ONLINE TEACHER EDUCATION: EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF A ...

Online Teacher Education: Exploring the Impact of a Reading and Literacy Program on Student Learning

ONLINE TEACHER EDUCATION: EXPLORING

THE IMPACT OF A READING AND LITERACY

PROGRAM ON STUDENT LEARNING

Barbara Weschke, Ph.D.

Walden University

Raymond D. Barclay, Ph.D.

Kirk Vandersall

Arroyo Research Services

ABSTRACT

This study presents findings from an investigation of the impact of teachers who graduated from a fully

online master¡¯s degree program with training in pedagogy and a content-specialization in elementary

reading and literacy (oERL) on reading achievement in a large urban public school system in the

northwestern United States. The research team used a non-equivalent group design and matched pairs of

teachers based on degree, grade-level taught, and teaching experience to construct the study on three

years of student and teacher data. The study consisted of 70 teachers and 3,828 student observations.

Hierarchical linear modeling was employed to understand the teachers¡¯ effects on student learning over

time. Results indicate there was a significant positive effect of the oERL on student achievement.

Broadly, this study is an example of a serious attempt to ascertain the impact of a high demand and fully

online program on the community where graduates are employed. More narrowly, these results support

the view that a fully online program aimed at training teachers can provide opportunities for those

teachers to obtain the pedagogical content knowledge that can positively influence instructional

effectiveness.

KEYWORDS

Teacher education, pedagogy, elementary reading and literacy (oERL), impact

I. INTRODUCTION

Local education agencies (LEAs) are expected under Federal, state, and local legislative and political

pressure to address a multitude of community, regional, national, and even international needs,

requirements, and concerns. Under the No Child Left Behind Act [1] which reauthorizes and expands the

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), LEA¡¯s are mandated to provide evidence that student

achievement goals are met and that teachers are highly qualified; they are further required to respond to

individual student needs under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA-97) amendments of

1997 [2]. Additionally, NCLB requires that LEAs specify the degree student achievement goals are met

by specific subgroups of students (e.g., race, English language learner status, special education status and

social economic status).

Fully addressing these mandates is complex because it must be done while simultaneously addressing the

educational needs of a student population that ¨Dis ethnically, linguistically, and socio-economically

diverse¡¬ [3]. Moreover, the rapidly changing socio-economic landscape is bringing about an educational

system that is more urban, diverse, and organizationally complex. For instance, ethnic minorities will

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Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Volume 15: Issue 2

Online Teacher Education: Exploring the Impact of a Reading and Literacy Program on Student Learning

comprise the majority of students in U.S. public schools by 2035 [3]. In response, LEAs will need to

recruit and retain a teacher workforce that can enhance or create new student engagement and

instructional strategies to address the needs of both locally and internationally diverse second language

learners [4]. Teachers, therefore, will require education and ongoing professional development that

provides appropriate pedagogical content knowledge and proficiencies (technical, semantic, diagnostic) to

meet the challenges of a 21st century classroom [5, 6].

To meet these LEA needs, teacher education programs must (a) recruit a diverse and competent cadre of

teachers that can communicate and prepare socially, linguistically, and economically diverse students to

compete in a global economy, (b) provide learning experiences that meet the unique certification,

classroom preparation, and professional development needs of today¡¯s teacher, (c) provide appropriate

delivery and participation options (face-face, online, etc.), and (d) address the growing demand for

outcome data that shows how their graduates add value in terms of student performance on standardized

academic achievement tests. However, they must also be able to meet these requirements within a

heightened accountability framework that requires empirical evidence based on achievement test scores

that supports a teacher¡¯s ¨Dvalue-added¡¬ to districts, while working with significantly diminished resources

and uneven assessment capacity within institutions of higher education and LEAs to promote formative

assessment at the system, district, and teacher levels [7]. Nonetheless, school districts and teacher

educators are diligently working on strategies to address these requirements. To inform an urban

university-district collaborative in their attempt to meet the aforementioned requirements, this article

presents findings from an investigation into the effects on elementary school student reading achievement

of teachers receiving masters degrees in a completely online advanced graduate teacher education

program.

II. BACKGROUND

A. Online Instructional Strategies Aimed at Addressing the Diverse

Educational Needs of Teachers

School districts and universities engaged in teacher education and professional development are grappling

with how best to address cost, access, efficiency, and recruitment. Online education is viewed as one

avenue for addressing these needs. As postsecondary institutions continue to adopt at a rapid pace the

variety of communication and course delivery modes to support instruction and learning [8, 9, 10, 11],

faculty and administrators are moving parts of classes and programs or sometimes the entire curriculum to

online learning platforms [3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].

The move toward online delivery methods has recently extended to teacher education programs.

Specifically, teacher educators are attempting to provide full or partial undergraduate, post baccalaureate,

and graduate teacher education programs and course offerings [15, 17, 19, 20, 21], field experience and

practicum support [19, 22, 23], and teacher professional development and enrichment opportunities [2,

24, 25, 26, 27, 28].

Creating scalable and nimble approaches to meet teacher education and professional development needs

is especially salient given the continuing national growth in student enrollment, the attendant need to

address the learning needs of diverse groups (ESL, special education), and demand for support services to

educate, engage, connect, and encourage beginner and experienced teachers. Borko, Whitcomb, and

Liston [29], for example, find that professional teacher professional development programs are

¨Dincreasingly turning to ¡­ contemporary, innovative technologies as a way to reach large numbers of

individuals at costs lower than those associated with the physical presence of professional development

facilitators¡¬ [30, p. 5]. Dede, Ketelhut, Whitehouse, Breit, and McCloskey identify the need for

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Online Teacher Education: Exploring the Impact of a Reading and Literacy Program on Student Learning

technology-supported teacher learning:

¡­that can fit with teachers¡¯ busy schedules, that draws on powerful resources often not available

locally, and that can create an evolutionary path toward providing real-time, ongoing, workembedded support has stimulated the creation of online teacher professional development (oTPD)

programs [30, p. 9].

Despite the burgeoning literature about the impact of online instruction broadly and increasing demand

for online education in general, and teacher education and professional development in particular, there

are mixed findings about the efficacy of these modalities, particularly concerning effective participant

engagement in learning experience, impact on teacher retention, and participant impact on subsequent

pupil achievement [18, 31, 32]. For instance, in discussing online teacher professional development,

Colgan, Higginson, and Sinclair [32, 33] declared ¨Dmost of the research that deals with the topic of online

professional development is limited to statements of vision, opinion, curriculum integration ideas, and

description of putative benefits ascribed to web and other networks¡¬ [33, p. 315]. Almost ten years later,

this statement was echoed in the Journal of Teacher Education following a review of nearly 400 articles

about online, face-to-face, and hybrid teacher professional development programs when Dede and

colleagues wrote that the ¨Devidence of effectiveness is often lacking, anecdotal, or based on participant

surveys completed immediately after the professional development experience¡¬ [30, p. 9]. They found

that only 10% met a quality threshold that could be considered empirically sound research (They note

criteria for assessment is described in Whitehouse, Breit, McCloskey, Ketelhut, &, Dede [34]). The 2009

study categorized the collected studies around research themes: program design (evaluation of content,

pedagogical approach, methods of delivery, and best practice); program effectiveness (participant selfreported satisfaction and short-term categorical change outcomes); program technical design (effect of

communication and multimedia on collaboration and building a learning community); and learner

interactions (quality of participation and efficacy of online communication and collaboration). Of the 40

studies established as high quality, only a study by Fishman, Marx, Best, and Tal [35] was reported to

have rigorously examined the relationship between student outcomes and the goals of an online teacher

professional development program. More recent studies are beginning to show evidence of positive

student learning and engagement outcomes associated with online programs. , including. For instance,

the large scale National Survey of Student Engagement report declares that ¨Dcourse management and

interactive technologies were positively related to student engagement, self-reported learning outcomes,

and deep approaches to learning¡¬ [36, p. 20]. Additionally, these modalities are thought to have a

positive and significant role in promoting student-faculty interaction and personal and social

development.

B. Approaches and Gaps in the Teacher Effects Research Literature

Teacher effects models are highly valued strategies for determining professional development and teacher

education outcomes, but there is considerable controversy regarding the contributions of teacher

background variables to student learning outcomes, and about the specific models used to conduct the

analyses. Many educational researchers believe the teacher effects literature shows significant deficits in

terms of coherent theoretical frameworks and sound empirical research findings. For instance, Palardy

and Rumberger [37] highlight the McCaffrey, Lockwood, Koretz, and Hamilton [38, p. 113] RAND

report denoting there is ¨Dlittle convincing evidence on the magnitude of a teacher effect or relative

importance of an aspect of the teachers as a source of variability in student achievement.¡¬ Palardy and

Rumberger [37] also note that Federal legislation [1] has predominately defined highly qualified teachers

in terms of background characteristics such as intelligence and aptitude tests, education level (e.g.,

bachelor¡¯s degree for elementary and secondary school teachers and subject matter expertise for

secondary school teachers), state certification (excluding emergency, provisional, or temporary licenses),

and other credentials. Palardy and Rumberger [37, p. 111] highlight several studies [39, 40, 41, 42, 43,

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Online Teacher Education: Exploring the Impact of a Reading and Literacy Program on Student Learning

44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49] to support the contention that background characteristics and their relationship to

student learning is ¨Dambiguous.¡¬ The researchers further state there is ¨Dlittle scientific evidence that these

characteristics have a measureable and consistent direct impact on student achievement¡¬ [37, p. 112], but

do contend there is evidence for indirect impacts. For instance, they note the recent Guarino, et al. [50]

study of kindergarten students that exhibited a significant relationship of coursework in reading

instruction methods that were positively associated with the use of reading practices deemed by many as

advantageous for learning. The empirical results of the Palardy and Rumberger [37] study of first grade

reading and math achievement, however, did ultimately find that reading gains were associated with

certification, and they also note that many studies show positive relationships for one or more background

characteristics. For instance, they note the Wayne and Youngs [48] meta-analysis of 21 studies that

controlled for socio-economic status (SES) and students¡¯ prior achievement and found evidence that

¨Dcollege ratings and test scores had consistently positive associations with achievement gains across grade

levels and participants, there was less support in the literature for the effects of degrees, coursework, and

certification¡­¡¬ [48, p. 113].

In our view, Palardy and Rumberger [37] correctly point out deficits in the research literature by

questioning coding strategies, omitted variables such as attitudes and practices, and incomplete models.

However, we contend a well designed research enterprise with a narrower scope can still significantly

contribute to the extant research literature:

The usefulness of small, comparison group studies¡ªas well as large correlational studies that use grosser

measures ¨C is not in the definiteness of their individual findings but in the contribution to a larger body of

work from which evidence can be triangulated [39, p. 15].

Darling-Hammond, Holtzman, Galin, and Vasquez-Heilig [51] make a compelling case for considering

the effects of teacher background characteristics on student learning gains, even in isolation from attitudes

and practices if the empirical framework is limited and warrants this approach. For instance, the 2005

study looked at fourth and fifth grade student achievement gains for six reading and mathematics tests in

the Houston public schools over a six-year period for Teach for America. The study considered full

certification (professional or standard certifications) to be a proxy for a defined set of courses that mapped

to a test of core academic skills, specialized subject matter, and pedagogical knowledge, a reasonable

assumption under Texas Administrative Codes (Title 19, Part 7, Rule 230.191, 2004). Specifically, they

highlight it is reasonable to surmise that a teacher with traditional certification has ¨Dthe ability to manage

a classroom, design and implement instruction, and work skillfully with students, parents, and other

professionals¡¬ [51, p. 22]. The findings indicate that these types of teachers were indeed significantly

more effective than other teachers in prompting student achievement gains on three of the six measures

over the period. There was no instance in the study where a certified teacher influenced gain scores less

than an uncertified teacher and on five of six tests the uncertified teachers had significant negative gains

(and one non-significant negative gain). The alternative route teachers had non-significant negative gains

on five of the six tests.

In many respects, the Darling-Hammond [39] study underpins the research work reported herein by

providing a methodological framework for conceptualizing teacher effects and supporting the idea that

this type of research should inform the work of states, school districts, and teacher educators who need to

develop and expand the reach of academically sound and efficient preparation routes and understand their

¨Dvalue-added¡¬. They contend, as we do, the critical need to identify, support, and retain quality urban

teacher education programs that ¨Dhave strong records of preparing capable teachers who stay in the city

schools¡¬ [39, p. 23].

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Online Teacher Education: Exploring the Impact of a Reading and Literacy Program on Student Learning

C. Constructing an Online Elementary Reading and Literacy Program

(oERL) for Teachers

Online teacher education and professional development curricula have suffered from a lack of consistent

and coherent connections between the specific domains of competence (e.g., reading, math, etc.),

pedagogy, and student learning and cognition in online teacher education and teacher professional

development curriculum [52, 53, 54] as cited by McCrory, Putnam, & Jansen [20]. Teacher education

more often than not focuses more on generic pedagogy (e.g., constructivist learning frameworks) than on

the steps a teacher needs to take to effectively integrate pedagogy with disciplinary knowledge in reading,

math, or science. These ¨Dessential tensions¡¬ between improving teacher professional practice and

¨Dintellectual development in the matters of school curriculum¡¬ is a persistent dilemma in teacher

education and professional development programs [52, p. 951] as cited by McCrory, Putnam, & Jansen

[20]. McCrory, et al. [20] claim these programs are not adequately allocating attention toward the

facilitation of a teachers¡¯ ongoing growth in intellectual competence relative to a subject area. Supporting

this claim, Schrader and colleagues [56] also cited the research of Kinzer, Labbo, Leu, and Teale [57] to

highlight findings from reading teacher self-reports that contend they are lacking exposure relative to

progressive literacy teacher education and practices. For instance, teachers reported receiving very little

time focused on reading pedagogy and few reported having mentors or established teachers demonstrating

effective practices. Moreover, there was a general view that the instructional contexts of teachers at that

time did not appear to reflect attributes of an authentic problem solving context.

To address these deficits, the online Elementary Reading and Literacy (ERL) program studied herein

designed the curriculum and program to focus on two key outcomes: (1) enabling the educator to become

an ¨Dexpert¡¬ decision maker in the field of reading and literature instruction so s/he may effectively

address the diverse abilities, socioeconomic, and ethnic backgrounds of children [56, p. 318] citing the

1998 National Research Council¡¯s Committee on the Prevention of Reading Difficulties in Young

Children), and (2) fostering the scholar-practitioner in all teachers, learning research-based literacy

theories and strategies, performing research as part of the curriculum, and implementing the findings and

reflecting on their practice. The curriculum in place at the time of the study was also designed to meet the

standards of the International Reading Association [58]. Drawn from professional expertise and research,

the IRA standards identify what teachers need to know and be able to do in order to be competent literacy

educators. The oERL program is based on current research and practical, research-based classroom

strategies to increase the achievement and oral reading fluency of all their students, including

linguistically, culturally, and academically diverse learners. The program subsequently revised its

curriculum based on the International Reading Association standards [59], designed to identify the

knowledge and skills teachers need to confidently manage their classroom literacy programs and to

effectively address the complexities of teaching reading and writing in today¡¯s classroom. Additional

consideration was also given to the National Reading Panel¡¯s report [60] on the scientific evidence of

various approaches to teaching children to read.

The IRA aligned curriculum is delivered within a program structure that combines online course delivery

and communication, face-to-face interaction with their peers, and optional enrollment in strictly online

classes. Some oERL students, such as those in this study, attend the university in cohorts where the

university works to keep them in courses together throughout their program of study. This gives students

a sense of the cohort community within the university, enabling cohort members to share and collaborate

on assignments, course materials, and instructional strategies outside the graduate classroom. During the

study, the program offered an optional hybrid model, a blended environment where cohorts of students

from the same schools or districts worked together in person, face-to-face, to conduct course-based

research and discussions. While the students worked face-to-face, their instructors were at a distance.

Student to instructor communication and assessments was done weekly or more often through email and

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Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Volume 15: Issue 2

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