Conversion of Amino Acids to Specialized Products
Conversion of Amino Acids to Specialized Products
In addition to serving as building blocks for proteins, amino acids are precursors of many nitrogen-containing compounds that have important physiologic functions (Figure 21.1). These molecules include porphyrins, neurotransmitters, hormones, purines, and pyrimidines
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Specialized Products of Amino Acids
A. Catecholamines
Dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (adrenalin) are biologically active amines that are collectively catecholamines.Dopamine and norepinephrine function as neurotransmitters in the brain and the autonomic nervous system. Norepinephrine and epinephrine are also synthesized in the adrenal medulla.
1. Functions: Outside the nervous system, norepinephrine and its methylated derivative, epinephrine act as regulators of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. Norepinephrine and epinephrine are released from storage vesicles in the adrenal medulla in response to fright, exercise, cold, and low levels of blood glucose. They increase the degradation of glycogen and triacylglycerol, as well as increase blood pressure and the output of the heart. These effects are part of a coordinated response to prepare the individual for emergencies, and are often called the"fight-or-flight reactions.
2. Synthesis of catecholamines: The catecholamines are synthesized from tyrosine,as shown in Figure 21.14. Tyrosine is first hydroxylated by tyrosine hydroxylase to form3,4-dihydroxy- phenylalanine (dopa) in a reaction analogous to that described for the hydroxylation of phenylalanine. The enzyme is abundant in the central nervous system, the sympathetic ganglia, and the adrenal medulla, and is the rate-limiting step of the pathway. Dopa is decarboxylated in a reaction requiring pyridoxal phosphate) to form dopamine, which is hydroxylated by the copper-containing dopamine β-hydroxylase to yield norepinephrine. Epinephrine is formed from norepinephrine by an N-methylation reaction using S-adenosylmethionine as the methyl donor.
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3. Degradation of catecholamines: The catecholamines are inactivated by oxidative deamination catalyzed by monoamine oxidase (MAO), and by O-methylation carried out by catechol-O-methyl transferase {COMT,Figure 21.15). The two reactions can occur in either order. The aldehyde products of the MAO reaction are oxidized to the corresponding acids. The metabolic products of these reactions are Vanillylmandelic metanephrine and normetanephrine.
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B. Creatine and Creatine Phosphate
Creatine phosphate (also called phosphocreatine), the phosphorylated derivative of creatine found in muscle, is a high-energy compound that can reversibly donate a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP (Figure 21.16). Creatine phosphate provides a small but rapidly mobilized reserve of high-energy phosphates that can be used to maintain the intracellular level of ATP during the first few minutes of intense muscular contraction. [Note: The amount of creatine phosphate in the body is proportional to the muscle mass.]
1. Synthesis: Creatine is synthesized from glycine and the guanidino group of arginine, plus a methyl group from S-adenosyl-methionine . Creatine is reversibly phosphorylated to creatine phosphate by creatine kinase, using ATP as the phosphate donor. [Note: The presence of creatine
kinase in the plasma is indicative of tissue damage, and is used in the diagnosis of myocardial infarction).]
Degradation: Creatine and creatine phosphate spontaneously cyclize at a slow, but constant, rate to form creatinine, which isexcreted in the urine. The amount of creatinine excreted is proportional to the total creatine phosphate content of the body, and thus can be used to estimate muscle mass. When muscle mass decreases for any reason (for example, from paralysis or muscular dystrophy), the creatinine content of the urine falls.
In addition, any rise in blood creatinine is a sensitive indicator of kidney malfunction ,because creatinine is normally rapidly removed from the blood and excreted.
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C. Histamine
Histamine is a chemical messenger that mediates a wide range of cellular responses, including allergic and inflammatory reactions, gastric acid secretion, and possibly neurotransmission in parts of the brain. A powerful vasodilator, histamine is formed by decarboxylation of histidine in a reaction requiring pyridoxal phosphate(Figure 21.17). it is secreted by mast cells as a result of allergic reactions or trauma.
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D.Serotonin
Serotonin, also called 5-hydroxytryptamine, is synthesized and stored at several sites in the body (Figure 21.18). By far the largest amount of serotonin is found in cells of the intestinal mucosa .Smaller amounts occur in platelets and in the central nervous system. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan, which is hydroxylate in a reaction analogous to that catalyzed by phenylalaninehydroxylase. The product, 5-hydroxytryptophan, is decarboxylated to serotonin. Serotonin has multiple physiologic roles, including pain perception, affective disorders, and regulation of sleep, temperature,and blood pressure.
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E. Melanin
Melanin is a pigment that occurs in several tissues in the body, particularly in the eye, hair, and skin. It is synthesized in the epidermis by pigment-forming cells called melanocytes. function is to protect underlying cells from the harmful effects of sunlight. The first step in melanin formation from tyrosine is a hydroxylation to form dopa, catalyzed by the copper-containing enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (also called tyrosinase,. Subsequent reactions leading to the formation of brown and black pigments are also thought to be catalyzed by tyrosine hydroxylase or to occur spontaneously.
F. Porphyrins
Porphyrins are cyclic compounds that readily bind metal ions—usually Fe2+ or Fe3+.The most prevalent metalloporphyrin in humans is heme
Heme is the prosthetic group for hemoglobin, myoglobin, the cytochromes.
Porphyrins are synthesized from glycine an succinyl coenzyme A Glycine and succiny CoA condense to form5-aminolevulinic acid(ALA) reaction catalyzed by ALA synthase This reaction requires pyridoxal phosphate as a coenzyme, ands the rate-controlling step of hepatic porphyrin biosynthesis and by series of reaction lead to synthesis of heme from Porphyrins
G. Glutathione
Glutathione molecules are tripeptides consisting of glutamine, cysteine and glycine. Glutathione is master Antioxidants are reducing agents that limit free radical activity and limit the damage reactive oxygen species
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GSH redused form of Glutathione
GSSGoxidized form of Glutathione
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