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Parts of Speech ReviewNounsVerbscommon nouns – refer to a general person, place, thing, or idea; not capitalizedaction/main verbs – verbs in which a subject is doing something or taking an action (ex. – read, cook, speak)proper nouns – refer to a specific person, place, thing, or idea; capitalizedconcrete nouns – nouns perceivable by the sensestransitive verb – verbs in which a subject is doing something to an object (ex. – In the sentence “Jin read the book,” read is transitive because he is reading something – a book. In the sentence “Jin read for an hour,” read is intransitive because there is no object.)abstract nouns – nouns not perceivable by the senseshelping verbs – verbs that go in front of an action/main verb that alter its meaningex. -- He can cook./He is cooking./He does cook.He will cook./He might cook./He should cook.count and non-count nouns – nouns that are countable (bottles of water) vs. not countable (water itself)linking verbs – verbs that link a subject to more information about itself (either renaming it or describing it)ex. – am, is, are, was, were, become, turn, feel, seem, look, sound, taste, smell, collective nouns – singular nouns that refer to a group of things (team, choir, flock, etc.)past tense – verbs that take place in the past regular past tense – end in -ed ex. – jumped, played, stretched, typed irregular past tense – do not end in -ed ex. – slept, ran, drove, wroteArticlespresent tense – verbs that take place in the presentindefinite articles – the words a and an; refer to a general nounfuture tense – verbs that take place in the future; created by adding the helping verb “will” in front of the main verbsimple aspect – verbs in which no additional information is given about how the action is progressing ex. She plays basketball.definite articles – the word the; refer to a specific noun*note – articles are also technically adjectivesprogressive/continuous aspect – verbs in which the action is ongoing; created by adding the correct form of “to be” in front of the main verb and adding -ing at the end of the main verbex. She is playing basketball.perfect aspect – verbs in which the action has been completed; created by adding the correct form of “to have” in front of the main verb and putting the main verb in past tense.ex. She has played basketball.emphatic form – verbs in which the action is emphasized by adding the correct form of “to do” in front of the main verbex. She does play basketball.ModifiersAdjectivesAdjectives modify nouns and pronouns (or things acting like nouns such as gerunds). They can answer three questions: how many/much? which one? what kind?attributive adjectives – are next to (and usually in front of) the thing they are modifying ex. The blue bird sings.predicative adjectives – are connected to the thing they are modifying with a linking verb ex. The bird is parative adjectives – adjectives showing that a noun is more than something else ex. smarter, better, happiersuperlative adjectives – adjectives showing that a noun is the most of something ex. loudest, brightest, bestdemonstrative adjectives – adjectives that answer the question which one/s? – the words this, that, these, and thoseindefinite adjectives – adjectives that answer the questions how many/much? and which ones? ex. all, another, any, each, either, enough, few, most, neither, one other, many, most, much, several, somepossessive adjectives – nouns turned into modifiers by adding ’s to show possession ex. Suzanne’s toyAdverbsAdverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They can describe how something is done, when something is done, where something is done, why something is done, and to what extent something is done.Many adverbs end in -ly, but not all will.Some examples include:afterwards, already, always, early, finally, immediately, now, recently, soon, still, above, below, here, outside, there, under, a bit, a little, a lot, absolutely, almost, completely, enough, entirely, extremely, fairly, highly, nearly, perfectly, pretty, quite, rather, really, slightly, so, somewhat, too, totally, utterly, very, again, almost, always, ever, frequently, generally, hardly, never, occasionally, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, twice, usually, because, consequently, hence, so that, therefore, thus? Adverbs can also sometimes function as either prepositions or subordinating conjunctions.? “So” and “yet” can be either adverbs or coordinating conjunctions depending on how they function in a sentence.PronounsConjunctionsantecedents – the things that pronouns refer to or replace ex. In the sentence Amy loves her dog, “Amy” is the antecedent for “her.”coordinating conjunctions – words that join in a way that indicates equal importance of the two elementsthere are only seven words in English that can be coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, or, yet, so (FANBOYS)subject pronouns – I, you, he, she, it, we, you (all), theyobject pronouns – me, you, him, her, it, us, you (all), thempossessive pronouns adjective form – my, your, his, his, its, our, your (all), their noun form – mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirssubordinating conjunctions – words that join in a way that indicates that one thing is more important than another thingsome examples include…after, although, as, because, before, even if, even though, if, once, now, rather than, since, so that, then, that, therefore, though, unless, until, whereas, whileSome subordinating conjunctions can also function as adverbs or prepositions. For example, in the sentence “I made an A because I studied for my quiz,” because is a subordinating conjunction, but it’s also functioning as an adverb since modifies the verb made (telling the reader why you made an A). In the sentence “I made an A after I studied for my test,” after functions as a subordinating conjunction, an adverb (modifying “made”), and a preposition.reflexive pronouns – myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves Reflexive pronouns can be used as objects: I hurt myself when I dropped the desk on my foot. Reflexive pronouns can be used for emphasis: I baked the cake myself.interrogative pronouns – who (subject), whom (object), what, which, whose; only ever used in questionsrelative pronouns – who (subject), whom (object), what, which, whose; only ever used in sentences that are not questionsdemonstrative pronouns – this, that, these, those (standing alone – if these words are pointing something out, they are demonstrative adjectives)indefinite pronouns – general words that stand in for something more specifics; some examples include…all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, enough, everybody, everyone, few, many, neither, no one, nobody, none, nothing, one, several, some, somebody, someone, somethingcorrelative conjunctions – are pairs of conjunctionssome examples include…both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, whether…or, as…as, just as…so, the more…the less, rather…thanPrepositionsPrepositions show the relationship between two things in time, space, or subject matter. Some examples include…prepositions of time: after, around, at, before, during, for, in, on, since, pastprepositions of space: above, across, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, between, by, down, from, in, inside, into, near, next to, off, on, on top of, onto, outside, over, past, through, to, under, up, upon, withprepositions of subject matter: about, because of, by (as in authorship), except, for, instead of, of (as in belonging or origin), with, against? “For” can be either a preposition or a coordinating conjunction.InterjectionsInterjections are words that are grammatically unconnected to the rest of the words around them and express emotion.Some examples include…ah, ahem, bam, boo, ha, hello, hi, hmm, no, oops, ugh, whew, whoa, yes, yuckError Types Related to Parts of Speechadjective instead of an adverbAdjective modify nouns; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.affect vs. effect“Affect” is a verb that means to influence or a noun that means emotion; “effect” is a noun that means a change.ambiguous pronoun reference errorWriters should make sure that the antecedents of their pronouns are clear.capitalization of common/proper nounsCommon nouns are not capitalized; proper nouns are capitalized.fewer vs. less“Fewer” is used for count nouns; “less” is used for non-count nouns.farther vs. further“Farther” is used for literal distance; “further” is used for metaphorical distance.inconsistency of verb tenseWriters should use the same tense (past, present, or future) in narrative time.irregular verb errorSome verbs require a unique spelling for past tense (not -ed).missing comma for serial adjectivesAdjectives in a series belonging to the same category must be separated by commas.missing Oxford commaWriters should always include a final comma in noun gender biasWriters should choose nouns that do not exclude people on the basis of gender.older vs. elder/oldest vs. eldest“Elder” and “eldest” are for people; “older” and “oldest” are for everything else.overuse of adjectives/adverbsWriters should choose specific nouns and verbs rather than vague nouns and verbs paired with modifiers.pronoun antecedent agreementWriters should select the correct form of pronoun for an antecedent’s person and number.pronoun case (subject/object) errorWriters should select the correct form of pronoun depending on if it is being used as a subject or an object.pronoun gender biasWriters should avoid using pronouns in a way that excludes people on the basis of gender.subject-verb agreementVerb forms should match their subjects in person and number. ................
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