IntegrationAides - Department of Education and Training
Literature review: The use and efficacy of integration aides with students with disabilities in general education settingsRenée Punch PhDThe PSD Review Unit has funded this review. Responsibility for the research (including any errors and omissions) remains with the author. The views and opinions contained in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of the Department of Education and Training for the State of VictoriaLiterature review: The use and efficacy of integration aides with students with disabilities in general education settingsRenée Punch PhDTable of Contents TOC \o "1-3" Executive Summary PAGEREF _Toc296956940 \h 3A note on terminology PAGEREF _Toc296956941 \h 3Roles and responsibilities of integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956942 \h 3Impact on student learning PAGEREF _Toc296956943 \h 4Impact on social inclusion PAGEREF _Toc296956944 \h 4Impact on student independence PAGEREF _Toc296956945 \h 5Parents’ perceptions of integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956946 \h 5Why school administrators choose to employ integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956947 \h 5Recommendations for improving the use of integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956948 \h 6Recommendations for alternatives to an over-reliance on integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956949 \h 7Introduction PAGEREF _Toc296956950 \h 8Roles and responsibilities of integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956951 \h 9Impact on student learning PAGEREF _Toc296956952 \h 12Impact on social inclusion PAGEREF _Toc296956953 \h 16Impact on student independence PAGEREF _Toc296956954 \h 19Parents’ perceptions of integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956955 \h 21Why school administrators choose to employ integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956956 \h 23Recommendations for improving the use of integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956957 \h 25Recommendations for alternatives to an over-reliance on integration aides PAGEREF _Toc296956958 \h 28Better use of special education teachers PAGEREF _Toc296956959 \h 31Better use of other specialist professionals PAGEREF _Toc296956960 \h 32Building capacity of general education teachers PAGEREF _Toc296956961 \h 32Listening to students with disabilities PAGEREF _Toc296956962 \h 34Peer supports PAGEREF _Toc296956963 \h 35Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc296956964 \h 37References PAGEREF _Toc296956965 \h 38Executive SummaryThe inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream schools and classes has increased greatly in Australia and most developed countries in recent years. A response to the presence of these students has been a large increase in the numbers of education support workers employed to work with them, particularly in the case of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), intellectual disabilities, behavioural challenges, and multiple disabilities.A note on terminologyThe terminology used for these support workers varies in different countries and in different Australian states and territories. The word paraprofessional is commonly used in the USA, and the terms paraeducator and teacher assistant are also found in the U.S. literature. In the U.K. the term teacher assistant is generally used. In Australia many states use the term teacher aide. In Victoria the term most commonly used is integration aide. The term integration aide will be used throughout this review, except in direct quotations where authors use other terms. The findings of recent studies have revealed several unintended and serious consequences of a heavy reliance on the use of integration aides, particularly in the areas of students’ learning, social inclusion, and independence. Their findings have also clarified ways in which the use of integration aides can positively affect inclusion and learning for students with disabilities. This literature review presents these findings, as well as recommendations that have been made for improving the ways in which integration aides are utilised and for alternatives to a heavy reliance on integration aides to support inclusive education. The key findings are:Roles and responsibilities of integration aides Roles and responsibilities are seldom clearly delineated in job descriptions or job advertisements.Recruitment of integration aides is often informal.Many integration aides have no training specific to the position, and qualifications or experience are seldom explicitly required.Integration aides are increasingly taking on instructional roles with the students they support. Impact on student learningStudies report a negative relationship between the amount of integration aide support and the academic outcomes of the students supported (not explained by variables such as students’ level of disability).There is evidence of increased student engagement with some aspects of learning, particularly staying on-task.When integration aides are present, there tends to be an increase in interaction with adults, but with the aides rather than with teachers. Teachers can treat the integration aide as the ‘expert’ on the students with disabilities in their classes.There can be a high degree of student segregation, due to either being outside of the classroom or being seated at the back or side of the class with the integration pared to teachers, integration aides place a greater emphasis on task completion and less on engagement in learning.There is a positive effect on student literacy of targeted, research-based interventions by integration aides specifically trained and supported to deliver the intervention.Impact on social inclusionStudents may be physically and socially segregated from classroom peers while receiving integration aide support.The presence of integration aides can reduce opportunities for students to interact with their peers.Some students feel embarrassed at having the obvious support of integration aides.Integration aides can have a temporary and situational role in preventing bullying, but may contribute to the problem through the stigmatising effect of their presence for the student with a disability.Specific, targeted intervention training for integration aides can have positive effects on social interactions of students with disabilities and their peers.Impact on student independenceStudents can become overly dependent on integration aide help in the classroom.Some integration aides may be overzealous in providing assistance in cases where students could, and should, make their own efforts. Integration aides can find it difficult to achieve the right balance between helping and encouraging independence.The entrenched nature of integration aide support for some students can impede the development of independence and self-confidence.Parents’ perceptions of integration aidesMany parents see integration aide support as necessary for their children’s inclusion.Parents value having close relationships and communication with aides.Some parents think of aides as professionals; others are aware of their limitations in training and qualifications.Some parents feel that their children become overly dependent on integration aides.Some parents report that integration aides support social inclusion; others perceive that their presence can be a barrier to social inclusion.Some parents suggest that more support from class teachers and peers could reduce their children’s need for integration aide support.Why school administrators choose to employ integration aidesPrincipals report pressure from parents and teachers for integration aide support.Teachers who feel overloaded with large and diverse classes welcome support in the classroom.Teachers report a reduction in off-task behaviour and disruption when integration aides are present in the classroom.Teachers feel underprepared to teach students with disabilities, particularly those with challenging behaviours and inappropriate social skills.Principals may need professional development to extend their working knowledge of effective research-based practices in the inclusion of students with disabilities.Recommendations for improving the use of integration aidesIntegration aide roles and responsibilities should be clearly delineated and limited to non-instructional roles (administrative duties, personal care, materials preparation) and supplemental rather than primary instruction.This instruction should be based on plans developed by classroom or special education teachers.Integration aides should be trained to carry out teacher-prepared plans with fidelity.They should also receive training in managing challenging student behaviours.Classroom teachers should provide adequate supervision and monitoring to integration aides.Teachers should receive training in working collaboratively with, monitoring, and supporting integration aides.The practice of working on a one-to-one basis with individual students should be reduced as much as possible. It is preferable to assign integration aides to the teacher or class and have the aides support students in the context of groups.Students’ needs should be regularly reassessed and the possibility of fading, or reducing individual students’ amount of support from aides, should be considered.Schools can establish an integration aide pool from which aides can be drawn to address time-limited student needs.School administrators should clarify roles and expectations, allocate planning and feedback time for teachers and integration aides, and ensure that integration aides receive initial orientation and ongoing training at the school, classroom, and individual student level.Recommendations for alternatives to an over-reliance on integration aidesSpecial education teachers should be better deployed to support and advise classroom teachers, integration aides, and the school community. Special education teachers should work collaboratively with classroom teachers to develop individual education plans, to adapt curriculum and instruction, and to plan, implement, model, monitor and evaluate teaching programs.Better use may be needed of other specialist professionals, such as speech pathologists, occupational therapists, and educational psychologists, through a team support approach for students with complex needs.Schools should build capacity through training and professional development of mainstream teachers. Most teachers feel underprepared to teach students with disabilities and would benefit from training in specific disabilities, differentiating instruction for mixed-ability groups, positive behaviour supports, and assistive technology.Students with disabilities should have age-appropriate input into decision-making about their own supports, and have instruction in self-determination and self-advocacy skills to improve their ability to do this.Peers can be used to support students with disabilities in some situations. Peer support is less stigmatizing than support from an integration aide, and has been found to improve students’ engagement in classroom instruction and expand communication skills and social interactions.School principals need to ensure school-wide collaboration, support, planning time, and best use of resources to enable quality inclusive practices in the classroom.Change at the systemic and whole-school level is needed. School administrators have a strong influence in shaping the school culture, and their leadership is essential to creating inclusive environments and supporting inclusive practices.IntroductionThe inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream schools and classes has increased greatly in Australia and most developed countries in recent years. A response to the presence of these students has been a large increase in the numbers of education support workers (generally called integration aides in Victoria) employed to work with them, particularly in the case of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), intellectual disabilities, behavioural challenges, and multiple disabilities.In recent years, educationalists and researchers have been raising questions and concerns about the use, and possible overuse, of integration aides to support the inclusion of students with disabilities in mainstream classes. In particular, concerns have been raised about the increasingly instructional role of integration aides and the resulting problem that the least qualified personnel are working with students who have the most complex learning challenges. Researchers have emphasised that these concerns in no way should be seen as a criticism of integration aides, who are generally dedicated and hardworking in challenging roles and who can make valuable contributions in schools PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5HaWFuZ3JlY288L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEzPC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Giangreco, 2013; Giangreco, Doyle, & Suter, 2012; Webster & Blatchford, 2015). Nevertheless, over-reliance on integration aides as a response to the inclusion of students with significant disabilities in general education settings can produce a situation that is not in the best interests of these students and, moreover, is inequitable, as these authors explain ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>15</RecNum><Pages>51</Pages><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Suter, & Doyle, 2010, p. 51)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>15</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">15</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: A review of recent research</title><secondary-title>Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation</full-title></periodical><pages>41-57</pages><volume>20</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>2010/02/26</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1047-4412</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, Suter, & Doyle, 2010, p. 51):If you are a student without a disability, highly qualified teachers deliver your education. If you are a student with a certain type of disability label (e.g., autism, emotional/behavioural disorders, intellectual disabilities, multiple disabilities), the likelihood increases that you will receive a substantial part of your education from a paraprofessional who may be inadequately prepared, trained, and supervised ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Broer</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>38</RecNum><DisplayText>(Broer, Doyle, & Giangreco, 2005; Giangreco & Broer, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>38</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">38</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Broer, S M</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perspectives of students with intellectual disabilities about their experiences with paraprofessional support</title><secondary-title>Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>415-430</pages><volume>71</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>108</RecNum><record><rec-number>108</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">108</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Broer, S M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: Are we addressing symptoms or causes?</title><secondary-title>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</full-title></periodical><pages>10-26</pages><volume>20</volume><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Broer, Doyle, & Giangreco, 2005; Giangreco & Broer, 2005). Such a scenario would be considered unacceptable for students without disabilities, yet we have grown to consider it acceptable for some students with disabilities, in part because these supports are offered with benevolent intentions, and they relieve pressures on teachers and special educators, many of whom feel overloaded with large and diverse classes and caseloads. For some time there was very little published research on the impact of integration aides working in general classes with students with disabilities PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CbGF0Y2hmb3JkPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwvWWVh
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blatchford et al., 2011; Giangreco, 2010a). Recently, however, many rigorous empirical studies have been published that shed light on the effects of large-scale use of integration aides. The findings of these studies have revealed several unintended and serious consequences, particularly in the areas of students’ learning, social inclusion, and independence. Their findings have also clarified ways in which the use of integration aides can positively affect inclusion and learning for students with disabilities. This literature review presents these findings, as well as recommendations that have been made for improving the ways in which integration aides are utilised and for alternatives to a heavy reliance on integration aides to support inclusive education. Roles and responsibilities of integration aides Integration aides are employed in schools to provide support to students and teachers, specifically to support students with disabilities in general education classes. The duties of these support staff can include providing administrative assistance to teachers, preparing materials, supervising students in group settings such as playgrounds, and providing personal care, social and behavioural support, and supervision to students; however, their roles have become increasingly instructional PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XZWJzdGVyPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNTwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blatchford, Bassett, Brown, & Webster, 2009; Webster et al., 2010).In most jurisdictions, formal qualifications are not a prerequisite for employment as an integration aide. In the United Kingdom, “teaching assistants” need no set qualifications, but there is a category of “Higher Level Teaching Assistant” for which a nationally recognized qualification in literacy and numeracy is required (). In the USA, the No Child Left Behind Act 2002 mandates minimum qualification levels for “paraprofessionals” employed in schools receiving federal funds. The paraprofessional must have completed two years of study at an institution of higher education; or “be able to demonstrate, through a formal State or local academic assessment, knowledge of and the ability to assist in instructing, reading, writing, and mathematics” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Department of Education USA</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>99</RecNum><Pages>2</Pages><DisplayText>(Department of Education USA, 2004, p. 2)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>99</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">99</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Department of Education USA,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Title I Paraprofessionals Non-Regulatory Guidance.</title></titles><section>March 1, 2004</section><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Department of Education USA, 2004, p. 2).In Australia, the 2012 review of the Disability Standards for Education 2005 reported concerns about the variation in skills and qualifications of integration aides in Australia and the lack of benchmarking of training for these support staff ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><DisplayText>(Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Report on the Review of Disability Standards for Education 2005</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Canberra</pub-location><publisher>Author</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations, 2012). In Australian states and territories, there is no requirement for training for integration aides in schools. Certificate courses are available; for instance, Monash University and Deakin University both offer a Certificate of Education Integration Aide course, and TAFE and private colleges offer Certificate III courses in Education Support. However, completion of such courses is not a prerequisite for employment as an integration aide in Victorian schools. Nevertheless, some aides do have a Certificate course (or higher) qualification. If integration aides choose to undertake a course, generally they will do this at their own expense ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>63</RecNum><DisplayText>(Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>63</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">63</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Report">27</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission,</author></authors><tertiary-authors><author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission</author></tertiary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Held back: The experiences of students with disabilities in Victorian schools</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Melbourne</pub-location><publisher>VEOHRC</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission, 2012). When they have the opportunity to attend individual workshops or professional development days, integration aides are generally keen to do so. Schools may pay for these, but usually aides are expected to attend them in their own time ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Howard</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Howard & Ford, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">16</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Howard, Robin</author><author>Ford, Jerry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The roles and responsibilities of teacher aides supporting students with special needs in secondary school settings</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>25-43</pages><volume>31</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>2007/04/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1030-0112</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Howard & Ford, 2007).The employment situation of integration aides in Australian schools is relatively unstable, with most employed on a part-time basis, either casual or fixed-term, and their recruitment is often in response to the variable enrolment of students with disabilities in a particular school or district PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Ib3dhcmQ8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA3PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Butt & Lowe, 2012; Howard & Ford, 2007). The large majority of integration aides are female ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Broer</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>38</RecNum><DisplayText>(Broer, et al., 2005; Howard & Ford, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>38</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">38</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Broer, S M</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perspectives of students with intellectual disabilities about their experiences with paraprofessional support</title><secondary-title>Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>415-430</pages><volume>71</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Howard</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">16</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Howard, Robin</author><author>Ford, Jerry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The roles and responsibilities of teacher aides supporting students with special needs in secondary school settings</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>25-43</pages><volume>31</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>2007/04/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1030-0112</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Broer, et al., 2005; Howard & Ford, 2007). When integration aide positions are advertised, stated criteria largely include generic capacities rather than qualifications or experience. Stephenson and Carter ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Stephenson</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>27</RecNum><DisplayText>(2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>27</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">27</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Stephenson, Jennifer</author><author>Carter, Mark</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The work of teacher aides in Australia: An analysis of job advertisements</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>145-153</pages><volume>29</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(2014) examined job advertisements from all Australian states and territories, for “teacher aide” positions in government, Catholic, and independent schools. They reported that the most frequently used criteria were the ability to work co-operatively as part of a team and effective communication skills. Most of the advertisements did not mention qualifications or experience. Only 11% of the advertisements included knowledge of the educational or social needs of students with disabilities, and in only one was this listed as an essential criterion. Despite their general lack of training and qualifications, there is evidence that integration aides in Australia and other countries are increasingly taking on pedagogical and instructional roles PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CbGF0Y2hmb3JkPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMTwvWWVh
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Giangreco, Broer, & Suter, 2011; Howard & Ford, 2007; Webster & Blatchford, 2015). Their responsibilities can include adapting curriculum and instructional materials, regardless of whether they have had any training to do this ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Howard</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Howard & Ford, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">16</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Howard, Robin</author><author>Ford, Jerry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The roles and responsibilities of teacher aides supporting students with special needs in secondary school settings</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>25-43</pages><volume>31</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>2007/04/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1030-0112</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Howard & Ford, 2007). In a study of primary and secondary schools in one U.S. state, integration aides reported their most frequent tasks to be providing one-on-one instruction, facilitating relationships among students, providing instructional support, and implementing behaviour management programs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Carter</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>98</RecNum><DisplayText>(Carter, O'Rourke, Sisco, & Pelsue, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>98</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">98</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Carter, Erik</author><author>O'Rourke, Laura</author><author>Sisco, Lynn G.</author><author>Pelsue, Danielle</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Knowledge, responsibilities, and training needs of paraprofessionals in elementary and secondary schools</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>344-359</pages><volume>30</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2009</year><pub-dates><date>November 1, 2009</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Carter, O'Rourke, Sisco, & Pelsue, 2009). The authors suggested that the levels of training of most integration aides were inadequate for the performance of some of these tasks, especially those involving instructional responsibilities.In summary, the key aspects of the roles and responsibilities of integration aides are:Roles and responsibilities are seldom clearly delineated in job descriptions or job advertisements.Recruitment of integration aides is often informal.Many integration aides have no training specific to the position, and qualifications or experience are seldom explicitly required.Integration aides are increasingly taking on instructional roles with the students they support.Impact on student learningFew studies have directly examined the effect of integration aide support on students’ learning outcomes. However, in the UK, a large-scale, longitudinal government research study called the Deployment and Impact of Support Staff (DISS) project measured the impact of the amount of integration aide support on two outcomes: (1) student attitudes to learning and (2) academic attainment in relation to progress over one school year PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XZWJzdGVyPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMDwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blatchford, et al., 2011; Webster, et al., 2010). The study involved 77 schools and over 8,000 students across seven different year levels in primary and secondary schools. The findings showed no positive impact of integration aide support on student attitudes to learning (e.g., motivation, distractibility, and task confidence) in any of the year levels except Year 9. However, a clear negative relationship was found between the amount of integration aide support and students’ academic progress across all year levels. The more integration aide support students received, the less progress they made in English, mathematics, and science. This effect was not explained by student factors such as level of disability, family income, or English as a second language, as the analysis controlled for these potentially confounding variables. Observational findings in the same study indicated potentially positive effects of integration aide presence in two ways: an increase in student on-task behaviour, and a more active role in interactions with adults. However, the increase in interactions was with the integration aide and at the expense of interactions with teachers ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Blatchford</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>49</RecNum><DisplayText>(Blatchford, Bassett, Brown, & Webster, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>49</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">49</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Blatchford, Peter</author><author>Bassett, Paul</author><author>Brown, Penelope</author><author>Webster, Rob</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The effect of support staff on pupil engagement and individual attention</title><secondary-title>British Educational Research Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>British Educational Research Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>661-686</pages><volume>35</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Blatchford, Bassett, Brown, & Webster, 2009). Webster and Blatchford PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGUgRXhjbHVkZUF1dGg9IjEiPjxBdXRob3I+V2Vic3RlcjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZ
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (2013, 2015) followed up the large DISS study with a more intensive examination of the quality of educational experiences of students with disabilities in primary schools. Their study included 48 Year 5 students who had moderate learning difficulties and/or behavioural, emotional, and social difficulties. Researchers shadowed each child for a week, and gathered quantitative and qualitative data from systematic observations. These data were augmented with data from school documentation and from semi-structured interviews with teachers, integration aides, special education coordinators, and parents. The results indicated a high level of one-to-one interaction between students with disabilities and integration aides, and a high degree of separation of these students from their classrooms. Over a quarter of their time was spent physically away from the regular classroom. The observations also revealed two more subtle forms of segregation when students with disabilities were present in the classroom. The first was that the majority of the students’ interactions were with the integration aide, with very few interactions occurring between these students and their teachers. The second form of segregation occurred when a student with disabilities was seated at a desk at the side or back of the room with an integration aide, away from peers. Overall, teachers had a low level of involvement in planning for and teaching the students with disabilities. In addition, class teachers frequently treated the integration aide as the ‘expert’ on the students with disabilities in their classes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Webster</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>18</RecNum><DisplayText>(Webster & Blatchford, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>18</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">18</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Webster, Rob</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Worlds apart? The nature and quality of the educational experiences of pupils with a statement for special educational needs in mainstream primary schools</title><secondary-title>British Educational Research Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>British Educational Research Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>324-342</pages><volume>41</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1469-3518</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Webster & Blatchford, 2015).Similar practices are reported in other UK studies, such as Emam and Farrell’s ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Emam</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><DisplayText>(2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>103</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">103</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Emam, Mahmoud M.</author><author>Farrell, Peter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Tensions experienced by teachers and their views of support for pupils with autism spectrum disorders in mainstream schools</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</full-title></periodical><pages>407-422</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2009</year><pub-dates><date>2009/11/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0885-6257</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2009) investigation of students with ASD in primary and secondary schools, as well as studies from the USA PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5HaWFuZ3JlY288L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDExPC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Giangreco, et al., 2011; Giangreco, Suter, et al., 2010), New Zealand ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rutherford</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>46</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rutherford, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>46</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">46</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rutherford, Gill</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>In, out or somewhere in between? Disabled students' and teacher aides' experiences of school</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</full-title></periodical><pages>757-774</pages><volume>16</volume><number>8</number><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>2012/08/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1360-3116</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Rutherford, 2012), Sweden ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hemmingsson</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>50</RecNum><DisplayText>(Hemmingsson, Borell, & Gustavsson, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>50</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">50</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hemmingsson, H</author><author>Borell, L</author><author>Gustavsson, A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Participation in school: School assisstants creating opportunities and obstacles for pupils with disabilities</title><secondary-title>OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health</full-title></periodical><pages>88-98</pages><volume>23</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Hemmingsson, Borell, & Gustavsson, 2003) and Australia ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Howard</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>16</RecNum><DisplayText>(Howard & Ford, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>16</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">16</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Howard, Robin</author><author>Ford, Jerry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The roles and responsibilities of teacher aides supporting students with special needs in secondary school settings</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>25-43</pages><volume>31</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>2007/04/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1030-0112</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Howard & Ford, 2007). In Howard and Ford’s study, integration aides in South Australian secondary schools reported that they often worked with individual students or small groups of students away from the classroom. In addition, they regularly modified materials and assignments without direction from teachers. In their study of students with physical disabilities, Hemmingsson and colleagues reported that teachers spoke directly to the integration aide with instructions, rather than to the student with a disability. In New Zealand, Rutherford found that in some cases aides, rather than teachers, had responsibility for adapting curriculum content, often with a minimal knowledge of the curriculum area. All of these studies revealed situations in which students with disabilities were receiving less instruction from teachers than their class peers and were experiencing physical separation; in effect, a “micro-exclusion” within supposedly inclusive settings ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>60</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Doyle, & Suter, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>60</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">60</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Michael F. Giangreco</author><author>Mary Beth Doyle</author><author>Jesse C. Suter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Italian and American progress toward inclusive education: Common concerns and future directions</title><secondary-title>Life Span and Disability</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Life Span and Disability</full-title></periodical><pages>119-136</pages><volume>17</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, Doyle, & Suter, 2014). As part of the British DISS study, and in order to further explore the types and quality of support in classrooms, researchers analysed transcripts of the talk used by teachers with students and talk used by integration aides with students. In their study of mathematics classes in primary and secondary schools, Radford, Blatchford, and Webster ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Radford</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>25</RecNum><DisplayText>(2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>25</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">25</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Radford, Julie</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author><author>Webster, Rob</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Opening up and closing down: How teachers and TAs manage turn-taking, topic and repair in mathematics lessons</title><secondary-title>Learning and Instruction</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Learning and Instruction</full-title></periodical><pages>625-635</pages><volume>21</volume><number>5</number><keywords><keyword>Classroom discourse</keyword><keyword>Mathematics</keyword><keyword>Conversation analysis</keyword><keyword>Instruction</keyword><keyword>Teaching assistants</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0959-4752</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2011) reported that teachers generally ‘opened up’ while integration aides ‘closed down’ the talk. Integration aides emphasised task completion, using closed questions to support students to complete written tasks, and supplying correct answers when students failed to do so. In contrast, teachers used open questions, and their repair strategies included scaffolding, prompts, and withholding outright correction. Some aspects of the integration aides’ support were clearly beneficial to the students they supported, such as helping them to stay on task and encouraging them to participate in whole class discussion. Nevertheless, the authors expressed concern over the integration aides’ emphasis on task completion rather than encouragement of learning and independent thinking.Another, slightly different, analysis was conducted in English and mathematics classes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rubie-Davies</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>48</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rubie-Davies, Blatchford, Webster, Koutsoubou, & Bassett, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>48</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">48</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Christine M. Rubie-Davies</author><author>Peter Blatchford</author><author>Rob Webster</author><author>Maria Koutsoubou</author><author>Paul Bassett</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Enhancing learning? A comparison of teacher and teaching assistant interactions with pupils</title><secondary-title>School Effectiveness and School Improvement</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>School Effectiveness and School Improvement</full-title></periodical><pages>429-449</pages><volume>21</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Rubie-Davies, Blatchford, Webster, Koutsoubou, & Bassett, 2010). The findings were similar: Integration aides tended to focus on task completion and supply answers to the students, whereas teachers’ talk promoted thinking and learning. A worrying finding in both reports is that integration aides sometimes did not understand the concepts they were trying to assist students with and gave confusing and incorrect explanations to students. These authors asserted that opportunities for more pedagogically sound practices exist. They suggested that “given targeted training from specialist teachers or therapists, [TA] staff might demonstrate different skills” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Radford</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>25</RecNum><Pages>632</Pages><DisplayText>(Radford, et al., 2011, p. 632)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>25</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">25</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Radford, Julie</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author><author>Webster, Rob</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Opening up and closing down: How teachers and TAs manage turn-taking, topic and repair in mathematics lessons</title><secondary-title>Learning and Instruction</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Learning and Instruction</full-title></periodical><pages>625-635</pages><volume>21</volume><number>5</number><keywords><keyword>Classroom discourse</keyword><keyword>Mathematics</keyword><keyword>Conversation analysis</keyword><keyword>Instruction</keyword><keyword>Teaching assistants</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>0959-4752</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Radford, et al., 2011, p. 632). They have proposed a model of scaffolding that teachers and integration aides can use together in the classroom and suggested the type of training that could enable teachers and integration aides to work collaboratively using such practices ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Radford</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>24</RecNum><DisplayText>(Radford, Bosanquet, Webster, & Blatchford, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>24</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">24</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Radford, Julie</author><author>Bosanquet, Paula</author><author>Webster, Rob</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Scaffolding learning for independence: Clarifying teacher and teaching assistant roles for children with special educational needs</title><secondary-title>Learning and Instruction</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Learning and Instruction</full-title></periodical><pages>1-10</pages><volume>36</volume><number>0</number><keywords><keyword>Classroom discourse</keyword><keyword>Scaffolding</keyword><keyword>Conversation analysis</keyword><keyword>Instruction</keyword><keyword>Teaching assistants</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>0959-4752</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Radford, Bosanquet, Webster, & Blatchford, 2015). 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blatchford et al., 2009; Blatchford, Bassett, Brown, & Webster, 2009; Webster, et al., 2010). It is not uncommon that the education of students with disabilities, especially intellectual disabilities, becomes less inclusive in high school than it was in primary school. As educators perceive widening academic and functional gaps between the students with disabilities and their class peers, they respond by increasing the students’ time spent with integration aides or special educators. Doyle and Giangreco PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGUgRXhjbHVkZUF1dGg9IjEiPjxBdXRob3I+RG95bGU8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVh
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ZT4A
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ZT4A
ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (2013) proposed alternative ways to ensure students remain included in high school, including approaches to curriculum such as multi-level curriculum and instruction and curriculum overlapping. When integration aides are trained and prepared to support students in specific curricular interventions (this happens mostly for literacy), student learning outcomes can be influenced in a positive direction ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Webster</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>19</RecNum><DisplayText>(Webster, et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>19</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">19</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Webster, Rob</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author><author>Bassett, Paul</author><author>Brown, Penelope</author><author>Martin, Clare</author><author>Russell, Anthony</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Double standards and first principles: Framing teaching assistant support for pupils with special educational needs</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</full-title></periodical><pages>319-336</pages><volume>25</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>2010/11/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0885-6257</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Webster, et al., 2010). A number of studies have found positive outcomes when integration aides are using evidence-based reading approaches, are trained in the particular approach, and have ongoing monitoring and feedback from teachers PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5DYXVzdG9uLVRoZW9oYXJpczwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIw
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Alborz, Pearson, Farrell, & Howes, 2009; Causton-Theoharis, Giangreco, Doyle, & Vadasy, 2007; Farrell, Alborz, Howes, & Pearson, 2010; Lane, Fletcher, Carter, Dejuc, & DeLorenzo, 2007; Vadasy, Sanders, & Tudor, 2007). Most of the studies involved primary school children, some of whom did not have identified disabilities but were considered at risk of literacy failure. Other studies have involved integration aide training in supporting students with ASD. Hall, Grundon, Pope, and Romero ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Hall</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>90</RecNum><DisplayText>(2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>90</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">90</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hall, Laura J</author><author>Grundon, Gretchen Stadnik</author><author>Pope, Catherine</author><author>Romero, Amanda Balderama</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Training paraprofessionals to use behavioral strategies when educating learners with autism spectrum disorders across environments</title><secondary-title>Behavioral Interventions</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Behavioral Interventions</full-title></periodical><pages>37-51</pages><volume>25</volume><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(2010) report on a training package for integration aides working with preschool children with ASD. Skills taught, such as effective prompting and elaboration of communication, increased but were not generalized to the educational setting or maintained over time without ongoing coaching and performance feedback. In summary, the key findings on the effects of integration aide support on student learning are: Studies report a negative relationship between the amount of integration aide support and the academic outcomes of the students supported (not explained by variables such as students’ level of disability).There is evidence of increased student engagement with some aspects of learning, particularly staying on-task.When integration aides are present, there tends to be an increase in interaction with adults, but with the aides rather than with teachers. Teachers can treat the integration aide as the ‘expert’ on the students with disabilities in their classes.There can be a high degree of student segregation, due to either being outside of the classroom or being seated at the back or side of the class with the integration pared to teachers, integration aides place a greater emphasis on task completion and less on engagement in learning.There is a positive effect on student literacy of targeted, research-based interventions by integration aides specifically trained and supported to deliver the intervention.Impact on social inclusionStudies have also reported unintended effects of integration aide support on the social inclusion of students with disabilities. In their interview study of South Australian integration aides supporting secondary school students with a wide range of disabilities, Howard and Ford (2007) found that many of the students were often isolated socially from their peers without disabilities and relied on the integration aides for social interaction during break times. In a West Australian study, 60 secondary students with learning, intellectual, and speech language disabilities were surveyed using the Student Perception of Classroom Support Scale. Findings showed that students found one-to-one integration aide support helpful academically, but from a social perspective they preferred the support to be shared with other class members. They indicated that sitting with other students and working on projects jointly with them was a classroom practice most likely to benefit them socially ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>O'Rourke</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>56</RecNum><DisplayText>(O'Rourke & Houghton, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>56</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">56</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>O'Rourke, John</author><author>Houghton, Stephen</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perceptions of secondary school students with mild disabilities to the academic and social support mechanisms implemented in regular classrooms</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Disability, Development and Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Disability, Development and Education</full-title></periodical><pages>227-237</pages><volume>55</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>2008/09/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1034-912X</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(O'Rourke & Houghton, 2008).In their study of students with physical disabilities, Hemmingsson, Borell, and Gustavsson (2003) observed that the close proximity of integration aides decreased opportunities for peer interactions in class, and that integration aides often sat with the students with disabilities during breaks. Student interviews revealed that, although the students often appreciated the learning assistance from integration aides, they resisted the assistance if they felt that it compromised their social inclusion with their peers.Other studies presenting students’ perspectives have reported feelings of isolation and a sense of not belonging with classroom peers. In a U.S. study of the experiences of students with intellectual disabilities, young adults looking back on their school years recalled having few friends among their peers and described the integration aides as their friends, in some cases as their “best friend.” Some students perceived the integration aides’ presence as exacerbating their social problems. Some felt as though the integration aide took on the role of a mother; in the words of one boy: “that’s why I didn’t have any best friends or a girlfriend in high school because I always had a mother on my back” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Broer</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>38</RecNum><Pages>421</Pages><DisplayText>(Broer, et al., 2005, p. 421)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>38</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">38</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Broer, S M</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perspectives of students with intellectual disabilities about their experiences with paraprofessional support</title><secondary-title>Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>415-430</pages><volume>71</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Broer, et al., 2005, p. 421). Many studies have reported that adolescents with a variety of disabilities dislike, or even resent, being singled out for special assistance, whether by special education teachers or integration aides. Australian studies of secondary students who have ASD ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Saggers</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>17</RecNum><DisplayText>(Saggers, Hwang, & Mercer, 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>17</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">17</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Saggers,Beth</author><author>Hwang,Yoon-Suk</author><author>Mercer,K. Louise</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Your voice counts: Listening to the voice of high school students with Autism Spectrum Disorder</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>173-190</pages><volume>35</volume><number>02</number><keywords><keyword>autism spectrum disorders, inclusive education, lived experience, student voice, high school</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1833-6914</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Saggers, Hwang, & Mercer, 2011), who are deaf or hard of hearing ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Punch</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>440</RecNum><DisplayText>(Punch & Hyde, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>440</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="ez0zsxs0pp2pwiezaadvxztuaze9tf0052te">440</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Punch, R</author><author>Hyde, M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The social participation and career decision-making of hard-of-hearing adolescents in regular classes</title><secondary-title>Deafness and Education International</secondary-title></titles><pages>122-138</pages><volume>7</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls><electronic-resource-num>10.1002/dei.1.</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(Punch & Hyde, 2005), and who have visual impairments ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Whitburn</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>22</RecNum><DisplayText>(Whitburn, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>22</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">22</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Whitburn,Ben</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The dissection of paraprofessional support in inclusive education: 'You're in mainstream with a chaperone'</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>147-161</pages><volume>37</volume><number>02</number><keywords><keyword>inclusive education, secondary school, paraprofessional support, vision impairment, qualitative research, social justice</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1833-6914</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Whitburn, 2013) have noted students’ reluctance to being treated differently in this way in front of their classmates. The students with visual impairment in Whitburn’s (2013) study described feeling embarrassed by their apparent dependence on the help of integration aides. They felt socially segregated from their classroom peers, particularly when they had to sit with an integration aide away from the other students. They appreciated integration aide services such as resource preparation, provision of specialised equipment, and discreet in-class support. However, they intensely disliked support that they perceived as overbearing and too authoritarian. Some students felt that they would not need so much integration aide support in class if teachers took more care to include them by increasing verbal communication and accessible resources. A qualitative Canadian study of primary and secondary students with disabilities including autism and Down syndrome reported that some students spent most of their school day in the presence of integration aides ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Tews</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(Tews & Lupart, 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">39</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Tews, Lisa</author><author>Lupart, Judy</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Students with disabilities' perspectives of the role and impact of paraprofessionals in inclusive education settings</title><secondary-title>Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities</full-title></periodical><pages>39-46</pages><volume>5</volume><number>1</number><keywords><keyword>educational assistants</keyword><keyword>inclusive-education</keyword><keyword>intellectual disabilities</keyword><keyword>paraprofessional workers</keyword><keyword>students with disabilities</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Inc</publisher><isbn>1741-1130</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Tews & Lupart, 2008). Some of these students disliked this situation; however, others felt that the integration aide assisted their socialisation with peers in various ways: by helping them stay focused in play situations, by educating other students about their disability, and by protecting them from bullying. Bullying was an issue reported by students in the study by Broer et al. (2005). While the close proximity of an integration aide could shield them from bullying or being ‘picked on,’ this protection was situational and temporary, and some students felt that having an integration aide contributed to their being picked on by their classmates.In a study of the perceptions of general and special education teachers who had students with ASD in their classes, general teachers reported that they would be more competent to assist these students “in navigating the social culture” of the school if they had more consultation time with special educators ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Able</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>85</RecNum><Pages>52</Pages><DisplayText>(Able, Sreckovic, Schultz, Garwood, & Sherman, 2015, p. 52)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>85</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">85</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Able, Harriet</author><author>Sreckovic, Melissa A.</author><author>Schultz, Tia R.</author><author>Garwood, Justin D.</author><author>Sherman, Jessica</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Views from the trenches: Teacher and student supports needed for full inclusion of students with ASD</title><secondary-title>Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>44-57</pages><volume>38</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2015</year><pub-dates><date>February 1, 2015</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Able, Sreckovic, Schultz, Garwood, & Sherman, 2015, p. 52). Both general and special educators believed that peer support systems could be effective in breaking social barriers at school. Special educators felt that they needed more time and skills to facilitate such systems. (Studies reporting on the use of peer supports are described in the Peer Support section, below).In a large U.K. study investigating school factors associated with educational progress for included students with ASD, Osborne and Reed ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Osborne</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>94</RecNum><DisplayText>(2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>94</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">94</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Osborne, Lisa A.</author><author>Reed, Phil</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>School factors associated with mainstream progress in secondary education for included pupils with Autism Spectrum Disorders</title><secondary-title>Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders</full-title></periodical><pages>1253-1263</pages><volume>5</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>School inclusion</keyword><keyword>Mainstream education</keyword><keyword>School characteristics</keyword><keyword>Behavior problems</keyword><keyword>Teacher training</keyword><keyword>School belonging</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1750-9467</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2011) reported that a greater presence of integration aides was associated with a reduction of behavioural and emotional problems, but also with a worsening of social behaviour. In their observational study in U.K. secondary school classrooms, Symes and Humphrey ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Symes</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>84</RecNum><DisplayText>(2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>84</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">84</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Symes, Wendy</author><author>Humphrey, Neil</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Including pupils with autistic spectrum disorders in the classroom: the role of teaching assistants</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</full-title></periodical><pages>517-532</pages><volume>27</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>2012/11/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0885-6257</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2012) reported that students with ASD were less likely to work independently and be socially included than students with dyslexia and students with no disability, particularly when an integration aide was present. It was common for students with ASD to choose to work with the aide rather than a classmate. In general, the presence of an integration aide reduced the opportunities for a student with ASD to interact with peers.However, there is evidence that, following specific training, integration aides can have a beneficial effect on social interactions. In one study, four integration aides underwent a four-hour in-service training session in knowledge and strategies designed specifically to facilitate interactions between students with severe disabilities and their peers without disabilities in general education settings ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Causton-Theoharis</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>4</RecNum><DisplayText>(Causton-Theoharis & Malmgren, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>4</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">4</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Causton-Theoharis, Julie N.</author><author>Malmgren, Kimber W.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Increasing peer interactions for students with severe disabilities via paraprofessional training</title><secondary-title>Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>431-444</pages><volume>71</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2005</year><pub-dates><date>July 1, 2005</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Causton-Theoharis & Malmgren, 2005). Observations after this intervention were compared with baseline levels of peer interactions. The number of peer interactions increased dramatically; after the integration aides’ training, students interacted 25 times more frequently with peers than at the baseline level. Another study examined the effects of an integration aide training program aimed to improve interactions between primary students with behavioural disorders and their peers PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5NYWxtZ3JlbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Malmgren, Causton-Theoharis, & Trezek, 2005). Student interactions increased after the training and intervention, and the integration aides faded their assistance more frequently.Other studies have found benefits of similar training interventions with integration aides working with students with ASD. Koegel, Kim, and Kogel ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Koegel</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>33</RecNum><DisplayText>(2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>33</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">33</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Koegel, RobertL</author><author>Kim, Sunny</author><author>Koegel, LynnKern</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Training paraprofessionals to improve socialization in students with ASD</title><secondary-title>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</secondary-title><alt-title>J Autism Dev Disord</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</full-title><abbr-1>J Autism Dev Disord</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</full-title><abbr-1>J Autism Dev Disord</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>2197-2208</pages><volume>44</volume><number>9</number><keywords><keyword>Paraprofessional</keyword><keyword>Training</keyword><keyword>Autism</keyword><keyword>Socialization</keyword><keyword>School</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>2014/09/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Springer US</publisher><isbn>0162-3257</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2014) measured socialisation of primary students with ASD before and after a training intervention for their integration aides. The aides participated in a one-hour training workshop, learning skills to use in social activities such as games. The data from observations after the training intervention showed significant increases in engagement with peers without disabilities compared to baseline data, and these levels were maintained over time. Robinson ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Robinson</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>86</RecNum><DisplayText>(2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>86</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">86</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Robinson, S E</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Teaching paraprofessionals of students with autism to implement Pivotal Response Treatment in inclusive school settings using a brief video feedback training package</title><secondary-title>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities</full-title></periodical><pages>105-118</pages><volume>26</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(2011) reported similar findings using a brief video feedback training package with integration aides supporting primary students with ASD. The findings of these studies suggest that integration aides, when provided with relatively brief training, can greatly improve their skills, with significant benefits to the social behaviours and interactions of primary students with disabilities. In summary, key findings on the effects of integration aide support on social inclusion are: Students may be physically and socially segregated from classroom peers while receiving integration aide support.The presence of integration aides can reduce opportunities for students to interact with their peers.Some students feel embarrassed at having the obvious support of integration aides.Integration aides can have a temporary and situational role in preventing bullying, but may contribute to the problem through the stigmatising effect of their presence for the student with a disability.Specific, targeted intervention training for integration aides can have positive effects on social interactions of students with disabilities and their peers.Impact on student independenceAnother inadvertent result of integration aide support can be a limitation of the development of independence in students with disabilities. Students can become so used to integration aides’ input that they are hesitant to participate without their direction or prompting ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>12</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, 2010a)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>12</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">12</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>One-to-one paraprofessionals for students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Is conventional wisdom wrong?</title><secondary-title>Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities</full-title></periodical><pages>1-13</pages><volume>48</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>2010/02/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities</publisher><isbn>1934-9491</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, 2010a). Observational and interview studies have reported that the presence of integration aides can have the effect of reducing student autonomy and independence. Hemmingsson and colleagues ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Hemmingsson</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>50</RecNum><DisplayText>(2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>50</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">50</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hemmingsson, H</author><author>Borell, L</author><author>Gustavsson, A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Participation in school: School assisstants creating opportunities and obstacles for pupils with disabilities</title><secondary-title>OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health</full-title></periodical><pages>88-98</pages><volume>23</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(2003) noted that students had little control over when and how much assistance their integration aides provided, and some aides tended to initiate help that the student may not have needed. In a Norwegian study, students aged from 12 to 14 years with physical disabilities reported that they appreciated practical help from integration aides when necessary, but felt that help was often provided when it was not needed, and that this compromised their independence and sense of equality with other students ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Asbjornslett</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>31</RecNum><DisplayText>(Asbjornslett, Engelsrud, & Helseth, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>31</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">31</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Asbjornslett, Mona</author><author>Engelsrud, Gunn Helene</author><author>Helseth, S√∏lvi</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Inclusion and participation in everyday school life: Experiences of children with physical (dis)abilities</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</full-title></periodical><pages>199-212</pages><volume>19</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>2015/02/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1360-3116</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Asbjornslett, Engelsrud, & Helseth, 2014). Whitburn ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Whitburn</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>22</RecNum><DisplayText>(2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>22</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">22</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Whitburn,Ben</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The dissection of paraprofessional support in inclusive education: 'You're in mainstream with a chaperone'</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>147-161</pages><volume>37</volume><number>02</number><keywords><keyword>inclusive education, secondary school, paraprofessional support, vision impairment, qualitative research, social justice</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1833-6914</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2013) reported similar findings for Australian secondary students with vision impairment. A U.S. study of young adults with intellectual disabilities reported that aides would often intervene too much; in the words of one ex-student: “I didn’t even have to do anything. She pretty much did it all for me” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Broer</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>38</RecNum><Pages>424</Pages><DisplayText>(Broer, et al., 2005, p. 424)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>38</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">38</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Broer, S M</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Perspectives of students with intellectual disabilities about their experiences with paraprofessional support</title><secondary-title>Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>415-430</pages><volume>71</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Broer, et al., 2005, p. 424). Some of the students reported systematic fading of integration aide support, with support reduced to certain classes only, or being considered no longer necessary at all, and these students were clearly proud of their growing independence. Some integration aides have described struggling to find a balance between helping students and encouraging their independence. In a study of the perceptions of integration aides working with secondary students with ASD in England, one aide asked “where is that line between…. keeping them on task and realising, well actually, are they looking for me for too much support? ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Symes</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>70</RecNum><Pages>61</Pages><DisplayText>(Symes & Humphrey, 2011a, p. 61)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>70</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">70</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Symes, Wendy</author><author>Humphrey, Neil</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The deployment, training and teacher relationships of teaching assistants supporting pupils with autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) in mainstream secondary schools</title><secondary-title>British Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>British Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>57-64</pages><volume>38</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>autism spectrum disorders</keyword><keyword>teaching assistants</keyword><keyword>inclusion</keyword><keyword>mainstream education</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Ltd</publisher><isbn>1467-8578</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Symes & Humphrey, 2011a, p. 61). 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (2013, 2015) found that the majority of integration aides worked in ways likely to maintain dependence, despite the schools reporting that a part of their roles was promoting independence and building self-confidence. These authors suggested that: “for many pupils, one-to-one, often intensive, TA support had become a way of life since the early years. It is hard to reconcile, therefore, how a pupil’s independence and self-confidence could be raised by putting in place adult support on the basis that the pupil is unable to do things by him/herself” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Webster</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>18</RecNum><Pages>11</Pages><DisplayText>(Webster & Blatchford, 2015, p. 11)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>18</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">18</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Webster, Rob</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Worlds apart? The nature and quality of the educational experiences of pupils with a statement for special educational needs in mainstream primary schools</title><secondary-title>British Educational Research Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>British Educational Research Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>324-342</pages><volume>41</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2015</year></dates><isbn>1469-3518</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Webster & Blatchford, 2015, p. 11).In summary, key findings about the impact of integration aide support on student independence are:Students can become overly dependent on integration aide help in the classroom.Some integration aides may be overzealous in providing assistance in cases where students could, and should, make their own efforts. Integration aides can find it difficult to achieve the right balance between helping and encouraging independence.The entrenched nature of integration aide support for some students can impede the development of independence and self-confidence.Parents’ perceptions of integration aidesParents often see integration aides as being the key to their child’s inclusion in a mainstream school. In Victoria, some parents have reported that their child’s education is hindered by a lack of sufficient funded hours of integration aide support ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>63</RecNum><DisplayText>(Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>63</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">63</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Report">27</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission,</author></authors><tertiary-authors><author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission</author></tertiary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Held back: The experiences of students with disabilities in Victorian schools</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Melbourne</pub-location><publisher>VEOHRC</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission, 2012). While it is easy to understand that parents of children with disabilities would want to ensure that their child was adequately supported in school, there are many reasons why intensive integration aide support may not be the optimal, or the only, solution to their concerns ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>71</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Yuan, McKenzie, Cameron, & Fialka, 2005)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>71</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">71</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Michael F. Giangreco</author><author>Susan Yuan</author><author>Barbara McKenzie</author><author>Patricia Cameron</author><author>Janice Fialka</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>"Be careful what you wish for…": Five reasons to be concerned about the assignment of individual paraprofessionals</title><secondary-title>TEACHING Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>TEACHING Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>28-34</pages><volume>37</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, Yuan, McKenzie, Cameron, & Fialka, 2005). Research into the perspectives of parents indicates that these reasons become apparent to some parents of students receiving such support.The small amount of published research on parents’ perspectives on integration aide support comes largely from the USA. Two studies have reported findings from in-depth interviews and focus groups with parents of students who were receiving integration aide support in general education classes. The first study reported interview findings from 28 parents of primary students with a range of disabilities, most commonly learning disabilities but also autism, Down syndrome, and ADHD ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Werts</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>21</RecNum><DisplayText>(Werts, Harris, Young Tillery, & Roark, 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>21</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">21</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Werts, Margaret Gessler</author><author>Harris, Shirley</author><author>Young Tillery, Christina</author><author>Roark, Rebecca</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>What parents tell us about paraeducators</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>232-239</pages><volume>25</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>July 1, 2004</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Werts, Harris, Young Tillery, & Roark, 2004). The majority of the parents spoke highly of their children’s integration aides, and a quarter of them believed that their child’s inclusion in the general education classroom would not be possible without integration aide support. Many parents viewed the integration aides as professionals who should receive more respect within the school. However, other parents expressed concerns that integration aides were not well-trained, and that teachers, rather than aides, should be the ones working with students with additional difficulties or disabilities. One mother spoke of her concerns about her son’s dependence on adult help, and said she thought that peer support might be just as effective. The second study included mothers of primary and secondary students, the majority of whom had high support needs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>French</Author><Year>1999</Year><RecNum>9</RecNum><DisplayText>(French & Chopra, 1999)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>9</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">9</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>French, Nancy K.</author><author>Chopra, Ritu V.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Parent perspectives on the roles of paraprofessionals</title><secondary-title>Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities</full-title></periodical><pages>259-272</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>1999</year><pub-dates><date>December 1, 1999</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(French & Chopra, 1999). Some of the mothers strongly expressed their regard for their children’s integration aides, seeing them as ‘connectors’ with whom, in some cases, they had close personal relationships. Integration aides telephoned mothers regularly (every day after school in one case) and parents communicated more with them than with class teachers or resource room teachers. Many parents perceived that the integration aides facilitated their children’s social interactions with classmates. However, others had misgivings about the role of integration aide support for their children. They saw that it could be a barrier to social inclusion, and spoke about aides “babying” and “hovering.” They were concerned about unnecessary dependence on this adult support, with children getting used to accepting help and not growing in competence or confidence. In the words of one mother: “I just want them [paraprofessionals] to hang back and let her try and if she is unsuccessful, it is fine. My other kids are unsuccessful a lot of times too but they have to try” (p. 265).Parents of children who needed physical care and help at school spoke about issues of training, privacy, and dignity. Some thought it inappropriate that the person who was like a teacher to their children in the classroom should also take them to the toilet. Specifically, one mother was concerned that a female integration aide assisted her teenage son with toileting. Other concerns of parents in this study involved integration aides’ lack of training in knowledge of specific disabilities, in subject areas, and in behavioural issues. In summary, key findings about parents’ perceptions of integration aide support are:Many parents see integration aide support as necessary for their children’s inclusion.Parents value having close relationships and communication with aides.Some parents think of aides as professionals; others are aware of their limitations in training and qualifications.Some parents feel that their children become overly dependent on integration aides.Some parents report that integration aides support social inclusion; others perceive that their presence can be a barrier to social inclusion Some parents suggest that more support from class teachers and peers could reduce their children’s need for integration aide support.Why school administrators choose to employ integration aidesGiangreco ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>13</RecNum><Pages>2</Pages><DisplayText>(2013, p. 2)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>13</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">13</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco,Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Teacher assistant supports in inclusive schools: Research, practices and alternatives</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>93-106</pages><volume>37</volume><number>02</number><keywords><keyword>inclusive education, service delivery, teacher assistants, paraprofessionals</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1833-6914</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2013, p. 2) maintains that integration aides “have become almost exclusively the way, rather than a way, to support students with disabilities in general education classrooms, especially those with severe or low-incidence disabilities.” In many countries the use of integration aides has become entrenched and is seen as “the solution to inclusion” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rutherford</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>46</RecNum><Pages>760</Pages><DisplayText>(Rutherford, 2012, p. 760)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>46</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">46</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rutherford, Gill</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>In, out or somewhere in between? Disabled students' and teacher aides' experiences of school</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</full-title></periodical><pages>757-774</pages><volume>16</volume><number>8</number><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>2012/08/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1360-3116</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Rutherford, 2012, p. 760). The decision to employ an integration aide can be an almost automatic response on the part of administrators to the enrolment of students with significant disabilities in their schools ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>26</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>26</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">26</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author><author>Broer, Stephen M.</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>22-38</pages><volume>32</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>January 1, 2011</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, et al., 2011).There are several reasons why school administrators choose to employ integration aides as the primary response to the presence of students with disabilities in general classrooms. It is not always easy to determine the nature of the services an individual might need. The review of the Disability Standards for Education 2005 reported that parents may be given a certificate from a medical or other specialist stating what their child needs, such as access to an integration aide a certain proportion of in-class time. Schools have suggested that it would be more helpful for such certificates to describe the functional needs of the student rather than the type of educational support to be provided ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><DisplayText>(Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Report on the Review of Disability Standards for Education 2005</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Canberra</pub-location><publisher>Author</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations, 2012).School principals have reported considerable teacher, special educator, and parent advocacy for integration aide support for students with disabilities. Once a student is assigned an aide, there is often pressure to maintain the services, even when the student no longer needs them ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>26</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>26</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">26</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author><author>Broer, Stephen M.</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>22-38</pages><volume>32</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>January 1, 2011</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, et al., 2011). In general, teachers like having integration aides when they have students with disabilities in their classes, reporting more job satisfaction and lower levels of stress. Teachers can feel overloaded with large and diverse classes, and welcome support ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Carter, Doyle, & Suter, 2010; Shaddock, Smyth, & Giorcelli, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>66</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">66</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Carter, Erik W.</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Rose, R</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Supporting students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Personnel and peers</title><secondary-title>Confronting obstacles to inclusion: International responses to developing inclusive schools</secondary-title></titles><pages>247-263</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>London</pub-location><publisher>Routledge</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Shaddock</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">44</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Report">27</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Shaddock, A</author><author>Smyth, Brian</author><author>Giorcelli, L</author></authors><subsidiary-authors><author>Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training</author></subsidiary-authors></contributors><titles><title>A project to improve the learning outcomes of students with disabilities in the early, middle and post compulsory years of schooling</title></titles><dates><year>2007</year></dates><pub-location>Canberra</pub-location><publisher>Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, Carter, Doyle, & Suter, 2010; Shaddock, Smyth, & Giorcelli, 2007). 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blatchford, Bassett, Brown, & Webster, 2009; Webster, et al., 2010). Another reason teachers like to have integration aides in their classes is that most mainstream teachers are not well-prepared or equipped with the knowledge and skills to teach students with disabilities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><DisplayText>(Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Report on the Review of Disability Standards for Education 2005</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Canberra</pub-location><publisher>Author</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(Department of Education Employment and Workplace Relations, 2012). Teachers feel that they have insufficient training and expertise in teaching students with disabilities, and have particular concerns about students with limited communication, challenging behaviours, or inappropriate social skills PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Gb3JsaW48L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDA4PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Forlin, Keen, & Barrett, 2008; Soto-Chodiman, Pooley, Cohen, & Taylor, 2012; Subbann & Sharma, 2006). It is often an expected part of integration aides’ roles to deal with disruptive behaviours by removing the student from the classroom ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rutherford</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>46</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rutherford, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>46</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">46</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rutherford, Gill</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>In, out or somewhere in between? Disabled students' and teacher aides' experiences of school</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</full-title></periodical><pages>757-774</pages><volume>16</volume><number>8</number><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>2012/08/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1360-3116</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Rutherford, 2012). In a study of Victorian primary school teachers attitudes’ towards including students with disabilities in general education classes, Subban and Sharma (2006) reported that teachers who had undertaken some form of training in teaching students with disabilities had more positive attitudes than teachers without such training. They also found that teachers were most concerned about insufficient paraprofessional staff, special education staff, resources, and funding to support the inclusion of students with disabilities. The inclusion of students with ASD, which has increased considerably in recent years in schools in Australia and elsewhere, has been described as one of the most complex areas of education, and is often considered more difficult to implement than the inclusion of students with other special educational needs PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TeW1lczwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTI8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Humphrey & Symes, 2011; Symes & Humphrey, 2012). Teachers tend to view integration aide support as indispensible for students with ASD in their classrooms. In their study of teachers’ views of including students with ASD, Emam and Farrell ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Emam</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>103</RecNum><DisplayText>(2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>103</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">103</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Emam, Mahmoud M.</author><author>Farrell, Peter</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Tensions experienced by teachers and their views of support for pupils with autism spectrum disorders in mainstream schools</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</full-title></periodical><pages>407-422</pages><volume>24</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2009</year><pub-dates><date>2009/11/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0885-6257</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2009) found that teachers relied heavily on integration aides for ensuring completion of academic tasks, prompting students’ academic participation, and managing behavioural problems. Teachers report that they find the presence of students with ASD in their classes particularly challenging and feel they are ill-equipped to address these students’ needs and manage the social, emotional, and behavioural manifestations of the students’ ASD PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5MaW5kc2F5PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5MaW5kc2F5PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Humphrey & Symes, 2011; Lindsay, Proulx, Thomson, & Scott, 2013; Symes & Humphrey, 2012). Giangreco, Doyle and Suter speak of a “reactive stance” whereby schools react to the presence of students with disabilities by “adding on services without substantively reconceptualizing service delivery in ways that integrate general and special education” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>78</RecNum><Pages>363-364</Pages><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2012, pp. 363-364)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>78</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">78</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Constructively responding to requests for paraprofessionals: We keep asking the wrong questions</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>362-373</pages><volume>33</volume><number>6</number><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>November 1, 2012</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, et al., 2012, pp. 363-364). These authors maintain that this situation “necessitates rethinking how schools might proactively account for the full range of student diversity” (p.364). Principals may not be fully aware of possible alternatives to using integration aides, and may need professional development to extend their working knowledge of effective research-based practices in the inclusive education of students with disabilities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Di Paola</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>114</RecNum><DisplayText>(Di Paola & Walther-Thomas, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>114</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">114</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Report">27</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Di Paola, M. F</author><author>Walther-Thomas, C</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Principals and special education: The critical role of school leaders (COPPSE Document No. IB-7)</title></titles><dates><year>2003</year></dates><pub-location>Gainesville, FL</pub-location><publisher>University of Florida, Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Di Paola & Walther-Thomas, 2003).In summary, the major reasons administrators choose to employ integration aides are:Principals report pressure from parents and teachers for integration aide support.Teachers who feel overloaded with large and diverse classes welcome support in the classroom.Teachers report a reduction in off-task behaviour and disruption when integration aides are present in the classroom.Teachers feel underprepared to teach students with disabilities, particularly those with challenging behaviours and inappropriate social skills.Principals may need professional development to extend their working knowledge of effective research-based practices in the inclusion of students with disabilities.Recommendations for improving the use of integration aidesThe findings of the DISS study in the UK led to the implementation of trials in six primary and four secondary schools to develop improved models of using integration aides ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Webster</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><DisplayText>(Webster & Blatchford, 2012; Webster, Blatchford, & Russell, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>54</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">54</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Webster, Rob</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>P. Adey</author><author>J. Dillon</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Supporting learning?: How effective are teaching assistants?</title><secondary-title>Bad Education: Debunking Myths in Education</secondary-title></titles><pages>77-92</pages><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Maidenhead</pub-location><publisher>Open University Press</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Webster</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">43</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Webster, Rob</author><author>Blatchford, Peter</author><author>Russell, Anthony</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Challenging and changing how schools use teaching assistants: Findings from the Effective Deployment of Teaching Assistants project</title><secondary-title>School Leadership & Management</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>School Leadership & Management</full-title></periodical><pages>78-96</pages><volume>33</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2013</year><pub-dates><date>2013/02/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1363-2434</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Webster & Blatchford, 2012; Webster, Blatchford, & Russell, 2013). Over the course of one year, schools made changes in three areas: integration aide preparedness, deployment, and practice. In the first area, planning and feedback time between teachers and aides was increased by finding time within the school day or modifying integration aides’ work hours. The quality of lesson preparation and planning improved and aides felt more confident in their roles and in their instructional and subject knowledge. In deployment, the roles and activities of teachers and aides showed the beginnings of change. The amount of time teachers spent with students with disabilities increased and aides spent more time working with a mix of students. Changes in practice involved ways in which integration aides interacted with students, using more appropriate talk and strategies to encourage student independence. 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Alborz, et al., 2009; Australian Association of Special Education, 2007; Webster, et al., 2010). As well, when classroom teachers have a good understanding of the implications of a disability, better collaboration between teacher and aide is likely. Integration aides working with students with ASD reported that their role is facilitated when classroom teachers have good awareness of the needs of students with ASD and have had specific ASD training ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Symes</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>23</RecNum><DisplayText>(Symes & Humphrey, 2011b)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>23</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">23</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Symes, Wendy</author><author>Humphrey, Neil</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>School factors that facilitate or hinder the ability of teaching assistants to effectively support pupils with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in mainstream secondary schools</title><secondary-title>Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs</full-title></periodical><pages>153-161</pages><volume>11</volume><number>3</number><keywords><keyword>Autism spectrum disorders</keyword><keyword>inclusive education</keyword><keyword>teaching assistants</keyword><keyword>school climate</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Ltd</publisher><isbn>1471-3802</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Symes & Humphrey, 2011b). It is clearly important for integration aides to have training in specific disability areas and in specific teacher-planned tasks and interventions PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5XZWJzdGVyPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMDwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Alborz, et al., 2009; Webster, et al., 2010). The examples given in earlier sections of this review indicate the benefits of integration aides being trained to deliver specific, targeted curricular and social interventions. However, care must be taken that more training does not result in further dependence on the use of integration aides ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bourke</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>28</RecNum><DisplayText>(Australian Association of Special Education, 2007; Bourke, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>28</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">28</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bourke, Patricia E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Professional development and teacher aides in inclusive education contexts: where to from here?</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Inclusive Education</full-title></periodical><pages>817-827</pages><volume>13</volume><number>8</number><dates><year>2009</year><pub-dates><date>2009/12/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1360-3116</isbn><urls><related-urls><url> Association of Special Education</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>87</RecNum><record><rec-number>87</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">87</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Australian Association of Special Education,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Position paper on teacher aides</title><tertiary-title>;(Australian Association of Special Education, 2007; Bourke, 2009). Giangreco ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>13</RecNum><DisplayText>(2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>13</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">13</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco,Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Teacher assistant supports in inclusive schools: Research, practices and alternatives</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>93-106</pages><volume>37</volume><number>02</number><keywords><keyword>inclusive education, service delivery, teacher assistants, paraprofessionals</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>1833-6914</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(2013) warns against falling into a ‘training trap,’ which can occur when teachers assume that they can relinquish more instructional responsibility to integration aides because they are ‘trained.’ Training alone is not sufficient to address the serious unintended consequences of the reliance on the use of integration aides with students with disabilities. Giangreco asserts that although training of integration aides and ensuring that they are supervised by teachers are desirable practices, “such steps alone do not address systemic changes needed to rectify inherent inequities present in schools where the more challenging the learning characteristics of the student, the more likely he or she is to receive instruction from teacher assistants rather than teachers” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>11</RecNum><Pages>344</Pages><DisplayText>(Giangreco, 2010b, p. 344)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>11</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">11</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Utilization of teacher assistants in inclusive schools: is it the kind of help that helping is all about?</title><secondary-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>European Journal of Special Needs Education</full-title></periodical><pages>341-345</pages><volume>25</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>2010/11/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>0885-6257</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, 2010b, p. 344). One suggestion to improve the way integration aides are deployed is that individual schools can establish a pool of aides who can be used as “floaters” to address time-limited student needs across different classes and grade levels ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>26</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>26</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">26</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author><author>Broer, Stephen M.</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>22-38</pages><volume>32</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>January 1, 2011</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, et al., 2011). For instance, the introduction of a new program or behaviour support plan might require intensive initial support that can be scaled back or withdrawn according to student progress. This type of integration aide resource pool is conducive to fading individual student support where appropriate, and can “provide administrative flexibility, encourage student independence, and establish an expectation among professionals and families that the assignment of a paraprofessional doesn’t mean it is, or should be, permanent” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><Pages>86</Pages><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Halverson, Doyle, & Broer, 2004, p. 86)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>88</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">88</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Halverson, A T</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Broer, S M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals in inclusive schools</title><secondary-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</full-title></periodical><pages>82-90</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, Halverson, Doyle, & Broer, 2004, p. 86).The major researchers and educators in the field concur that there is an imperative for schools to assess and improve the way they use integration aides, and they have made recommendations about the ways in which integration aides can best be utilized PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5HaWFuZ3JlY288L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDExPC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Alborz, et al., 2009; Australian Association of Special Education, 2007; Causton-Theoharis, et al., 2007; Doyle & Giangreco, 2013; Giangreco, 2013; Giangreco, et al., 2011; Shaddock, et al., 2007; Webster, et al., 2013). These include: Integration aide roles and responsibilities should be clearly delineated and limited to non-instructional roles (administrative duties, personal care, materials preparation) and supplemental rather than primary instruction.This instruction should be based on plans developed by classroom or special education teachers.Integration aides should be trained to carry out teacher-prepared plans with fidelity.They should also receive training in managing challenging student behaviours.Classroom teachers should provide adequate supervision and monitoring to integration aides.Teachers should receive training in working collaboratively with, monitoring, and supporting integration aides.The practice of working on a one-to-one basis with individual students should be reduced as much as possible. It is preferable to assign integration aides to the teacher or class and have the aides support students in the context of groups.Students’ needs should be regularly reassessed and the possibility of fading, or reducing individual students’ amount of support from aides, should be considered.Schools can establish an integration aide pool from which aides can be drawn to address time-limited student needs.School administrators should clarify roles and expectations, allocate planning and feedback time for teachers and integration aides, and ensure that integration aides receive initial orientation and ongoing training at the school, classroom, and individual student level.Recommendations for alternatives to an over-reliance on integration aidesGiangreco (2013, p.8) maintains that “utilizing existing teacher assistant resources more wisely is necessary, but not sufficient to achieve substantial change that benefits both students with and without special educational needs.” It is important to consider other options. There are few reports in the literature of schools that have implemented changes with the intention of improving their inclusive practice through alternatives to a heavy reliance on the use of integration aides. In the USA, Giancgreco and colleagues conducted a five-year study field-testing a planning process called Guidelines for Selecting Alternatives to Overreliance on Paraprofessionals ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>26</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>26</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">26</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author><author>Broer, Stephen M.</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>22-38</pages><volume>32</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>January 1, 2011</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, et al., 2011). Twenty-six primary and secondary schools across six states participated in the study, in which planning teams examined their schools’ practices with students with disabilities, and developed and implemented actions to improve these practices. The most commonly reported changes that occurred as a result of this process were:A small reduction in the number of integration aides and a small increase in the number of special educatorsA reduction in special educators’ caseloadsIncreased collaboration and co-teaching between classroom and special education teachersChanges in the ways integration aides were used, notably (1) a reduction in one-to-one support through assigning aides to classrooms rather than to individual students, (2) moving aides away from providing primary instruction, and (3) assigning aides paperwork tasks normally done by special educatorsBuilding capacity through training and professional development for teachersUse of peer support in place of integration aide support where appropriateThree years after their initial involvement in the project, school administrators reported that the changes had contributed to improved student outcomes in achievement, behaviour, inclusion opportunities, and social relationships. The initial concerns of school personnel and parents about a reduction in numbers of integration aides were not sustained, and follow-up investigations found that teachers and administrators adjusted well to the changes and reported positive student outcomes. In addition, many parents were happier at seeing their children’s increased feelings of belonging after experiencing more natural peer supports and less time with integration aides ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>26</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>26</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">26</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael F.</author><author>Broer, Stephen M.</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Guidelines for selecting alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals: Field-testing in inclusion-oriented schools</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>22-38</pages><volume>32</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2011</year><pub-dates><date>January 1, 2011</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Giangreco, et al., 2011). Under the More Support for Students with Disabilities initiative, education authorities in all Australian states and territories have implemented varying initiatives to build capacity in schools to better support students with disabilities. These initiatives include: in Queensland, the development of an Autism Centre of Excellence to work with schools; in Victoria, a Down Syndrome Inclusion Support Service and a real-time captioning program for students who are deaf or hard of hearing; and in Western Australia, the development of a model supporting learning technology innovations in schools ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>PhillipsKPA</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>122</RecNum><DisplayText>(PhillipsKPA, 2014a)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>122</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">122</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>PhillipsKPA</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Australian Government Department of Education "More Support for Students with Disabilities" initiative evaluation case studies</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(PhillipsKPA, 2014a). All of these have potential for improving inclusion and, possibly, reducing reliance on the use of integration aides. One of these initiatives in particular has relevance to the reduction of over-reliance on aides. The NSW Department of Education and Communities has developed a model that involves an extensive reorganization of human resources and changes in the way special education teachers are used in schools ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>PhillipsKPA</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>119</RecNum><DisplayText>(PhillipsKPA, 2014b)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>119</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">119</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>PhillipsKPA,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Changing the roles of special education teachers</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><publisher>NSW Department of Education and Communities</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(PhillipsKPA, 2014b). The aim is to have a Learning and Support Teacher (LST) in every mainstream school, where they work collaboratively with classroom teachers to meet the needs of all students, particularly those with additional learning and support needs, including students with disabilities. LSTs work with teachers to identify students’ specific learning and support needs, to plan, implement, model, monitor and evaluate teaching programs, and to develop individual education plans for students with complex needs. LSTs also directly support students through assessing and instructing them, delivering adjusted learning programs, and monitoring their progress. In addition, they assist with the professional development of class teachers and integration aides. The new specialist role of LST has been filled by former Support Teacher Learning Assistance teachers (STLAs, who previously worked directly supporting students with learning difficulties, disabilities, or behaviour problems), changing the role of itinerant support teachers so that they are based in individual schools, redeploying special education teachers, and employing appropriately qualified casual teachers where necessary.The use of LSTs involves a shift from a deficit model, where STLAs were responsible for remediating students with difficulties and disabilities, to a capability focus, where LSTs develop teachers’ skills to meet the needs of all their students. One primary and one secondary school have been used as case studies to observe and evaluate the new model. These schools consider that the LSTs are improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities and improving school performance in general. To date, reported findings are preliminary; the final evaluation report is due to be publically available in the latter half of 2015.There is no indication in the reporting of this initiative of an aim of reducing reliance on integration aides. However, there are indications of the better use of integration aides, particularly through LSTs assisting in the professional learning of aides. Certainly the model, with its skilling of classroom teachers and integration of specialist teachers and their expertise into everyday mainstream activity, does appear to have potential for reducing?reliance on aides.In the U.K., the Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted) reported on its examination of 74 schools to establish factors contributing to high achievement for students with learning difficulties and disabilities. They concluded: “the provision of additional resources to pupils - such as support from teaching assistants – did not ensure good quality intervention or adequate progress by pupils. There was a misconception that provision of additional resources was the key requirement for individual pupils, whereas the survey findings showed that key factors for good progress were: the involvement of a specialist teacher; good assessment; work tailored to challenge pupils sufficiently; and commitment from school leaders to ensure good progress for all pupils” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ofsted</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>111</RecNum><Pages>2</Pages><DisplayText>(Ofsted, 2006, p. 2)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>111</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">111</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ofsted</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Inclusion: Does it matter where pupils are taught? Provision and outcomes in different settings for pupils with learning difficulties and disabilities</title></titles><dates><year>2006</year></dates><pub-location>London</pub-location><publisher>Department for Education and Skills</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>.uk</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Ofsted, 2006, p. 2). Several key recommendations for alternatives to a heavy reliance on integration aides have emerged from the work of these and other researchers. Better use of special education teachersSpecial education teachers have an important role to play in the successful inclusion of students with disabilities. Through consultative collaboration with mainstream teachers, special educators can “encourage and support positive attitudes, individualisation, develop individual education plans and assist in the use of strategies to facilitate learning” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Pearce</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><Pages>101</Pages><DisplayText>(Pearce & Forlin, 2005, p. 101)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>64</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">64</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Pearce, M</author><author>Forlin, Chris</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Challenges and potential solutions for enabling inclusion in secondary schools</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>93-105</pages><volume>29</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2005</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Pearce & Forlin, 2005, p. 101). They can work with classroom teachers to adapt curriculum and instruction, with applications of strategies such as differentiation and multi-level instruction, so that students with disabilities can work towards their individually determined learning outcomes within shared classroom activities. They can facilitate peer interactions through teaching pro-social behaviours to students with disabilities and teaching their classroom peers how they can best interact with them. They can work with classroom teachers to direct the work of integration aides. Special educators can also act as a source of knowledge about assistive technology options available to support students with various types of disability ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Carter, et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>66</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">66</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Carter, Erik W.</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Rose, R</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Supporting students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Personnel and peers</title><secondary-title>Confronting obstacles to inclusion: International responses to developing inclusive schools</secondary-title></titles><pages>247-263</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>London</pub-location><publisher>Routledge</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, Carter, et al., 2010). Co-teaching, with a general education teacher and a special education teacher working together in the classroom, can reduce reliance on integration aides and potentially benefit all students’ learning. This joint instruction can allow for “greater differentiation of instruction and employment of intervention techniques designed to benefit both general and special education students” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kilanowski-Press</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>117</RecNum><DisplayText>(Kilanowski-Press, Foote, & Rinaldo, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>117</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">117</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kilanowski-Press, L</author><author>Foote, C J</author><author>Rinaldo, V J</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Inclusion classrooms and teachers: A survey of current practices</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>43-56</pages><volume>25</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2010</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Kilanowski-Press, Foote, & Rinaldo, 2010). Sufficient collaborative planning time is essential for optimal co-teaching, and general education teachers are likely to need training in co-teaching methods ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Solis</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>109</RecNum><DisplayText>(Solis, Vaughn, Swanson, & McCulley, 2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>109</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">109</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Solis, M</author><author>Vaughn, S</author><author>Swanson, E</author><author>McCulley, L</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Collaborative models of instruction: The empirical foundations of inclusion and co-teaching</title><secondary-title>Psychology in the Schools</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Psychology in the Schools</full-title></periodical><pages>498-510</pages><volume>49</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Solis, Vaughn, Swanson, & McCulley, 2012). Co-teaching departs so significantly from the ‘one teacher per class’ model that it is necessary for teachers to be trained in the knowledge and skills required through professional development and ongoing support and coaching in order to implement effective co-teaching practice ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Friend</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>10</RecNum><DisplayText>(Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain, & Shamberger, 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>10</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">10</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Friend, Marilyn</author><author>Cook, Lynne</author><author>Hurley-Chamberlain, DeAnna</author><author>Shamberger, Cynthia</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Co-teaching: An illustration of the complexity of collaboration in special education</title><secondary-title>Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation</full-title></periodical><pages>9-27</pages><volume>20</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>2010/02/26</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1047-4412</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Friend, Cook, Hurley-Chamberlain, & Shamberger, 2010).Giangreco PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGUgRXhjbHVkZUF1dGg9IjEiPjxBdXRob3I+R2lhbmdyZWNvPC9BdXRob3I+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (2010a, 2013) suggests that the provision of more co-teaching can be achieved through resource reallocation, by trading in integration aide positions to hire additional special educators. In addition, lowering special educator caseloads and reducing the number of integration aides they are responsible to supervise enables them to be best used to provide more support in the classroom ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Suter</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>118</RecNum><DisplayText>(Suter & Giangreco, 2009)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>118</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">118</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author><author>Giangreco, Michael F</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Numbers that count: Exploring special education and paraprofessional service delivery in inclusion-oriented schools</title><secondary-title>Journal of Special Education </secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>81-93</pages><volume>43</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2009</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Suter & Giangreco, 2009). Better use of other specialist professionalsEducators and researchers have stressed the need for team support for students with complex needs PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5HaWFuZ3JlY288L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDEwPC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Able, et al., 2015; Giangreco, Carter, et al., 2010). Students with ASD, for instance, may need team support from speech pathologists, educational psychologists, special educators, and other professionals, and this type of support can increase teachers’ willingness to accept students with ASD in their classrooms ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Simpson</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>72</RecNum><DisplayText>(Simpson, Boer-Ott, & Smith-Myles, 2003)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>72</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">72</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Richard L Simpson</author><author>Sonja R de Boer-Ott</author><author>Brenda Smith-Myles</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Inclusion of learners with autism spectrum disorders in general education settings</title><secondary-title>Topics in Language Disorders</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Topics in Language Disorders</full-title></periodical><pages>116-133</pages><volume>23</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2003</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Simpson, Boer-Ott, & Smith-Myles, 2003). The report of the Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (2012) has suggested that there is an unmet need in Victorian schools for specialist supports, such as speech pathologists, occupational therapists, and Auslan interpreters. In addition, assistive technology and specialist equipment is not always available. The More Support for Students with Disabilities initiative emphasises the potential role of assistive technologies for students with disabilities in general education classrooms, particularly the use of mainstream technologies, such as the iPad, with specialized applications that can be matched to individual student needs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>PhillipsKPA</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>121</RecNum><DisplayText>(PhillipsKPA, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>121</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">121</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>PhillipsKPA</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Australian Government Department of Education evaluation of the "More Support for Students with Disabilities" initiative</title></titles><dates><year>2013</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> ;(PhillipsKPA, 2013).Building capacity of general education teachersIn order to decrease reliance on integration aides and increase the amount and quality of instructional time students with disabilities receive from classroom teachers, it is necessary to build the professional capacity of these teachers to enable them to support the educational needs of the students with disabilities in their classes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>88</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">88</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Halverson, A T</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Broer, S M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals in inclusive schools</title><secondary-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</full-title></periodical><pages>82-90</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, et al., 2004). Training is a major component of this capacity building. Currently, mainstream teachers are unlikely to have received much training in working with students with disabilities. Younger teachers are more likely to have more training than older teachers, as many Australian undergraduate teaching degrees now include compulsory units on students with disabilities, or on diversity. Teachers who qualified less recently are likely to be most in need of in-service training ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Forlin</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>57</RecNum><DisplayText>(Forlin, et al., 2008)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>57</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">57</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Forlin, Chris</author><author>Keen, Margaret</author><author>Barrett, Emma</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The concerns of mainstream teachers: Coping with inclusivity in an Australian context</title><secondary-title>International Journal of Disability, Development and Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>International Journal of Disability, Development and Education</full-title></periodical><pages>251-264</pages><volume>55</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>2008</year><pub-dates><date>2008/09/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Routledge</publisher><isbn>1034-912X</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Forlin, et al., 2008). However, an AITSL report indicates that even recent graduates do not feel well prepared for working with students with disabilities. Only 28% of early career primary teachers and 33% of secondary teachers reported that their teacher education course was helpful in preparing them to support students with disabilities. In addition, principals reported that only 6% of recent primary and 15% of recent secondary teaching graduates were well-prepared to support students with disabilities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><DisplayText>(Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>65</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">65</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Initial Teacher Education: Data Report 2014</title></titles><dates><year>2014</year></dates><pub-location>Melbourne</pub-location><publisher>AITSL</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, 2014). However, this situation may improve with the adoption of AITSL’s recently introduced Professional Standards for Teachers, which include knowledge and abilities necessary for teachers to support the participation of students with disabilities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>126</RecNum><DisplayText>(Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>126</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">126</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Australian Professional Standards for Teachers</title></titles><dates><year>2015</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership, 2015). In one U.S. study of teachers working with students with ASD in inclusive settings, general education teachers were very specific in outlining their training needs. They wished to know more about ASD in general, academic and social accommodations that they could use with these students, and promotion of advocacy with students with ASD. They wanted practical strategies to use in ways that were individually responsive to students with ASD in their classrooms ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Able</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>85</RecNum><DisplayText>(Able, et al., 2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>85</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">85</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Able, Harriet</author><author>Sreckovic, Melissa A.</author><author>Schultz, Tia R.</author><author>Garwood, Justin D.</author><author>Sherman, Jessica</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Views from the trenches: Teacher and student supports needed for full inclusion of students with ASD</title><secondary-title>Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>44-57</pages><volume>38</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2015</year><pub-dates><date>February 1, 2015</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Able, et al., 2015). The VEOCRC report ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>63</RecNum><DisplayText>(2012)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>63</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">63</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Report">27</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission,</author></authors><tertiary-authors><author>Victorian Equal Opportunity & Human Rights Commission</author></tertiary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Held back: The experiences of students with disabilities in Victorian schools</title></titles><dates><year>2012</year></dates><pub-location>Melbourne</pub-location><publisher>VEOHRC</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(2012) states that 62% of government school teachers surveyed said they did not feel adequately trained or supported to teach students with disabilities, and 43% reported that they were not aware of the Disability Standards for Education 2005. The report recommends the use of whole-of-school approaches to build workforce capacity in teaching students with disabilities. Giangreco and colleagues ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><DisplayText>(2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>88</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">88</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Halverson, A T</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Broer, S M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals in inclusive schools</title><secondary-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</full-title></periodical><pages>82-90</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(2004) described professional development in schools committed to building teacher capacity; critical training areas included positive behaviour supports and differentiating curriculum and instruction for mixed-ability groups.Access to in-service training for teachers is often limited by time and geographic constraints. Professional development using web-based instruction is one response to these problems, and programs in working with students with disabilities have been developed. For instance, an in-service professional development conducted entirely online over four semesters to train teachers working with students with ASD was developed by the University of Florida ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Rakap</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>80</RecNum><DisplayText>(Rakap, Jones, & Emery, 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>80</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">80</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Rakap, Salih</author><author>Jones, Hazel A.</author><author>Emery, Alice Kaye</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Evaluation of a web-based professional development program (Project ACE) for teachers of children with autism spectrum disorders</title><secondary-title>Teacher Education and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Teacher Education and Special Education</full-title></periodical><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>June 5, 2014</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Rakap, Jones, & Emery, 2014). The authors state that the program was effective in helping teachers improve their competencies and knowledge in working with students with ASD. However, the evaluation was based only on participants’ self-reports, pre- and post-training, of their own competencies and knowledge. The program’s impact on actual classroom practices or student outcomes was not measured.A Canadian study evaluated a web-based program for primary classroom teachers of students with ADHD PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5FbGlrPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNTwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Elik, Corkum, Blotnicky-Gallant, & McGonnell, 2015). The six-week program was designed to provide teachers with knowledge about ADHD characteristics and evidence-based instructional and behaviour management interventions. A randomized controlled trial was conducted to evaluate the program’s effectiveness. The results are not yet in publication, but the preliminary findings indicate that students in the intervention group demonstrated significant improvements in their ADHD symptoms compared to the students in the waitlist control group.A model of ‘virtual coaching’ incorporating initial preparation and ongoing support and mentoring has been developed for new special education teachers working with students with significant disabilities ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Israel</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>79</RecNum><DisplayText>(Israel, Carnahan, Snyder, & Williamson, 2013)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>79</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">79</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Israel, Maya</author><author>Carnahan, Christina R.</author><author>Snyder, Kathleen K.</author><author>Williamson, Pamela</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Supporting new teachers of students with significant disabilities through virtual coaching: A proposed model</title><secondary-title>Remedial and Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Remedial and Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>195-204</pages><volume>34</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2013</year><pub-dates><date>July 1, 2013</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Israel, Carnahan, Snyder, & Williamson, 2013). These authors propose a virtual coaching model that includes coach observation of the novice teacher and immediate feedback delivered through multiple, integrated online technologies. To date, no results of programs using this model have been reported in the literature. Studies conducted so far have not indicated whether there have been any changes in the use of integration aides in classes following in-service teacher training in including students with disabilities. Listening to students with disabilitiesListening to the voices of students can be a valuable way to assess and improve the quality of inclusive educational practice ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Saggers</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>17</RecNum><DisplayText>(Saggers, et al., 2011)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>17</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">17</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Saggers,Beth</author><author>Hwang,Yoon-Suk</author><author>Mercer,K. Louise</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Your voice counts: Listening to the voice of high school students with Autism Spectrum Disorder</title><secondary-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australasian Journal of Special Education</full-title></periodical><pages>173-190</pages><volume>35</volume><number>02</number><keywords><keyword>autism spectrum disorders, inclusive education, lived experience, student voice, high school</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2011</year></dates><isbn>1833-6914</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(Saggers, et al., 2011). Students with disabilities should have age-appropriate input into decision-making about their own supports, particularly about whether to have integration aide support and if so, when, how, and from whom. Students may need instruction in self-determination and self-advocacy skills to improve their ability to do this PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Ccm9lcjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMDU8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Carter, Cushing, Clark, & Kennedy, 2005; Carter, Sisco, Melekoglu, & Kurkowski, 2007; Giangreco, 2013). Peer support can be informal and occasional or more structured and ongoing. It can improve engagement in classroom instruction and the general curriculum, and expand students’ communication skills, social interactions, and peer networks ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Carter, et al., 2010)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>66</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">66</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Carter, Erik W.</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Rose, R</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Supporting students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Personnel and peers</title><secondary-title>Confronting obstacles to inclusion: International responses to developing inclusive schools</secondary-title></titles><pages>247-263</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>London</pub-location><publisher>Routledge</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, Carter, et al., 2010). In Able et al.’s ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite ExcludeAuth="1"><Author>Able</Author><Year>2015</Year><RecNum>85</RecNum><DisplayText>(2015)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>85</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">85</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Able, Harriet</author><author>Sreckovic, Melissa A.</author><author>Schultz, Tia R.</author><author>Garwood, Justin D.</author><author>Sherman, Jessica</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Views from the trenches: Teacher and student supports needed for full inclusion of students with ASD</title><secondary-title>Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children</full-title></periodical><pages>44-57</pages><volume>38</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2015</year><pub-dates><date>February 1, 2015</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(2015) study of teachers’ perceptions of working with students with ASD, general education teachers reported that peer support or ‘peer buddy’ models were effective in breaking down social barriers between students with ASD and their classmates. Working with a peer is less stigmatizing than working with an integration aide, and both parties can benefit from relationships that otherwise may not have developed ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>88</RecNum><DisplayText>(Giangreco, et al., 2004)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>88</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">88</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Halverson, A T</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Broer, S M</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Alternatives to overreliance on paraprofessionals in inclusive schools</title><secondary-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Special Education Leadership</full-title></periodical><pages>82-90</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, et al., 2004).Carter et al. (2007) studied the effects of using peer support as an alternative to adult support with four high school students with severe disabilities in science and art classrooms. Their close examinations of student interactions revealed that the students with disabilities initiated conversational turns as much as their peer supporters, interactions continued outside of class activities, and social interactions extended to classmates other than the peer supporters. Academic engagement levels improved somewhat for two of the supported students; for the other two, levels neither improved nor diminished. In another study, Carter and colleagues (2005) found that the social and academic engagement of three middle and high school students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities and autism increased with peer support. Another study found substantial and sustained increases in social engagement and peer interactions after the establishment of peer networks, facilitated by a paraprofessional or special education teacher, for high school students with ASD ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gardner</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>83</RecNum><DisplayText>(Gardner et al., 2014)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>83</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">83</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardner, Karen F.</author><author>Carter, Erik W.</author><author>Gustafson, Jenny R.</author><author>Hochman, Julia M.</author><author>Harvey, Michelle N.</author><author>Mullins, Teagan S.</author><author>Fan, Hannah</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Effects of peer networks on the social interactions of high school students with autism spectrum disorders</title><secondary-title>Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities</full-title></periodical><pages>100-118</pages><volume>39</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>June 1, 2014</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(Gardner et al., 2014).Peer support practices need the active involvement of teachers to identify suitable students, provide training or orientation in their roles and in support strategies, and provide ongoing monitoring and support. Further, Giangreco and colleagues emphasise that “peer support strategies are meant to be embedded within good-quality inclusive practices; they are not designed to supplant support from educators” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Giangreco</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>66</RecNum><Pages>257</Pages><DisplayText>(Giangreco, Carter, et al., 2010, p. 257)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>66</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">66</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book Section">5</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Giangreco, Michael</author><author>Carter, Erik W.</author><author>Doyle, Mary Beth</author><author>Suter, Jesse C.</author></authors><secondary-authors><author>Rose, R</author></secondary-authors></contributors><titles><title>Supporting students with disabilities in inclusive classrooms: Personnel and peers</title><secondary-title>Confronting obstacles to inclusion: International responses to developing inclusive schools</secondary-title></titles><pages>247-263</pages><dates><year>2010</year></dates><pub-location>London</pub-location><publisher>Routledge</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Giangreco, Carter, et al., 2010, p. 257).It is clear that for many of these recommended changes and practices to be implemented, change at the systemic and whole-school level is needed. 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Giangreco, 2013; Ofsted, 2006; Shaddock, et al., 2007). School principals need to ensure school-wide collaboration, support, planning time, and best use of resources to enable quality inclusive practices in the classroom. In addition, parents who are concerned about a reduction of integration aide support “may need to be reassured that their child can be effectively supported by alternative strategies that do not require the presence of an individually allocated aide” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Australian Association of Special Education</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>87</RecNum><DisplayText>(Australian Association of Special Education, 2007)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>87</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tdf9v5z06x9xzhepsvaxvzxczrtw2fzztstp">87</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Electronic Article">43</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Australian Association of Special Education,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Position paper on teacher aides</title><tertiary-title>;(Australian Association of Special Education, 2007).In summary, key recommendations for alternatives to a reliance on the use of integration aides are:Special education teachers should be better deployed to support and advise classroom teachers, integration aides, and the school community. Special education teachers should work collaboratively with classroom teachers to develop individual education plans, to adapt curriculum and instruction, and to plan, implement, model, monitor and evaluate teaching programs.Better use may be needed of other specialist professionals, such as speech pathologists, occupational therapists, and educational psychologists, through a team support approach for students with complex needs.Schools should build capacity through training and professional development of mainstream teachers. Most teachers feel underprepared to teach students with disabilities and would benefit from training in specific disabilities, differentiating instruction for mixed-ability groups, positive behaviour supports, and assistive technology.Students with disabilities should have age-appropriate input into decision-making about their own supports, and have instruction in self-determination and self-advocacy skills to improve their ability to do this.Peers can be used to support students with disabilities in some situations. Peer support is less stigmatizing than support from an integration aide, and has been found to improve students’ engagement in classroom instruction and expand communication skills and social interactions.School principals need to ensure school-wide collaboration, support, planning time, and best use of resources to enable quality inclusive practices in the classroom.Change at the systemic and whole-school level is needed. School administrators have a strong influence in shaping the school culture, and their leadership is essential to creating inclusive environments and supporting inclusive practices.ConclusionIt is apparent from the literature that reliance on the use of integration aides to support students with disabilities in general education settings has several serious unintended consequences for the academic, social, and independence outcomes of these students. It is also clear from the examples in the literature that individual schools can improve the ways in which they use integration aides, reduce their reliance on aides, and increase the quality and extent of teacher instructional time with students with disabilities. Researchers have developed and field-tested several planning processes and tools to guide schools in self-assessment, planning and implementing changes designed to improve the use of integration aides and to determine alternatives to their use PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5HaWFuZ3JlY288L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDExPC9ZZWFy
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