used for structural support should not have a slenderness ratio less than 120.

▪ Cast iron was frequently used for interior columns in the 19th Century.

▪ Thickness of masonry walls varies from a minimum 6 inches, up to several feet.

▪ NON-reinforced masonry walls are usually limited to 6 stories in height.

▪ Steel or concrete structural frame is more economical than masonry bearing walls when the building is more than 2 to 3 stories in height.

▪ Reinforced masonry bearing walls can be as high as 20 stories and only 10 inches thick.

▪ The simplest brick wall consists of 1 wythe.

▪ Parallel wythes of bricks can be bonded together using a "header course" every 6th course, or by using corrosion-resistant metal ties to bond wythes together.

▪ Grout can be used to fill cavities between 2 adjacent wythes of a brick wall or within the openings of concrete block for reinforcement.

▪ Parapets project 1 to 3 feet or more above the roof and usually have NO lateral support.

▪ Walls made of fire-rated concrete masonry units or bricks can have 2 to 4 hours of fire resistance.

▪ The 2 types of wood framing systems most frequently encountered are timber framing and light wood framing.

▪ Due to basic strength limitations of wood, it is usually not economical to use wood frames in buildings over 3 stories in height.

▪ Until water-powered saws were developed 2 centuries ago, producing individual wood boards was slow and laborious.

▪ In heavy timber designs, columns are NOT less than 8 x 8 inches, and beams (except roof beams) are NOT less than 6 x 10 inches.

▪ Heavy timbers cut from a single log are usually NOT available in lengths greater than 20 feet.

▪ Posts in post & beam construction are usually 4 x 4 or 6 x 6 inches and space 4 to 12 foot apart.

▪ Light wood framing uses 2 inch nominal lumber such as 2 x 4 or 2 x 8 inch members.

▪ The 2 basic types of light wood framing are balloon frame and platform frame.

▪ Platform framing has double 2 x 4 inch members (AKA plates) laid horizontally along the top of the studs on each floor which act as fire stops.

▪ Brick veneers must be tied to a wall at intervals of 16 inches.

▪ Weep holes in brick veneers are 2 feet on center.

▪ An air space of approximately 1 inch exists between a brick veneer and its supporting wall.

▪ A rule of thumb to determine whether a brick wall is load-bearing is a bearing wall will have a header course every 6th course.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 8 - Floors & Ceilings

"By the Numbers"

Photos in this chapter give a greater understanding of the spacing requirements.

|SPAN BETWEEN SUPPORTS FOR HOLLOW-CORE SLABS |

|Slab Thickness |Span Range |

|6" |14-22 feet |

|8" |20-32 feet |

|10" |24-40 feet |

|12" |30-44 feet |

 

 

 

 

 

|3 methods in which steel members can support floors include open web joists (bar joists)|[pic] |

|or trusses, steel beams, and light gauge steel joists. |[pic] |

|A common floor design is lightweight concrete with minimum thickness of 2 inches, | |

|supported by corrugated steel decking on open web joists. | |

|3 categories of open web joists are Standard, Long Span, and Deep Long Span. | |

|Standard open web joists are 8 to 30 inches deep and span up to 60 feet. | |

▪ Steel joists have depths of 6 to 12 inches and are spaced 16 to 48 inches apart (depending on span and load supported).

▪ Standard concrete weighs about 150 pounds per cubic foot, while lightweight concrete weighs about 90 pounds per cubic foot.

▪ Floor decking in Type IV construction is a minimum 3 inch thick plank (tongue & groove cut) with 1 inch finish flooring and is supported by 6 x 10 inch beams.

▪ Floor decking in ordinary masonry and wood frame construction is plywood or nominal 1 inch board subfloor covered by 2 x 6 inch to 2 x 14 inch joists, spaced 12 to 24 inches on center.

▪ [pic]

|NFPA 253, Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Source, |[pic] |

|covers flammability limits of floor coverings. | |

|The floor covering sample used in critical radiant flux testing is 10 x 42 inches. | |

|NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, uses 2 classifications for floor coverings: Class I - | |

|minimum flux of 0.43, and Class II - minimum flux of 0.19. | |

|Floor coverings in stairways, exit passageways, and exit corridors in institutional | |

|occupancies are limited to Class I coverings by BOCA national building code. | |

▪ Floor assemblies may be required to have fire resistance ratings of 1, 2, or 3 hours.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 9 - Walls

"By the Numbers"

▪ Free-standing fire walls must be able to resist lateral loads of at least 5 pounds per square foor per NFPA 221.

▪ Fire walls are usually required to have a fire resistance of 4 hours.

▪ Parapets are continuations of fire walls, up and above combustible roofs, usually 18 to 36 inches.

▪ Fire walls with 4 hour fire resistance frequently have 3 hour fire doors on each side of the wall.

▪ If HVAC ducts penetrate a fire wall with a fire resistance of 2 hours or greater, the ducts must have fire dampers (on 4 hour fire walls, two 3 hour dampers are required).

▪ A 1 hour fire resistant fire partition, used for separating adjacent apartment units, can be made of 5/8 inch fire-rated gypsum applied to both sides of 2 1/2 inch steel studs.

▪ Enclosure walls have 1 or 2 hours fire resistance, depending on building height, and are usually NON-load-bearing.

▪ Movable partitions are usually NOT fire-resistive, however, partitions with 1 to 2 hours fire resistance are available.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 10 - Roofs

"By The Numbers"

|Roofs are broadly categorized into 3 categories: flat, pitched, and curved. |[pic] |

|The simplest pitched roof is the shed roof which only slopes in 1 direction. | |

|Gable roofs have 2 inclined surfaces that meet at their high side to form a "ridge". | |

|Hip roofs slope in 4 directions and have a degree of slope similar to gable roofs. | |

|Gambrel roofs slope in 2 directions but with a break in the slope on each side. | |

|Mansard roofs have a break in the slope on all 4 sides. | |

|Butterfly roofs slope in 2 directions and resemble 2 shed roofs that meet at their low | |

|eaves. | |

|When the area to be enclosed by a roof is circular, a done roof can be used (ie-an arch |[pic] |

|rotated 360 degrees). | |

|Lamella arches are special arched roofs constructed of short pieces of wood (AKA |[pic] |

|lamellas), varying from 2 x 6 to 3 x 16 inches and 8 to 14 feet in length. | |

▪ Geodesic domes are created using spherical triangulation (triangles arranged in 3 dimensions).

|Wood rafters vary from 2 x 4 to 2 x 12 inches, and are spaced 12 to|[pic][pic] |

|24 inches, depending on span and live loads. | |

|In trusses that use gang nail type gusset plates, individual |[pic] |

|members are wood 2 x 4s or 2 x 6s, spaces 2 to 4 feet apart. | |

|Multiple member wood trusses use "splice plates" to produce heavier|[pic] |

|wood trusses, and may be up to 5 members thick and spaced 8 feet | |

|apart. | |

▪ Rigid frames are frequently encountered in 1 story buildings.

▪ 1/2 inch plywood roof decking can be placed on supports spaced 24 inches on center.

▪ Wood plank roof decking has a minimum 1 inch nominal thickness.

▪ Corrugated steel roof decking is usually 22 gauge minimum thickness, with depths from 1 1/2 to 7 inches.

▪ Wood nailing strips may be placed at 3 foot intervals in cast-in-place concrete for securing to the structural frame.

|Vapor barriers are needed when outdoor temperature is below 40oF, and indoor humidity is 45% or |[pic] |

|greater at 68oF. | |

▪ The 3 categories of flat roof membranes include built-up, elastomeric-plastomeric, and fluid-applied.

▪ Built-up roof membranes have several layers (usually 4) of roofing felt saturated with a bituminous material such as tar or asphalt.

▪ Rolls of roofing felt are usually 3 feet wide.

▪ Built-up roofs usually last 20 years.

▪ Elastomeric-plastomeric membranes are thin sheets (0.032 to 0.120 inches) applied with adhesives, gravel ballasts, or fasteners, in a single layer, and can be extremely flammable.

▪ The most common size of asphalt shingle is 12 x 36 inches.

▪ Slate may be produced in sheets as thin as 1/16 inch, up to 1 1/2 inch thick.

|Only 1/3 of the length of wood shingles are exposed to weather once in place. |[pic] |

▪ Testing procedures for fire hazards of roof coverings are contained in NFPA 256, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Roof Coverings, and in ASTM E-108.

▪ NFPA 256 fire tests for roof coverings ONLY simulates fire originating OUTSIDE a building.

▪ Test samples for roof coverings are attached to a wooden deck measuring 3 feet 4 inches x 4 feet x 4 inches.

▪ NFPA 256 contains 6 test procedures: Intermittent flame exposure, Flame spread, Burning brand, Flying brand, Rain, and Weathering tests, with individual tests repeated 2 to 15 times.

▪ A 2nd roof called a "rain roof" can be installed over a deteriorated roof.

▪ Unit type smoke and heat vents are small area hatchways (4 feet minimum in either direction is typical) with single- or double-leaf metal lids.

▪ NFPA 204M, Guide for Smoke & Heat Venting, determines the size and spacing of smoke and heat vents based on rate-of-heat release, ceiling height, and spacing of curtain boards.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 11 - Door & Window Assemblies

"By the Numbers"

▪ Overhead doors can consist of a single leaf, or 2 or more sections.

▪ Revolving doors have 3 or 4 sections, or wings, that rotate in a circular frame.

▪ By code, revolving door wings must collapse with 130 pounds of force.

▪ Common styles of swinging doors include ledge & brace, flush, 2 panel, louvered, and French.

▪ Solid-core doors have an interior core of laminated blocks (wood, particle board or mineral composition), and are covered with 2 or 3 layers of surface materials (usually plywood).

▪ Standard solid-core doors are 1 3/4 or 1 3/8 inch thick.

▪ Hollow-metal doors can be panel or flush-type and are normally 1 3/4 inch thick.

▪ Heavy corrugated steel doors have 1 or 2 corrugated sheets supported by a steel frame.

▪ Fire doors are rated in hours (4, 3, 1 1/2, 1, 3/4, 1/2, & 1/3 hours).

|FIRE DOOR OPENING CLASSIFICATIONS |

|Classification |Opening Type |

|A |Fire walls |

|B |Vertical shafts or 2 hour rated partitions |

|C |Between rooms & corridors with 1 hour fire resistance or less |

|D |Exterior walls subject to severe fire exposure from outside the building |

|E |Exterior walls subject to moderate to light fire exposure from outside the building |

▪ Class B fire doors may be called Class B (1 1/2) doors (old designation).

▪ 1/2 and 1/3 hour fire doors are primarily used in smoke barriers and corridor openings.

▪ Codes may permit a 1 1/2 hour fire door in a 2 hour stairwell.

▪ Codes may require two 3 hour fire doors to protect a 4 hour fire wall opening.

▪ Fire doors are tested in accordance with NFPA 252, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies, and by ASTM E-152.

▪ Intermittent passage of flame is permitted during a fire door test after the first 30 minutes of the test.

▪ Fire doors (except 1/3 hour rated doors) are subjected to a hose stream following a fire door test and must remain in place to pass.

▪ Fire doors have hinges for every 30 inches of height of the door.

▪ Overhead-rolling fire doors are commonly used in industrial occupancies on 1 or both sides of a wall.

▪ Swinging fire doors have ratings from 3 hours to 20 minutes.

|GLASS PANEL REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE DOORS |

|Hourly Rating |Panel Size |

|Over 3 hours |NO glass panels |

|1, 1 1/2, & 3 hours |Up to 100 square inches |

|3/4 hour |NOT to exceed 1,296 square inches |

|1/2 & 1/3 hour |Up to maximum area tested |

▪ Louvers may be used in fire doors rated up to 1 1/2 hours, but louvers must close automatically (usually by fusible link).

▪ A complete window consists of a frame, 1 or more sashes, and necessary hardware.

▪ Windows that have 2 sashes that can move past each other are called "double-hung" windows (common in residences).

▪ Casement windows have a side-hinged sash which usually swings OUTward, and may contain 1 or 2 openable sashes (full ventilation possible).

▪ Horizontal-sliding windows have 2 or more sashes with at least 1 movable sash.

▪ In a 3 sash horizontal-sliding window, the middle sash is usually fixed.

▪ Awning windows have 1 or more TOP-hinged, OUTward-swinging sashes.

▪ Jalousie windows have a large number of narrow overlapping, OUTward-swinging, glass sections (each about 4 inches wide).

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 12 - Interior Finish

"By the Numbers"

▪ The 4 ways interior finish combustibility affects fire behavior include flame spread over surfaces, rate of fire growth to flashover, fire intensity, and smoke & toxic gases produced.

▪ Paint and wallpaper which is NOT thicker than 1/28 inch is NOT considered an "interior finish" by codes.

|[pic] |

▪ The Steiner Tunnel Test, identified in ASTM E-84, UL 753, and NFPA 255, is the most common method for evaluating surface burning characteristics of interior finishes.

▪ The Steiner Tunnel horizontal furnace is 25 feet long, 17 5/8 inches wide, and 12 inches high.

▪ The gas burner in the Steiner Tunnel produces a 4 1/2 foot flame at about 5,000 Btus per minute and is ran for 10 minutes during the test.

▪ The Steiner Tunnel has 19 windows.

▪ Flame travel of a material in the Steiner Tunnel is compared to asbestos cement (flame spread of 0) and to red oak (flame spread of 100).

|FLAME SPREAD RATINGS |

|Material |Rating |

|Asbestos Cement |0 |

|Gypsum Wallboard |10-15 |

|Mineral Acoustical Tile |15-25 |

|Treated Douglas Fir Plywood |15-60 |

|Red Oak |100 |

|Walnut-faced Plywood |260-515 |

|Veneered Woods |515 |

▪ Building codes use 3 classifications for interior finishes, based on flame spread rating

A - 0 to 25 B - 26 to 75 C - 76 to 200

▪ Maximum flame spread rating for interior finishes, by building code, is 200.

▪ Smoke developed ratings are based on red oak, which is given a smoke developed rating of 100.

▪ Building codes limit the maximum smoke developed rating to 450oF.

▪ Fire retardant coatings must be applied at a specified rate (square feet per gallon), and may require more than 1 coat.

|"Corner Tests" consist of a ceiling and 2 intersecting side walls in which the ceiling and |[pic] |

|walls are covered with the test material to simulate more realistic field conditions. |[pic] |

|NFPA 265, Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of | |

|Textile Wall Coverings, uses room-size enclosures to test textile wall coverings. | |

|Textile wall covering tests (NFPA 265), consist of test material applied to upper portions of| |

|2 enclosing walls, and is subjected to 2 different size gas flames. | |

|NFPA 265 textile wall covering tests are either "satisfactory" or "NON-satisfactory", and are| |

|NOT given a numerical rating. | |

|Acceptability of NFPA 265 textile wall covering tests is based on whether flame travels to | |

|the edges of the test sample, whether flame droplets fall to the test chamber floor, whether | |

|flashover occurs, and whether the heat release rate reaches 300 kW. | |

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 13 - Building Services & Subsystems

"By the Numbers"

▪ Most elevator regulations are based on ASME and ANSI A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators, published by ASME.

▪ Elevators consist of a car or platform that moves in guide rails, and serves 2 or more landings.

▪ The 2 most common power sources for elevators are hydraulic and electric.

▪ Hydraulic elevators are slowed/stopped by controlling fluid flow back into the hydraulic reservoir.

▪ The practical upper limit of hydraulic elevators is about 6 stories.

▪ Drum-type elevators have practical height limitations, while traction-type (most common in buildings over 6 stories) do NOT.

▪ Traction elevators can have up to a 500 volt power supply, with drive motors being either AC or DC current.

▪ Hoistways are made of fire-resistive materials and usually have fire-rated doors with 1 or 2 hour ratings.

▪ In high-rises, hoistways may be enclosed on 3 sides with poured concrete, and block on side of the wall that faces the elevator door.

▪ The 2 common types of hoistways are single, multiple, and blind.

▪ Single hoistways contain only 1 elevator.

▪ Multiple hoistways contain more than 1 elevator in a COMMON shaft.

▪ Multiple hoistways are limited to 4 cars per shaft by code.

▪ In SINGLE blind hoistways, access doors are provided for rescue (every 3 floors).

▪ The 3 types of passenger car doors are single-slide, 2-speed, and center-opening.

▪ 2-speed elevator doors consist of 2 panels with 1 panel located behind the other.

▪ 2-speed elevator door panels move horizontally in the same direction and reach the open position simultaneously.

▪ Center-opening elevator doors are most common, and consist of 2 panels meeting in the center of the opening.

▪ 2-speed and center-opening elevator doors have a "relating cable" connecting the 2 panels.

▪ Vertical b-part doors are used on freight elevators and consist of 2 panels which close from top and bottom and meet in the center.

▪ Hoistway doors and hardware will be listed and labeled for fire resistance (most common - 1 1/2 hours).

▪ Phase I operation is a mandatory provision which recalls all elevators in the event of a fire.

▪ Phase I recall of elevators (non-stop) to the terminal floor can be actuated manually by keyed switch or by automatically by signals from smoke detector, water flow, or fire alarm devices.

▪ If an alarm originates in the lobby, Phase I may bring elevators to a designated level (usually 2 floors ABOVE the lobby).

▪ Phase I opens doors and keeps them open upon stopping at the "recall" floor.

▪ Phase I DISABLES emergency stop and floor selection buttons.

▪ Phase II, equipped on ALL new elevators, allows overriding of the Phase I recall feature.

|Typically, Phase II requires inserting a key into a 3-position switch within the elevator car. |[pic] |

|Under Phase II operation, floor select buttons are OPERABLE (call buttons on floors INoperable), doors are OPERABLE | |

|(only from within car), electric eyes are INoperable, and emergency stop button is OPERABLE. | |

▪ Moving stairs (AKA escalators) are stairways with electrically-powered steps which move continuously in 1 direction (usually 90 or 120 feet per minute).

|Sprinkler draft curtains for escalators consist of an 18 inch draft stop and row of automatic |[pic] |

|sprinklers outside of the draft stop. | |

▪ Stairs which are NOT a means of egress typically connect no more than 2 levels, and are called "access" or "convenience" stairs.

▪ Return stairs have 1 or more intermediate landings between floors and reverse direction at the landing (common in modern construction).

|Scissor stairs are 2 separate sets of stairs constructed in a common shaft. |[pic] |

|When 2 sets of scissor stairs in a common shaft are separated by a fire-rated barrier, they meet | |

|requirements for 2 "separate" exits. | |

▪ Circular stairs are often found as "grand" or "convenience" stairs serving only 2 levels.

▪ The minimum width of the "run" for circular stairs is usually 10 inches.

▪ The differential of both riser heights and tread widths is often limited to 3/8 inch.

▪ Folding stairs are usually made of wood and consist of a main section that hinges from the frame, and 2 articulating sections.

▪ Protected stairs are enclosed with fire-rated construction, usually 1 or 2 hour rating, depending on building code, building height, and construction type.

▪ Protected stairs generally serve more than 2 stories.

▪ Open exterior stairs typically have at least 2 adjacent sides open to natural ventilation.

▪ Use of "UNprotected stairs" is typically allowed by codes when stairs connect only 2 adjacent floors above basement level (AKA "access" or "convenience" stairs).

▪ Access ("convenience") stairs can be used as part of an exit system in 2 story buildings.

▪ A single grease exhaust duct serves only 1 exhaust "hood", while "manifold" exhaust ducts serve more than 1 hood.

▪ Single grease exhausts typically have 1 fire suppression system for the entire system, while manifold exhausts use a system for EACH hood.

▪ Most codes require HVAC systems over a certain capacity (usually 2,000 CFM), to have internal duct smoke detection to automatically shut down the system.

▪ HIGH voltage is 600 volts or MORE, while LOW voltage is LESS than 600 volts.

▪ The 2 most common methods of cooling transformers is with air and oil.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 14 - Underground Facilities & Other Considerations

"By the Numbers"

|Underground buildings are defined as by some codes as one in which the lowest level is 30 feet below the main|[pic] |

|exit that serves that level. | |

|ALL underground buildings more than 30 feet underground require sprinklers, by code. | |

|Fires exceeding 4 hours, which is the typical maximum available fire protection, are a serious threat in | |

|underground structures. | |

|ALL underground buildings more than 30 feet underground require sprinklers, by code. | |

▪ An atrium can extend 30 stories or more through a building.

▪ Basic code requirements for atriums include 1 hour fire-rated enclosure OR glass along with sprinklers.

▪ The requirement of 1 hour fire-rated enclosure for an atrium is sometimes eliminated for atriums up to 3 stories in height, if certain conditions are met (ie-smoke exhaust).

▪ Codes usually require malls to be a minimum 20 to 30 feet in width.

▪ When malls have more than 1 level, multiple openings between levels are typical.

▪ Individual stores in malls are usually required to have 1 hour fire-resistive partitions (does NOT apply to store "fronts").

▪ An ordinary 8 inch thick masonry wall 10 feet high normally can NOT resist internal pressure more than 0.5 psig.

▪ Containment and venting are the 2 general methods of reducing structural damage from a DEFLAGRATion.

▪ The "Containment" method (usually expensive) protects buildings by containing the pressure of a DEFLAGRATion, which may be as high as 10 times atmospheric pressure.

▪ Explosion vent panels should NOT weight more than 3 pounds per square foot, so they can operate at a speed faster than the internal pressure rise.

▪ INTERIOR pressure of 0.15 psi will exert a force of 21.6 pounds per square foot.

▪ Storage racks can vary from 2 or 3 tiers with a total height of 12 to 80 feet.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 15 - Building Fire Protection Systems

"By the Numbers"

▪ Some large occupancies will require 2,500 gpm fire pumps with diesel engines, and on-site water storage.

▪ The tallest building in the US, the Sears Tower, has 10 fire pumps ranging from 750 to 1,500 gpm, 2 to 4 standpipe risers at various floors, and a fire protection system divided into 7 zones.

▪ Buildings can be designed with smoke control zones, which may include more than 1 floor, or divisions of a single floor.

Building Construction (2nd Edition)

Chapter 16 - Buildings Under Construction

"By the Numbers"

▪ A 1 story mercantile building of several thousand square feet can be completed in a few weeks, while a high-rise can take as long as 3 years.

▪ Frequent construction site visits by 1st-due fire companies are necessary for construction project familiarity.

▪ 100 pound propane cylinders are common on construction sites (BLEVE hazard).

▪ 2 standpipe risers may be required during high-rise construction so that 1 may remain in place while the other is extended.

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