CHAPTER 6 OBJECTIVES
CHAPTER 3 States of Consciousness
Waking Consciousness
Consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environments
Selective Attention
focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
at any moment, awareness focuses on limited aspect of experience; limits perception, as many stimuli pass by unnoticed.
This lack of awareness is evident in studies of inattentional blindness. Forms of this include change blindness, choice blindness, and choice-blindness blindness.
Conscious information processing-- exert voluntary control and communicate mental states to others. takes place in sequence, relatively slow, has limited capacity.
Beneath the surface, faster unconscious processing occurs simultaneously on many parallel tracks.
Sleep and Dreams
Circadian Rhythm: the biological clock
regular bodily rhythms, such as of wakefulness and body temperature, that occur on a 24-hour cycle
Sleep
periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness
Measuring sleep activity
electroencephalogram (EEG): A measurement of electrical activity within the brain
Brain Waves and Sleep Stages
stage 1 sleep: The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-voltage brain waves
stage 2 sleep: A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of “sleep spindles”
sleep spindles: Sharply pointed, spiky waves on an EEG, indicating stage 2 sleep
stage 3 sleep: A sleep characterized by slower brain waves, with greater peaks and valleys in the wave pattern
stage 4 sleep: The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation
Alpha Waves
slow waves of a relaxed, awake brain
Delta Waves
large, slow waves of deep sleep
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: Sleep occupying around 20 percent of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections; eye movements; and the experience of dreaming. vivid dreams
REM sleep: “paradoxical sleep” --- muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active
Four or five sleep cycles occur in a typical night’s sleep - less time is spent in slow-wave, more is spent in REM
rebound effect: An increase in REM sleep after one has been deprived of it
Upon reaching stage 4 and after about 80 to 100 minutes of total sleep time, sleep lightens, returns through stages 3 and 2
Hallucinations
false sensory experiences
Individual Differences in Sleep Drive
People differ in individual sleep requirements ---some individuals need more and some less than the typical 8 hours per night
newborns sleep twice as much as adults. Twin studies suggest differences may be partially genetic. Sleep patterns culturally influenced. People in modern industrialized nations get less sleep because of shift work and social diversions.
Sleep Deprivation
Hurts performance on simple, boring tasks more than challenging ones
Most reliable effect is sleepiness itself
Effects of Sleep Loss fatigue
Findings suggest that sleep deprivation puts people at risk for a depressed immune system; impaired concentration, creativity, and communication; irritability; and slowed performance with greater vulnerability to accidents.
Chronic sleep deprivation can alter metabolic and hormonal function, creating conditions that may contribute to obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment.
Functions of Sleep
Reasons for needing sleep:
protective role in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous times.
help us recuperate, restoring and repairing brain tissue.
restores and rebuilds fading memories of day’s experiences.
Sleep is linked with the release of pituitary growth hormone.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
persistent problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
uncontrollable sleep attacks
Sleep Apnea
temporary cessation of breathing during sleep; momentary reawakenings
Night Terrors and Nightmares
Night Terrors---occur within 2 or 3 hours of falling asleep, usually during Stage 4 high arousal - appearance of being terrified seldom remembered
Nightmares—frightening dreams
Content of Dreams
dreams are mostly of ordinary events; they often relate to everyday experiences and more frequently involve anxiety or misfortune than triumphant achievement.
Five major perspectives on why we dream.
SIGMUND FREUD--THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS (1900) BELIEVED DREAMS ARE FORM OF WISH FULFILLMENT; DISCHARGE OTHERWISE UNACCEPTABLE FEELINGS
Manifest Content
remembered story line
Latent Content
underlying meaning
Information Processing: dreams help process information and fix it in memory.
helps facilitate memories
Physiological Function: periodic brain stimulation; REM-induced regular brain stimulation helps develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain.
Activation-synthesis model: REM sleep triggers impulses in brain areas that process visual images, but not the visual cortex area, evoking visual images that our brain weaves into a story line.
Brain-maturation/cognitive development perspective: dreams represent the dreamer’s level of development, knowledge, and understanding.
REM Rebound---REM sleep increases following REM sleep deprivation
REM sleep and its associated dreams serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM deprivation.
Hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
People who are highly hypnotizable--become deeply absorbed in imaginative activities andhave the ability to focus attention totally on a task
Posthypnotic Amnesia
supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis
induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion
Posthypnotic Suggestion
suggestion to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized
used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
Explaining Hypnosis
hypnosis produces a dissociation---hypnotized subjects sometimes carry out suggested behaviors on cue, even when they believe no one is watching them.
hypnosis accompanied by distinctive brain activity.
The divided-consciousness theory of hypnosis argues that hypnosis involves dissociation that is more extreme than the everyday dissociations that occur in our information processing.
Other psychologists:hypnosis is a by-product of normal social and cognitive processes; not a unique state of consciousness. social influence theory
Drugs and Consciousness
Psychoactive Drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood
Dependence and Addiction
Physical Dependence
physiological need for a drug; marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
Psychological Dependence
a psychological need to use a drug; for example, to relieve negative emotions
An addiction--compulsive craving for substance despite negative consequences. often marked by physical symptoms such as aches, nausea, and distress following sudden withdrawal.
Drug researchers believe following three myths about addiction are false:
Medical drugs, for example, those used to control pain, are powerfully addictive;
Addictions cannot be overcome voluntarily but only through treatment; and
concept of addiction can be expanded to cover spectrum of repetitive, pleasure-seeking behaviors such as overeating, exercise, gambling, sex, and surfing the Internet.
Tolerance
diminishing effect with regular use
Withdrawal
discomfort and distress that follow discontinued use
Psychoactive Drugs
Depressants
drugs that reduce neural activity; slow body functions
alcohol, barbiturates, opiates
Alcohol
affects motor skills, judgment, and memory; reduces self awareness
Barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
Opiates
opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin)
opiates depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
highly addictive
Stimulants and how affect neural activity and behavior.
STIMULANTS---CAFFEINE, NICOTINE, THE AMPHETAMINES AND COCAINE, ECSTASY, AND METHAMPHETAMINE, EXCITE NEURAL ACTIVITY AND SPEED UP BODY FUNCTIONS.
Methamphetamine is highly addictive; over time, the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine, which in turn diminish appetite and boost alertness and mental efficiency.
Cocaine produces a euphoric rush that lasts 15 to 30 minutes and depletes the brain’s supply of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine.
Ecstasy (MDMA) stimulant and mild hallucinogen.
By releasing serotonin and blocking its reuptake, it produces euphoria and feelings of intimacy. repeated use may suppress the immune system, destroy serotonin-producing neurons, and permanently damage mood and memory.
Hallucinogens distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
LSD -- hallucinations and emotions ranging from euphoria to panic.
Marijuana-- variety of effects---disinhibition, a euphoric high, feelings of relaxation, relief from pain, and intense sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. may increase anxiety or depression, impair motor coordination and reaction time, and disrupt memory formation.
Biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors that contribute to drug use.
Drug use among U.S. high school seniors declined from the late 1970s to 1992.
studies indicate that some are biologically more likely to become dependent on drugs. more common among people and animals predisposed to alcoholism-- genes may produce deficiencies in the brain’s natural dopamine reward system.
psychological factor contributes to drug use--feeling that one’s life is meaningless and directionless. Studies reveal that heavy drug users often have experienced significant stress or failure and are depressed.
Drug use can have social roots.
Peer pressure may lead people, especially teenagers, to experiment with—and become dependent on—drugs.
treatment and prevention involve education, boosting people’s self-esteem and purpose in life, and inoculation against peer pressure.
Why take drugs?
Perceived pleasure of experience; escape from pressure/stress; peer pressure; availability; thrill of trying something new
Trends in Drug Use
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