The Australian Food Industry



The Australian Food IndustrySectors in the Food IndustryAgri-food chain refers to production and supply of food for consumer. All links in the chain rely on each other so if there’s a problem in one sector it affects the others. E.g. sour and small strawberries > modified recipe in manufacturing > food caterer substitutes another desert with sweeter taste, or retailer advertise strawberries at a ‘sale’ price to sell them.Agriculture and fisheries – beginning of food chain, all grown food both plants and animalsFisheries is the production of plants and animas in the water environmentAquaculture involves controlled farming of fishE.g. wheat, fruit, meat, poultry, seafoodFood processing and manufacturing – Largest sector (everyone eats), altering raw materialsRaw materials processed to make manufactured products. Primary industry products are refined then converted into a ‘value-added product’. They are much more popular than raw materials because they have been majorly processedE.g. bread, yoghurt, pies, breakfast cereal, cheeseFood service and catering – Where ready to eat food is prepared, sold or deliveredE.g. McDonalds, canteen, restaurants, take away outlets, catered functions, airlinesFood retail – Where processed food is sold to consumersProducts and service are limited, retailers vary in size, i.e. household or mutinationalE.g. Coles, Woolworths, butchers, bakers, convenience storesDevelopments in the 4 sectorsDevelopments in all sectors are driven by: technological advancement, need for companies to grow/prosper, world and local events (i.e. wars, recessions), and consumer expectations.Agriculture and fisheries Small farms are being taken over by large companies – less competition, no local profitsFishing quotas introduced to protect fish species – stabilised marine environmentGM crops on the rise (soya beans, tomatoes) – range of foods, increased productionExpansion of organic farming – environmentally friendly, company imageProduction of trim lamb – meets healthy needs of consumersFood processing and manufacturing New labeling laws - allergy and nutritional informationAdvances in packaging - longer shelf life, UHT, convenience i.e. resalableOrganic foods as ingredientsHeat and serve products (pizza, noodles, stir fry) – convenient, busy lifestylesNumerous serving sizes (individual, family of 4) – individual needs of consumerDiverse - multicultural foods, variations to product i.e. cherry/diet/vanilla cokeCured meats such as bacon - reduced fat, health needs of consumersFood service and catering Food courts, home delivery – convenient, range of choices, quickInternet shopping – quick, convenient of homeMulticultural restaurants – more tastes, varietyMore vegetarian items – individual needs of consumersFood retail EFTPOS – easy payment, light wallet, convenientExtended shopping hours – emergencies/needs, handyOverseas shops – products that aren’t sold in Australia, varietyLeaner varieties of meats, e.g. lite ham – health needs of consumersAspects of the AFIAll organizations within the AFI concentrate on the following:Levels of Operation - scale of food production, sophistication of technology usedHousehold - backyard strawberry growerSmall and large businesses - local bread shop, ColesMultinational companies – McDonaldsLarge business means more people employed, more production volume, and more technology/ mechanization/computerization. Level of technology increases with size of the operation, employee numbers, profit, economic climate. Automation eliminates manual labour and ensures consistency. Large companies don’t get affected to seasonal factors of raw materials because they can make large production runs and have appropriate storage, whereas household operations have limited storage facilities, small-scale equipment, and insufficient employees for continuous runs. Large companies/multinationals influence smaller businesses on what food products are sold, technology used, development of quality assurance and R&D, and consumer trends2. Research and DevelopmentExpensive and takes time for results to emerge. Big companies have R&D budgets. Smaller companies ‘copy’ food products from larger companies, such as Kraft Peanut Butter and No Name Peanut Butter, cereals. Consumer demand drives new food products. CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organisation) – carries out research for a variety of food sectors, e.g. manufacture, packaging, technological research3. Quality Assurance Quality is the ability to meet requirements. It’s where all food products are checked against a standard during production to ensure safety. Quality control is measuring characteristics, comparing to standard, and act on differences that occur. Quality assurance (whole company) is the ultimate aim of quality control (individual/part of company) – all parts of company working together to maintain consistency of quality products.HACCP system identifies problem areas and monitors them, having a course f action if something does go wrongState government inspectors regularly check to ensure correct system usage, i.e. meat processing plantsConsumer InfluencesConsumers are health conscious; they want to know what’s in a product. They want quick, easy, single serve and nutritionally enhanced foods. Food trends in consumer needs can be based on health issues, concern for the environment or change in customer demographics.Busier lifestyle and limited cooking skills > industry produces pre-prepared productsIncreasing number of people desiring ‘super health’ > vitamin/mineral supplements, functional foodsImpact on EnvironmentConventional farming uses chemicals to control weeds and pests, diseases, regulate animal growth and fertilise land. Food production results in land exhaustion, runoff to rivers, salinity, erosion, poisoning wildlife and animal slurry, and contaminated foods. Transporting food affects fuel consumption and emissions. Organic farming aims to maintain or improve fertility and level of organic matter in soil, it’s the alternative to using synthetic chemicalsImpact on EconomyFood production is the largest manufacturing industry in Australia. It’s also the largest employer. Large growth of catering and food service is due to tourism. 90% of ingredients used by AFI are grown/produced in Australia. Exporting food contributes to economyImpact on SocietyFood production is impacted by changing lifestyles – multicultural population, busy lifestyle, work shifts, mobile population. Evolution of food production has influenced people lifestyles. The time shopping in supermarkets and the money spent on food. Food production has also affected eating patterns of Australian, i.e. introduction of capsicum, wine, yoghurt. Today we have a huge variety of foods to choose from but have the responsibility of making healthy choices.Career Opportunities and working conditionsMore technology (machines and computer employment) means less manual labour. Employment may be in advertising, marketing, baristas, food service, take away, shift work, and casual work. Food technologists are involved with R&D, lab testing, technical services, quality control, HACCP supervision, etc. Working conditions vary on the nature of the business and occupation, e.g. butchers in cold conditions, food businesses with hygiene regulations and equipment.Policy and LegislationPolicies express outcomes or aims that the government wish to achieve, and strategies on how to achieve them. Policies involve:Health and nutritionSafetyTradeEnvironmentCompetitionFood nutrition policies are high on the government priority list due to ‘obesity epidemic’.Legislation refers to laws passed by the government to specify what can or cannot be done without prosecution. Legislation aims to achieve government policy. Food laws aim to unify all states, without national food laws there would be many complications in food production (i.e. some products may be more nutritious in NSW than QLD)When new issues occur, the government must ensure that rules and laws emerge to protect Australians (i.e. GM foods). Food industry legislation is administered on 3 levels:Federal – includes HACCP, FSANZ, AQISState – includes OH&S, NSW food actLocal – includes food surveillance/health inspectorsGovernments are advised by independent organizations on the development of policies and legislation. Advisory groups can be in the form of:Business groups within a sector e.g. Australia Dairy Corporation.A group that advises on specific health issues e.g. National Heart Foundation. An independent body able to make/change laws relating to food e.g. FSANZA group that protects local food supply against contamination. E.g. AQISFSANZ – Food standards Australia New ZealandSet up in 1991 – had the task of standardizing many food lawsAn independent legislative body – able to make legislations free from political influenceProvides the food management frameworkUpdates and enforces the Australian Food Standards CodeDevelops codes of practice for the food industry, i.e. codes for nutritional informationCoordinates food product recallsCoordinates surveillance of food available in AustraliaDevelops risk assessment policies for foods imported into AustraliaParticipates in the development of international food standards and policiesAustralian Food Standards CodeConsumers need to know the food is safe and the labels are accurate, informative and not misleadingThe AFSC is the tool used by FSANZ to publish approved food standards; it outlines a general list of standards to which food products must adhere.The standards cover: labeling and advertising, date of manufacture, food additives that may be used, foreign objects in food, etc.Codes of practiceFSANZ involved in developing codes of practice in AFI, e.g. nutrient claims on labels and ads. Consumers need to be informed and protected by claims made by producersProduct recallRecall is the removal from sale, distribution and consumption of foods that may pose a safety hazard to consumers (harmful micro-organisms, toxic chemicals, harmful foreign bodies)FSANZ must notify in question the manufacturer, producer, or importer of food before initiating product recallAQIS – Australian Quarantine Inspection ServiceOperates within the Agriculture and Fishery sectorIt is responsible for:Protecting Australian primary producers and the community from exotic pests and diseaseInspects legally imported animals and plants and productsChecks the quarantine status of overseas travelers passing through airports and sea portsProvides export certification for agricultural produce so they can compete in global marketplaceGovernment Policies and the Food IndustryHealth and nutrition policyMany large businesses have responded to national health and nutrition policies by developing their own company nutrition policy Growing cost of health care system means government wants to prevent where possibleAustralian guide to healthy eating aims to avoid overeating, prevent diet-related diseases and choose a healthier dietTrade policyPolicy of fair tradeGovernment’s moves to eliminate trade barriers include reduced tariffs, raised quotas, eliminated subsidies, and Australia’s free trade agreements with several countriesExports – to promote exports the commonwealth government aims to remove barriers to export, encourage Australian industry to seek export markets, and promote benefits of Australian agri-food products around Asia.Imports – Government trade policies have resulted in considerable increase in imported foods. Imported foods important in shortfall in our production as a result of poor growing season. They also reflect more demand for ethnic and specialty foods. However, the huge increase in imports has reduced Australian company profits and their market share; in response the companies are expanding overseas.Environmental policyAustralia is known for its ‘clean-green’ image and companies within the AFI aim to reduce environmental impact of food production and generate a good company imageLegislations Affecting the Food IndustryFederal Government Legislations:Trade practices Act 1974Strengthens competition at all levels of private enterprise covered by the legislationReduces the difference in power businesses hold over consumers / gives power to consumerThe consumer has power by deciding to buy a business’s product and giving them profitBusinesses compete to provide what they can at the most reasonable price, therefore even competitionThe act addresses four areas:Restrictive trade practices – Misuse of market power (large company uses market power to eliminate competitors), Exclusive dealings (supplier cant force retail to purchase only from them), Resale price maintenance (supplier can’t decide retailer sale price), Price discrimination (cannot vary price according to customer), Prohibition of acquisitions that result in less competition (restrictions on companies who consider ‘buying up’ competitors)Unconscionable conduct – Restricting acts of unprincipled, unwritten law (immoral acts)Consumer Protection – False/misleading conduct, Gifts/Prizes with no intention, Bait advertising (advertising certain product but then replacing it with another), referral selling (persuading consumer to buy good given that they must benefit the company in some way, i.e. referring others assist in supply/service), safety standards and unsafe goods, company responsibility Liability of manufacturers/importers for defective goods – Consumer injury or loss – the company is liable for compensatingState Government Legislations:Clean Air Act 1961Policed by the State Environment Protection Authority; it advises companies on ways to prevent/minimize plant pollution and monitors pollution levelsFood processing may produce odour, smoke and radioactive substances which are unpleasant for localsFactories are required to use equipment to control the amount and type of impurities releasedEquipment must be maintained and must operate efficientlyClean waters Act 1970Waste which may be discharged into waterways, pollutant being a gas, solid or liquid that will alter the waterway in any way. Failure to meet regulations is an offenceNoise Pollution Act 1975Noise produced during food processing, sound and vibrationEquipment required to control noise and reduce pollutionTrade Measurement Act 1989Measurement instruments must be fair and accurateMeasurements are performed where customer can observe weighing or measuring processMisleading customer about measurement given, or incorrectly calculating weight is offenceGiving less than the quantity specified in a sale offer is also an offenceFood Act 1989Details food hygiene regulations and food standardsAdulteration occurs when: A reduction of nutritive value occurs through mixing or diluting food with other substances, Substance prohibited by food standards is added to a food, Inappropriate or excessive ingredients, A food is concealed of damage, Taboos are used in the food i.e. dogFalse description of food occurs if: A food sold as a certain type of food does not meet the standard for that food. E.g. 85% of peanuts in peanut butter, The food/part of the food has been removed from its package and replaced by another food, Incorrect/misleading label informationUnlawful practices occurs when: content and packaging requirements of food standards not met, false advertising of foodState food inspectors may: Collect records that relate to food production, manufacturing and sale, Open and examine food packages, Demand, select, obtain samples of and food intended for sale, Make enquires and investigations to determine if an offence has been committed, May take possession of any materials showing an offence has occurred (adulteration, false description, etc.) The inspector gives notice to a food store to clean it up and this must be carried out within 24 hours.Local Government LegislationsThe local government develops and implements codes in relation to:Environmental health officers Local council may appoint an environmental health officer to be a food surveillance officer for the Food Act within the local areaCodes for inspections of food and food premises Each council is responsible for establishing its own code for inspection which shops to exclude, and what foods and equipment to be inspectedNo notice is needed to be given for an inspection to be performed. They take place at least once a yearCodes for construction and alteration of food premisesDesigned to achieve satisfactory hygiene standards, and allow easy cleaning and maintenanceCodes in each council include: material use for building, cleaning facilities, garbage storage, storage temperatures, exterior shop coloursAustralian Food Industry is affected byTechnology – constantly changing. Affects the industry and the consumer. Greatest invention is the refrigerator, it prolongs shelf life and expands types of food availableEnvironment – food industry has an obligation to Australia and consumers. Packaging today is to be biodegradable, and/or recyclable.Multiculturalism – increases variety and type of food availableEconomy – Lifestyle today is busy; consumers are more mobile, use lots of technology. Consumers demand lots of pre-prepared foods, ready to heat and serve foods. They want a variety of foods that’s cost effectiveGovernment – government and advisory groups promote health and develop policies and legislation. They’re in control of labeling laws, packaging, marketing, foods that can be produced and sold. Government has policies and legislations on health and nutritionFood ManufactureProduction, Processing and Preservation of FoodRaw MaterialsA raw material is any product that is used in the manufacture of another processed good. They include product ingredients, processing materials, food additives, and packaging materials. All raw materials are processed.E.g., Fruit and veg., steam and water, emulsifiers and colours, cans and bottlesAll raw materials must meet strict guidelines because the whole production run is at risk. No raw material delivery is accepted until it is tested and confirmed to meet company specifications. If quality control of raw materials isn’t ensured it can lead to inferior products and dissatisfied/harmed consumers and reduced company reputation.Processes that transform raw materials into manufactured food productsLarge expenditure on Raw Materials ensures a product of a high standard. To ensure these standards, 4 processes are adhered to:Physical characteristic check – a visual check may indicate odour and colour. E.g. applesSensory analysis - a visual check may indicate odour and colour. E.g. mangoesChemical composition check – a chemical check results in nutrient content. E.g. protein in wheatMicrobial check – a microbial check results in what microbes (microorganisms) are presentThese processes and limits are set by government authorities and are strictly adhere to. Raw materials will be rejected if they cannot meet the requirements. Once they meet the standards, the company accepts delivery and begins the production run.Food AdditivesAdditives are substances that normally aren’t consumed on their own. E.g. a bowl of food colouring or vitamin C. Food additives are necessary to provide the consumer with wholesome, safe, convenient and nutritious food. They:Extend shelf lifeReduce wasteRestore or improve taste, texture and appearanceProvide special dietary needsAssist in the production and preparation of food by stabilizing/keeping quality of foodWithout them the modern practices of food preparation and distribution would be impossible. However, some people have adverse reactions to some (allergy, food tolerance) and have to check the additive numbers.The following lists food additives and their functions:Anti-oxidants (preservatives) – Added to prolong shelf life by preventing oxidation which causes rancidity and discollouration. Frozen cooked prawns, margerineAcids – control acidity levelAnti caking agents – ensures no clumping occurs and there’s free flow. Powdered products i.e. salt, cake mixColours – restores colour lost when processing, enhance appearance. Confectionary, jamsEmulsifiers – prevent oil and water mixture from separatingEmulsifiers – combines oil and water for storage. Salad dressings, ice creamFlavouring and flavour enhancers – improve and restore taste, largest group of additives. Comes naturally or laboratory, or completely artificial. Ice cream, biscuitsGums – improve texture and keep parts together. Cocoa, jamHumectants (Preservatives) – prevent food from drying out by absorbing moisture. Pastries, mixed dried fruitMinerals and vitamins – restores loss during processing, supplement. Juices, processed cheese Preservatives – retard growth of microorganisms thus preventing deterioration/spoilage. Tomato products, picklesSweeteners – substitute for sugar, sweet taste. Diet soft drinks, sugarless gumThickeners – improve viscosity and ensure consistent texture. sauces, casserole mixesProduction equipment Food is produced by manual methods to highly computerized production areas. Automation and computerization:Reduce labourSave energyEnsure consistent product qualityWaste less materialsProvide more consistent production levelsUnit OperationsUnit operations are the specific processes the food undergoes during production. E.g. mixing, transportation. The level of production of the manufacturing company influences the equipment used. Handling raw materials is the first unit operation performed in the food processing plant. Different characteristics of raw materials require different handling systems:SeparationPhysical separation of food. Most common. E.g. peeling skin off vegetableFiltration, sedimentation (forces solids from liquids), centrifuging (rotating)Chemical separation of food components. E.g. add chemicals to separate whey from fatGrinding and millingReduces size providing: easier handling (grinding salt so mixed easier into products)suitability for final product (part peanuts rather than whole)completely new product (flour from wheat)Type of mill depends on product and its standards. Large mills are fully computerizedThen:MixingEnsures ingredients are evenly distributed throughout productsMixers vary from highly computerized systems (i.e. bakeries) to manually operated mixers (i.e. food lab). Type of mixer depends on batch size and materials being mixedThen:Heating equipmentSteam heating most commonType of equipment depends on nature of raw materials and required heating intensityLow intensity equipment include blanching tanks, high intensity use heat exchangersTubular heat exchanger (hot water/steam in surrounding tube)Plate heat exchanger (two heated surfaces forcing thin film)Ovens are used extensively, i.e. tunnel ovenMicrowaves also used to remove remaining moisture after baking in convectional ovenCooling equipmentHeat exchangers (chilled water/refrigerants instead of steam),and refrigerators commonUsed in confectionary manufacture and storage warehousesFreezing equipmentAir blast freezers – cold air at fast velocities. Meats and cakesPlate freezers – food products are in direct contact with plates that are maintained at desired temperature. Freezing fish and meat productsImmersion freezers – direct contact with low temperature refrigerant, such as liquid nitrogen at -196 degrees, so quickly frozen (snap freezing). Fresh vegetables, ice creamEvaporationUsed to concentrate or increase sold concentration of liquid foodsNeeds an evaporation vessel, heat source, condenser (converts steam to water), vapour removal method. Concentrated fruit juices, tomato juice to tomato pasteDehydrationReduces moisture content by heating, limiting microbial growth Type of dryer depends on product being dried, and batch size/quantityCabinet dryers, tunnel dryers, bin dryers, vacuum dryers, drum dryersFreeze drying:First stage - food frozen using normal fast-freezing techniquesSecond stage – food temperature gradullay raised under low pressure causing ice to sublime (solid to gas without going through liquid phase)Food is lighter, easier to transport, doesn’t require cold storage, maintains food texture. Though more expensive. Coffees, teas, herbsSpray dryingLiquid forced through automiser (emitting spray of liquid in to hot drought). Instant drying occurs, fine powders formed. Instant coffee, powdered milkQuality Management ConsiderationsProcessing Flow ChartsWhen processing food, flow charts are used. They are diagrammatic representations of production processes involved in the manufacture of a specific product. Each step of a process can be analysed to determine effectiveness (contribution to product standards, quality, yields, costs), new staff can quickly familiarize, and CCP can be identified. They incorporate 5 basic universal symbols: : Operation – Operations are when raw materials are deliberately changed physically, chemically Inspection – The product is compared to a standard. E.g. recording pasteurization temperature Transportation – Move materials from one place to another. E.g. fork lifting apple palletsD Delay – conditions don’t allow next step of process to occur, or next production step that doesn’t happen immediately. E.g. shortcomings in process design, wait for yeast react Storage – The product is kept under controlled conditions before selling. E.g. canned beans on shelf2 symbols are used when 2 operations are carried out at once. E.g. Inspect the product while being bakedAll these symbols are used when a food is produced. It also helps with the quality control of the product and its ingredients.Quality control and quality assuranceQuality control is done individually/in parts in the company; measuring characteristics, comparing them to standard, and act on any differences, to satisfy consumers and their safety. Quality assurance is all parts of the company working together to maintain the quality of products produced.All workers must be aware how important quality control is, and must understand and comply with the set standards to protect the quality of the final product. Quality assurance includes quality control, process control, adherence to government regulations, and technological training of employees. If one producer is careless and an outbreak occurs, it will affect other sectors in the industry.HACCP – Hazard Analysis and Critical Control PointsFood safety is a major factor and quality insurance issue. The HACCP system is used to ensure food for consumers and food workers are safe. It is a quality management technique (compulsory in some sectors) that identifies potential hazards within the production of food products and methods of dealing with them. There are 7 steps in the HACCP regime that are internationally known:Assess hazards – a hazard is any situation in which a food is contaminated and may harm the consumer. Fresh poultry contains salmonella bacteria so can’t store with vegetablesIdentify critical control points (CCP) – a CCP is a point in the production process where a hazard can be controlled or reduced. These points are determined by drawing up a flow chart of every production step, storage, packaging and dispatch, then identifying where potential hazards existSet standards for each CCP – the aim is to minimize hazard occurrences. I.e. correct storage temperatures, time a product can be cooked at certain temperatureMonitor CCP – all trained employees record measurements of the product at the critical point, and compare them to standards to determine any inconsistenciesHave clear procedures if standards are not met Keep records to identify variations from a standard – records have to be simple to complete and easy to accessAssess system – involves checking the records making any updates or changes required. Often an outside inspector undertakes this verification.This system provides:More profit for business – wastes less product and has to redo less workProduct has edge over competitionProblems prevented rather than treatedConsumers feel confidence in product’s safetyEmployees feel more controlling of work environment, and improved job security OH&S – Occupational Health and Safety Act 1983There is a need to be aware of potential accidents to workers. OH&S instructs workers about safety issues, provides well maintained equipment and a safe environment (clean air and adequate ventilation, appropriate lighting, adequate equipment, adequate toilet facilities, etc.). It was brought in to ensure safe and clean working environments exist for workers. If employment exceeds 20 people, an OH&S committee must be formed and meet regularly. The committee prepares a plan or check list of the areas where accidents are likely to occur, devises an accident report form, and decides on a course of action when an accident occurs. Employees are to:Take responsibility of their safetyUse equipment as instructed safelyNotify employer about safety issues if anyNotify the employer in writing of accidents that occurWear appropriate clothingFood PreservationDrying, fermenting and salting were the first preservation techniques. Raw foods spoil quickly due to natural and environmental causes. We preserve food to:Make it acceptable to the consumerPromote safe foodRetain nutritional value of foodKeep foods in a form acceptable to consumers therefore preventing wasteMake perishable foods available all year roundProfit food producersCauses of food spoilageFood is spoiled through:Chemical processes – chemical breakdown of food. E.g. rancidity of cheese and dairy. Also if the food is contaminated by other substancesPhysical reactions – when a product is being transported/delivered. E.g. fruit bruising. Also caused by freezing, burning and pressure. Environmental factors also include light, water, oxygen, infestationMicrobial activity – by bacteria, viruses, yeasts and moulds already present in the food or from surrounding environment. E.g. mould on old bread, sliminess on aging meatEnzymatic activity – enzymes continue to work after the material has been gathered and eventually breaks down the food. E.g. fruit and vegetables, meat.Other living mechanisms – includes bugs, rodents and animals. E.g. weevils in flourPrinciples of PreservationTo ‘retard’ or slow down spoilage activity many processes are carried out. The principles of food preservation are to control water availability, addition of chemicals, temperature, pH level/acidity level, and the oxygen level. Preservation techniques include:Exclusion of air – food no contact with micro-organisms in aseptic conditions. Container sterile, food free of microorganisms/use of quality ingredients. E.g. vacuum sealed bacon and cheeseRemoval of micro-organisms – E.g. filtrationUse of low temperatures – chilling and freezing. e.g. refrigerator, freezing to slow down microbial growthUse of high temperatures – e.g. canning, bottling, blanching (limits enzymatic action , hot water/steam of 95 degrees for 1-5 mins), pasteurizing, UHTDrying – moisture removal. E.g. freeze drying, dehydration, spray drying. Adding sugar or salt also makes water unavailable to microbesUse of chemical preservatives – e.g. sorbic acid in desserts, sulfur dioxide in drying and freezing of fruits, additives, cure and salt, fermentationFood Preservation ProcessCanning - A sealed can is a barrier to microorganisms. Foods in cans are heated – this destroys all microorganisms. Cans are:FilledAir removed (steam or vacuum chamber)SealedHeated in large pressure cookers, time depends on food typeQuickly cooledBacteria may be present in cans only ifFood is initially not heated to a high enough temperatureThe food is unprocessedCan metal reacts with food producing hydrogen and spoiling foodAseptic canning is when the food is heated to the correct temperature then put in a sterile can. Canning speeds are therefore faster because the already sterile food in can is not reheated. The aseptic process ensures that all food is even heated and it has been sterilized.Pasteurization - Kills most heat sensitive microorganisms. They heat food to 72 degrees C. for 15 seconds (HTST). Any more/less will alter the taste. Products include milk, juice, beer, wine.UHT (ultra heat treated/ultra high temperature) - Gives longer life. Food products are heated to 140 degrees C. for a 3-5 seconds to kill ALL heat resistant bacteria. The taste changes but does not require refrigeration. Products include milk, gravy, custard, stockChilling - The most common form of preservation. Chilling SLOWS the growth of microorganisms and enzyme activity – it does not have an effect on the number of bacteria present. Bacteria will be reactivated when the food is back to room temperature or will slow even more when at lower temperatures.Freezing - Slow freezing kills up to 80% of microorganisms. Upon thawing, the remaining 20% reactivate. The taste is altered slightly. In a frozen state the microorganisms are in a solid block and do not move. To ensure minimum activity temperature should be at least -18 degrees. Sometimes blanching is used to limit enzymatic activity in vegetablesDrying - Is any method that decreases the amount of water in a food product, such as evaporating water. Only 5-6% of water remains. Bacteria need more than 25% to survive and reproduce. Adding salt and sugar draws water away from the flesh of the food product. E.g. pasta, 2 minute noodles, dried fruitsFreeze Drying - Expensive process, but it produces a quality product. The food also changes slightly. Product is quickly frozen, then placed on shallow trays, ice crystals then sublimate in vacuum and gently heated environment, leaving dehydrated particles. E.g. coffee, tea, soup, dried milkChemical Preservatives - These are food additives. Chemicals depend on food type. Results microorganisms not growing or ‘retarding’, or if concentration high enough they will die. Important to use correct amount and type to achieve desired effectFermentation - Uses alcohol or acid to cease microorganism growth. E.g. cheese, soy sauce, yoghurt, wine, beer, spiritsPackagingFood packaging provides a controlled atmosphere for the food product. Packaging is available in many standard sized units. Packaging types and sizes have changed over time due to our new food products, technology, environmental concerns, and lifestyle.Functions of PackagingContains the product – important in distribution and storageProtects the product – consumers unlikely to accept tampered product. Horizontal and vertical impacts are dangerous. Packaging must protect against all damage (stacking, environmental)Preserves the product – packaging must decrease risk of contamination of product, i.e. moistureInforms the consumer and markets product – identifies product, product’s features, etc.Provides convenience and handling – e.g. microwavable containersPackaging MaterialsMaterials should be inert, packaging easy to use and must suit type of food packaged. All materials used are becoming recyclable.Cans – are cheap and the most common material in food industry. Good protection and prevents undesirable moisture gains/losses. Easy to handle, stacked easily, long shelf life, impact resistantSteel cans for solid and semi-solid foods, aluminium for drinks. Thin layer of tin acts as a barrier between steel and food in most foods. Lacquer or plastic sometimes need to prevent reactions between food and tin coating. Dented cans may have microscopic holes therefore air/microbes can enter, or damaged lacquer may cause metal to react with food, causing food deteriorationGlass – has become lightweight and thinner over the years. It’s an inert material and does not chemically react with the food. It’s very strong but fragile, impermeable and non-porous, transparent therefore can see what’s inside, can be shapedPaper and Cardboard – E.g. paper bags, moulded cartons, paperboard bricks, composite containers, folding cartons. Can be made into a variety of shapes and thicknesses. Can be placed with additional materials. E.g. plastic and aluminium. Greaseproof papers are barrier to unwanted odours and moisture; waxed papers are non-toxic, inert and tastelessRigid Plastic – PVC and PETP. E.g. oil, cordial, soft drink containers. Lightweight and strong containers, high impact resistance, lots of shapes and sizes, relatively cheap, transparentFlexible Plastic – e.g. snack food containers, cereal bags, meat and vegetable coverings, cling wrap. They are flexible and are lightweight, making it suitable for specific productsAluminium Foils – foil is less than 0.15mm thick so it’s quite fragile and needs to be joined to another material for strength (lamination). It’s very flexible by itself, light, adds to product valuePrimary packaging is the pack in which food is sold directly to consumer. Secondary packaging is the packaging/carton the products are in when distributed and stored that holds the food products togetherCurrent developments in packagingConsumers demand fresher and more convenient products, but developments are limited by technology and creativity.Cans - Thickness has been reduced over time therefore less weight, and strength increased. I.e. the ribs in the can make it stronger. Ring pull lids for canned veggies, soups, etc. Aseptic canning had greatly changed canning processesActive packaging – packaging that helps in maintaining food quality. It keeps oxygen level lowModified atmosphere packaging (MAP) produces a gas mix that maximizes shelf life. First form of packaging is where the headspace is filled with gas/gases required to maintain the product’s shelf life. E.g. nitrogen in chip packets. Second form is where packaging film allows movement of gases and water in and out of package. E.g. ‘breathing’ broccoli to Japan where oxygen is let in and carbon dioxide outSous Vide (cooking-chill) – perishable food cooked, then rapidly chilled, vacuum packed, stored at low temperature. New materials are being used, such as nylon, to further extend shelf life when frozenFood Labeling and packagingThe main concern about food packaging is the environmental concern. The food Standards code tells producers what must appear on every label:Product name – e.g. sour cream, apple juiceBarcode – individually identifies country of origin, what the product is, brand nameName and address of manufacturerCountry of origin of the food product Some form of identification – date, time, place, batch number. Important for recallsNutritional information panel (NIP) – numbers are evaluated with percentages. The base unit is 100g/100ml. Required if any nutrition/energy claims made. Must warn caffeine and aspartameList of ingredients – they are put in order from largest to smallest amount used in the product by weight. Water is listed last. Includes category names of additivesUse by date, best before – required for food with less than 2 year shelf lifeQuantity of product – weight or volume without extra weight of the packagingStorage requirementsAlcohol content – number of standard drinks for alcoholic beveragesFSANZ introduced new warning statements in 1999 to declare the presence of the following foods and food additives:Gluten – found in wheat, barley, oats, ryeEggs, egg productsFish, crustaceans Peanuts, tree nutsLactoseSulfites – in some drugs. i.e. penicillinAspartame – artificial sweetenerGM – genetically modified foodFood companies include a variety of non-compulsory information in their labeling and packaging to attract consumers to their product. Marketing of products to increase sales may include:The Heart Foundation tickRecyclableGI indication (Glycemic Index) – how full it makes you, lower GI makes you more fullWholegrainNatural ingredientsStorage and DistributionA packaged product needs to be stored then distributed to the consumer as quickly as possible to reduce food spoilage. Food distributers, wholesalers or warehouses need handle goods efficiently and the packaging must be able to withstand the handling involved. Damage results from poor packaging and inefficient handling in the movement of food. The shape of the product is important when storing and transporting as it can save space and therefore time, effort, waste and more production.During food manufactureStorage occurs after raw materials are delivered to factory, when a product is held while it changes (e.g. bread dough rising), or when final product is packaged but hasn’t been distributed. Perishable, short shelf life products need to be stored at low temperatures, and sunlight should be avided. Checking storage forms part of quality management. It ensures the ‘First in first out’ principle (FIFO).After food manufactureThe nature of the food product and packaging determines the type and time of storage and how distribution will take place. Foods with short shelf life are distributed through direct channels to the consumer.Direct distribution to the consumer occurs with local bakeries, cake shops and fast foods. Indirect distribution has a number of stages between the manufacturer and consumer. Most supermarket products travel; through various channels before they reach the consumer. E.g. break and milk.Overseas products move through lots of distribution channels. E.g. cherries and broccoli.Extra steps in distribution increase costs but also create a greater awareness of the product. Each stage has an unload – store – and reload feature.Transport is either by rail, road, air or sea and can be refrigerated. The type of transport depends on the product and its shelf life. Rail is cheap and fast but not as direct as road. Air is expensive, and sea transport is slow.Impact of food manufacturing technologiesEnvironmental issuesWe save resources for the health and viability of the planet. Governments create policies and legislation to encourage reduction of the impact of resource use and a clean green environment, with reducing, reusing and recycling materials. Food manufacturing impacts on the environment through:Packaging practices – Technological developments have enabled companies to use lighter and more environmentally friendly packaging in response to environmental concerns. Recyclable glass, resealable plastic bags, biodegradable material. However, some foods are still over-packaged. Chocolates, water bottles. Today, virtually everything can be recycled. Recycled packaging reduces resource consumption, but sometimes collection may be expensive. Recently the weight of packaging has been reduced by:Cans are 20% lighterSoup cans use 80% less tin coatingAluminium is 30% lighter than original weightPlastic is lighter by 40%Paperboard weight is reduced by 15-35%Production techniques – Concern has been growing about companies to limit their amount of natural resources consumed during production, such as water and energy. Energy is used in processing techniques, storage, distribution, and machine operations. Manufacturers use energy, water, timber, oil for plastics, sand for glass. But by using natural resources like wind and sunlight, there is a cost saving because they are free.Waste management – Waste comes from gathering raw material, material and product manufacturing, and consumer disposition. Industry has developed biodegradable wastes which are environmentally friendly in the long term. When wastes are discharged into a small area the ecological balance would be upset, and the situation could become irreversible. Animal food, fertilizer, pet food and composting material are all by-products of food manufacture. Waste management methods include purifying water, using bacteria to treat waste water, and to simply recycle as much material as possible. Some companies develop waste management cycles, but in future will need to investigate waste solutions internationally, foster waste education and training programs, and conduct further research in waste management. Today we can reduce resource consumption by:Microwave technologyAseptic packaging – UHT – less refrigeration therefore less energyUsing filtered water up to 7 times for cooling machineryReduce weight of packages to fit more on transport trucksAvoid over packaging – usually luxury food itemsSocial implicationsLifestyle changesIndependent meals – technology enabled preparation of own meals when families are too busy, e.g. microwavable foods, migorengHealth conscious foods – manufacturers produce healthy foods, i.e. low fat. These have encouraged people to be more health conscious and try to improve their wellbeingAcceptance of changes – food manufacturers produce a variety of products and flavours, causing people to be more eager in trying new productsCaution in accepting recent scientific research – People expect a steady supply of food, and with issues such as GM crops and inorganic farming, are increasingly becoming cautious in what they’re eatingDecline in food preparation skills – Many food products are already pre-prepared and therefore our need for cooking skills and equipment is decreasingEmployment opportunitiesAFI employs 1 in 5 of the manufacturing work force. The number of people employed depends on the business’s operation level. I.e. small operation is more labour intensive because machinery cost is high. As sales increase, so does level of mechanization, meaning some employees may lose jobs while others may be hired (marketing personnel, computer programmers, etc.)Employee numbers also depend on product being produced because certain tasks are more labour intensive than others. E.g. lots of butchers in processing plant, compared to very few in flour mill due to advances in machineryA factory can expand if production runs are too demanding. This will provide more jobs, and an employment flow to other industries (e.g. to suppliers and transport firms)Nutritional implicationsThe AFI uses new technology to produce safe foods and to maximize nutritional content. Some still believe that raw is more nutritious than processed. Therefore, most large companies have developed a ‘corporate nutrition policy’ which explains the company’ strategies when developing products, conducting R&D, and meeting consumer needsAppropriate use of technology in food manufactureUsing technology to produce a variety of safe and nutritious foods in efficient, and environmentally friendly waysEnergy sources – some processes cost more energy than others, and pollute the environment more than others. E.g. fruit and veg costs more than some processingPackaging technology – using technology to further environmentally friendly packaging. E.g. reducing thickness, developing lighter materials, use more composite packagingTechnological processes – using technology in production techniques to save energy and time. E.g. aseptic canning much quicker than before, therefore less energy usedResearch and development – technology is important in nutrition research of foods, which may lead to better, safer, more ranging food products for consumersFood Product DevelopmentNew food products exist after substantial market research and analysis.Factors which affect food product developmentA situational analysis or SWOT analysis reviews factors inside and outside the production company which will affect all decisionsExternal Factors (macro environment)Economic – influenced by world activities. Interest rates (loans for production), exchange rates (overseas markets, machines and raw materials cheaper), inflation (supplies expensive, therefore retail price expensive), taxation (company tax rates), wages and unemployment (higher wages means more sales, low level of unemployment means taxes remain low). All countries experience economic cycles: > RECESSION – consumers limit purchase, reluctant to try new product, profits fall> EXPANSION – everything getting better, consumers buy products they didn’t before> BOOM – consumers spend freely, companies expand and even new ones appear> CONTRACTION – interest rates rise, economy moves to recessionPolitical – Australia has 3 levels of government, they control tax and tariffs, wages, transport facilities, factory locations, operation hours, workplace supervision, and enforce Food Standards. Other organizations such as FSANZ influence company production, as well as lobby groups pressuring government on certain issues. These controls ensure safe reliable food supply and correct locations for factoriesEcological – increased concern for pollution and natural resources (Australia known as “green”). Companies must address long term impact of industrial waste, herb/pesticides, recyclability. Cost of environmental techniques influences productionTechnological – New technology influences and increases food products. I.e. new production methods, ingredients, barcodes, internet, microwaves, UHT. However, technology can cause job losses, is expensive, and new operation techniques.Internal Factors (micro environment)Personal expertise – refers to all areas of production. Well trained/profressional employees are beneficial. Employees with skills acquired from previous products, time can be reduced. Knowledge from one job to another, flexible working situations provides advantages to companyProduction facilities – food production depends on facilities available and already exiting, some companies use continuous production (24/7, heavily machined), mass production (assembly is major step), batch production (general purpose machines), or one off (single items for specific customers). Most companies don’t move between them unless a positive outcome, i.e. profit/lots of money. The equipment needed depends on the processing required and the scale of production. Developing a product that doesn’t use existing facilities is problematic and is a weaknessFinancial position – if in good financial situation, production companies can expand, find new sellers, compete in marketplace and therefore prosperCompany image – consumers look at brand names and company image where products are sold. Good reputation = more production, i.e. Coke. ‘Positioning’ the consumer depends on the product’s quality, price, availability, awareness and responding to consumer needs. E.g. Sanitarium known for high fibre, wholesome, low sugar productsSWOT analysisStrengths and Weaknesses refer to internal running of company. Opportunities and Threats refer to external influences of company. SWOT analysis helps companies evaluate markets to help plan for future. Info gathered is important for financial and manufacturing activities, advertising, sales targets, target markets, and size of new product productionSWOT analysis gives info on:Size and scope of marketsResources availableCurrent skills of the companyCompeting brands in marketCustoms and preferences in marketCustomer serviceDistribution systems between wholesalers and retailersStrengths – what the company does better than others. E.g. Manufacturing, distributing, marketing, reputation, well established, connections, high R&D levelWeaknesses – what the company does worse than others. E.g. Machinery bad, crap staff, slow production, poor reputationOpportunities – potentially advantageous external factors. E.g. consumer demands, trends, competitors out of business, technological advancementThreats – potentially disadvantageous external factors. E.g. competition prices, economic cycleE.g. Coke strengths are good rep and well known, do R&D, lots of money, well established. Weaknesses are health of product. Opportunities are can expand readily, can pay for ads, and can pay for loans when expanding. Threats are Pepsi/other competitors, economic cycle, taxesE.g. Small industry strengths are rarity, individual/different, homemade, small management. Weaknesses are location, very small, labour intensive, not well known, limited product. Opportunities are economic cycle may be cheap and promote them. Threats are competition against big brands, time consumingReasons for and types of food product developmentRange of foods in supermarkets is constantly changing - new products, colours, flavours, varieties, shapes, sizes. Peoples’ lives and tastes are constantly changing too - increase single person households, smaller family sizes, more health conscious, multicultural, and having kids later in life. Companies design products for different market segments – niche market segment (specialized product), one market segment, and across market segmentsReasons for new food products include:Needs and wants of markets – vegetarians, coeliacsIncreased population – products that use raw materials efficientlyEnvironmentally aware population – organic foods, recycleHealth reasons – diabetics, celiac, fat reducedMulticultural foods – wants and needs of multicultural racesMore adventurous in our tastes – want for variety, changes, new productsDrivers of the development of food productsMarket concerns:Health concerns – health foods take up a large section in a supermarket. Companies create products to keep everyone healthy and to prevent/control health risks. E.g. logical margarine, soy milk, linseed bread, added calcium and iron milk, yoghurts with good bacteria, gluten free products for coeliacsEnvironmental concerns – 75% consumers will only buy environmentally friendly packaged products, want for organic foods (naturally fertilized), consumers read labels to check if package material is recyclable, concern of natural resourcesConsumer demands – consumers want convenience foods due to busy lifestyles: pre-prepared meals, easy opening packages, re-sealable packages, tamper evident packaging, convenience and microwavable foods, cost effective products (generic products). They also want a variety of products to choose fromTechnological developments – new technologies > new food products. E.g. UHT, aseptic packaging. New technology > new markets. Computer controlled systems give increased production. Initial cost is high then prices reduce due to large output. Technology has brought about functional foods, genetic engineering, and better suiting materials and packaging (e.g. sectioned plastic tubs)Company profitability – expenses include product development and promotion, wages and training, rent and basic services, supplier payments, retailer trading costs. To increase profit, the company could:Use more efficient equipment, quicker processes, computerized manufacturingReduce amount/quality of raw and packaging materials, e.g. synthetic flavourAdd value to product, e.g. margarine for garlic breadTarget new segment of the market with new productIncrease market share by coaxing people away from competitors’ productsEnter international overseas markets, e.g. ‘Food into Asia’ government policy. Conducting research is important for developing appealing products overseasSpecialized products – These may never be on the supermarket shelves. Includes:Desert warfare – Troops eat combat rations. Food needs to contain essential ingredients and nutrients, be lightweight and low in bulk, have long shelf life, easy transportable, easy to use, be varied and tasty to maintain morale. Combat meals include ‘meals ready to eat’ (plastic packaged, do not need refrigeration), ‘B-rations’ (canned or dehydrated foods), and ‘T-rations’ (trays of single food item feeding many soldiers). UHT and aseptic packaging has improved beverage variety availableSpace missions – habitation modules in space have a refrigerator and freezer, microwave ovens, a rehydration station. However, water is limited. Therefore, foods brought are frozen, refrigerated, and aseptically packaged. Antarctic research stations – they need special foods tooTypes of food product developmentLine extensions – Products already in existence but undergone minor modifications to recipe or have a new feature (e.g. added folate). E.g. chop chip pancake, strawberry cornflakes, new chip flavours, mars bar lite, vanilla cokeMe toos/copycat – direct/slightly altered copy of successful food product. May be introduced at lower rate to attract customers and drag them away from existing product. May be copied and marketed in different countries E.g. CCs to Doritos, muesli bars to LCMs, Chicken tonight to Cantong, Cuppa soup to country cupProduct innovation/New to world – approximately 10% of food market. They’re totally new in their concept therefore are rarely seen anywhere. Can be new package or new food or both. E.g. Splenda (sugar based alternative), Fruche (yoghurt, fruit, cheese), Pringles (chip shape and container), New veggies (broccolini, GM foods)Line extensions are most successful, then me –too products, then new-to-world products (80% fail rate)Steps in food product developmentNew products are important for continued company success – improve profits, increase market share, assist with company morale. At the beginning of any project a defined direction is needed. A Design Brief identifies what consumers want and how much they’re willing to pay, and constraints on the producer when developing the new product (such as financial, processing, product, marketing). Steps in food product development are:Ideas Generation and ScreeningBrainstorming, even the most ridiculous onesIdeas come from market research or any employeeIdeas based on intuition, culinary knowledge, artistic expression. Not technologyScreening is selecting the best idea, based on how it fits into company’s constraintsScreening check lists include: ability to achieve goals, potential for profit, enough money to cover all expenses, ability to meet specific requirements (e.g. shelf life for military)Market ResearchAsking consumers their needs/wants, asking what they already like. They draw conclusions from data receivedData from research includes: collection of internal data, market intelligence, market research, and assessment of current operationsMarket research on a particular market segment provides info on: market size, demographics, geographic location, reasons for buying, shopping times, shopping method, product popularity, brand loyaltyResearch conducted through face to face or telephone surveys, discussion groups/focus groups, field reports (observing sales, competitor strategies, competitor shares). This is primary researchResearch can also be from published research (secondary research), e.g. other organisaions, universitiesSampling methodConvenience sampling – anyone close by such as friends, family, negiherboursVolunteer sampling – whoever volunteersJudgmental sampling – people deliberately chosen because of characteristicsQuota sampling – certain percentage of people from a number of groupsRandom sampling – by number and by chanceNew product development may stop when the size of the market is too small, too many other competitors, financially risky, or marketing is unsuitable for companyProduct SpecificationsAccurate, comprehensive description of what manufacture plans to deliver in productIt’s a benchmark/standard for consumers, listing raw materials and ingredients, quantity of each for specific batch size, source of raw materials, and raw material constraints under Aussie Food StandardsAlso describes packaging dimensions, materials, labeling, storage conditionsFeasibility StudyEstablishes whether idea is profitableFinancial feasibilityDetermines if company will achieve a break-even point (when sales balance expenses) Market research reduces chance of being too optimistic/underestimating salesTechnical feasibilityAbility of company to make new product using existing resources: raw materials, workspace, human resources, equipmentIt includes: Availability of ingredients (ingredients at good price, steady supply, correct quality), any new processes and new machinery, time and money obtaining ingredient approval, processes ensuring microbiological safetyProduction Process DevelopmentConverting factory to make new product, may be slightly altering or complete changeFactory layout must meet health and safety obligations, while ensuring productivityCompanies should always expect problems in any situation and react accordingly through quality control (checking to detect variations, ensuring everything follows plan)Development of prototypeTrial productExtensive experiments carried out for safety, which ensures consistent production, and to assess variables that may affect finished product. E.g. packaging materials that need to withstand production processAfter food technologists experiment to produce ‘best’ product, recipe is batch sizedProduct testing and launchFew products make it to final testing stage, it’s tested in the labsThe new product needs to be tested to determine if it satisfies food standardsPackaging tests determine shelf life under various storage conditions, package strength, and other characteristics specific to the product. E.g. carton boxes should withstand physical stress and temperature effects Consumer Tests with focus groups often prompt changes to the product. Tests can also be public for a limited time to determine salesAfter numerous testing, the product is commercialised where a complete marketing plan is developed (advertising campaign, cross-media coverage, etc.)Marketing plans (4 Ps)The marketing mix is a continuous cycle. For a product to succeed a company must use all areas in the marketing mix. The marketing mix aims to make a product that the target market wants/needs, i.e. flavour, packaging, size, brand name, product image, quality, features.Product planning This is the whole product. Package, product, ingredients, size, health attributes. All products have a lifecycle. It increases steadily, then once it’s reached its maximum, it decreases (curve): Growth – consumers start to accept product, little competition. Line extensions provide more variety, brand exposure in supermarkets, and cater for different market segmentsMaturity – product demand is at its peak, sales level off, competition high. Long maturity phase = more profit. Rejuvenation strategies used to extend maturity phase and boost sales, e.g. new promotional campaign, or repacking the productDecline – sales fall, profits turn into losses, less competition, little money and effort spent to promoteSome products always remain popular, i.e. vegemite, coke, milk, bread, tea, coffee. Marketers should know life cycles of similar products to determine strategies to live long and produce profit as much possiblePrice structure Product price is determined by what the target market is willing to pay. Some groups can afford it, some can’t. E.g. dinks would buy luxury foods. Factors deciding a product’s price include:Must cover cost of raw materials, manufacturing costs, storage costs, transport costs, taxes, wages, and other expenses. (reach break-even point)Low price items assume to be higher in demandWillingness of company to gain market share, therefore lowering their priceReactions from other competitorsWhen price is same as competitor it’s known as “status quo or competitive pricing”. High premium prices known as “price skimming” and lower prices known as “market penetration/penetration pricing”Place and distribution system Place: where product is sold geographically, kinds of outlets sold atProduct destinations may be local, state, national, internationalIntensive distribution (sold at every outlet), selective distribution (wide, but not extensive), exclusive distribution (limited supply of product at few outlets)Supermarkets offer a variety of items in one place, and encourage impulse buying, which is furthered with salesRetail outlets include: Regular supermarkets, discount supermarkets (slightly lower prices), Bulk-buying barns, independent/corner stores, vending machinesDirect marketing retail includes flyers and letterbox pamphlets, internet shopping, television shopping, telemarketing.Distribution: moving product from producer to consumerProducts distributed by most appropriate and cost effective method. This includes by road, rail, air, ship, refrigerated transport. The longer the distribution chain is, the less efficient it isWarehousing – correct storage means best and safest possible conditionMaterials handling – Moving from storage to distribution systemsInventory control – ensure product quality, not holding too much stockOrder processing – ensures consumer gets what they order on timeTransportation – depends on type of product, urgency, distancePromotional program Used to inform retailer and consumer of product’s strengths to persuade purchase. Promotions plan to be beneficial to profit of the product. When promoting, companies have to consider promotion budget, target market, and stage of product’s life cycle.Advertising - Tells consumers why we need the product. Types of advertising include:Magazines – advertising in specific category of magazine, e.g. woman’s weeklyNewspapers – allows us to understand/digest information, unlike visual mediaTelevision – effective, expensive, many viewers, air time, reusableSigns, internet, billboards, posters in retail outletsProduct positioning - developing a specific image of the brand in minds of consumersSales promotions and demonstrations – pay less, direct samples. Includes:Contests, free samples, coupons, cash-back offers, gondolas at supermarket aisle ends, sales Personal selling – persuasive communication between representative of company and customer, designed to influence purchase decision. e.g. salespeoplePublicity ad public relations – unpaid use of media to broaden public’s awareness of a product. Free advertising for a company. E.g. company award, celebrity wearing logo. Public relations builds/maintains favourable image. E.g. sponsoring sport, charity driveNUTRITIONDiet and health in AustraliaMalnutrition is when nutrients aren’t supplied in the correct amounts. Over nutrition is a surplus of one or more nutrients, under nutrition is a lack of one or more nutrients. When diets are balanced, immune systems work correctly, disease not likely, and weight is in control. Under nutrition is found in Australia and is associated with inadequate intake of fruit and veg and wholemeal cereals. Groups experience under nutrition include:Socioeconomically disadvantagedAboriginalsElderlyIsolated/ruralHomelessLess educatedPhysical effects of malnutrition and diet related disordersOver nutrition causes:Obesity – therefore more effort to pump blood, strain on joints, risk of CVD, hypertension, and atherosclerosisHypertension - high blood pressure can lead to stroke and cardiac failureDental caries – tooth decay from poor dental care and high sugar diet, tooth lossUnder nutrition causes:Anorexia nervosa –affected by media. Causes muscle wasting and organ damageBulimia – binge eating, may be caused by state of anxiety/depressionDeficiency and effect:Vitamin A – night blindnessVitamin C - scurvyVitamin D – rickets/osteomalacia: Body pains, muscle weakness, bone fragilityCalcium – osteoporosis, therefore reduced bone mass, bone weakenedIodine – Goitre (thyroid inflammation)Thaimin (B1) – Beri BeriFolate (B9) – Spina Bifida (birth related disease)Dietary fibre – constipation, diverticulitis (intestine inflammation), colon cancer Iron – anemiaDiet related disorders include:Diabetes – The effects of excess blood sugar levels include vision problems, kidney damage, nerve damage, and heart and circulation problems, and a buildup of glucose may cause death. People must control their weight and diet, and glucose levels.Cardiovascular disease – disease of the heart and arteriesArthrosclerosis (artery hardening) – restricts blood flow and may cause strokeAnaemia – caused by blood loss, inadequate iron supply and absorption. Causes lethargy, headaches, reduced energy, dizzinessEconomic Costs of malnutrition“Diseases of affluence”, i.e. heart disease, diabetes, obesity, dental caries, hypertension, are replacing previous diseases that have been eliminated through immunization, i.e. chicken pox, infectious diseases, polio. Illness can result in work absences, more inclined to infections, low resistance, less likely to work at full capacity. Funding for treatments for diet related diseases is endless. Medical research is also ongoingCVD (heart disease, strokes) – kill more Aussies than any other disease. Account for approximately 60% of hospitalizations. 1997 cost to community was $1.1 billion. Furthered cost for surgery, work absenteeism, research for better curesHypertension – risk factor for stroke, strokes can cause paralysis and need constant medical assistance. E.g. slurred speech, partially paralyzedDiabetes – incidence is increasing. With weight reduction diabetes will be reduced. It affects eye sight and blood flow to limbs. Cost for treatment, i.e. injections, surgeriesSevere under nutrition/anorexia/bulimia – hospitalization and doctors, psychiatric assistance/counseling, private clinicsNutritional considerations for specific groups/Australia’s nutritionally vulnerable groupsAdolescent girls - mediaPregnant and lactating women (nutrients focused on baby and milk) – *assignment*Middle ages men living aloneElderlyDiabeticsPeople with allergies to foodHypertension peopleVegetarians and vegansAthletesAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (2.3% of Australians) – life expectancy is 59 for men, 65 for women. Health issues originate from low levels of education and literacy. Increased poverty and unemployment are factors to their ill health. Also, remote areas experience inadequate health services, isolation, and expensive travel costs. Fresh food becomes more expensive. Bush foods have become taboo due to multicultural AustraliaProduction/manufacture of nutritionally modified foods to meet consumer demandToday many foods are nutritionally modified for consumer demand. We want:Low fat milkVitamin increased milkVitamin enriched cerealsNutrient enriched breadsMore fibre in everyday food productsSugar reduced jams and lolliesSkin free chicken (fat in skin)Lean meat cutsNew food versions need to keep consumers satisfied. They should be similar to original in taste, texture, quality, flavour. Nutritionally modified foods are known as FUNCTIONAL FOODS, they have a specific function to meet consumer demand. They have a positive impact on consumers’ health:Low fat products – by using more air or water, fat can be reduced. A protein based fat replacement is known as SIMPLESSE, made from egg white or milk protein. Ice cream and frozen desserts use this. Reduced fat foods are good for weight reducing dietsLow sugar foods - for diabetics and health conscious consumersFibre enriched – breads are the main foods with extra grains and whole meal flours. But, just ‘added fibre’ is not enough. Fibre enriched white bread does not equal whole meal bread. Adding fibre does not add extra micronutrients, it assists in expelling wastes. Fibre enriched foods are good to reduce diverticulitisAdded micronutrients – foods may be labeled enriched or fortified with added nutrient. ENRICHED products are when nutrients are added to food products when nutrients are lost during processing. E.g. cereals, juice. FORTIFIED products are when nutrients are added but weren’t in the raw material. E.g. milk with added iron, yoghurt with added fibre. Synthetic micronutrients may be slightly different to naturally occurring ones, and may be less well absorbed, even if chemically identical. Adding micronutrients is good for diet deficienciesArtificially sweetened foods – Replace sugar with SACCHARIN or ASPARTAM. These supply no energy value. Tests show no harmful effects in normal use. SORBITAL used in sugar free jams and confectionary, and has an energy value less than sugar. Artificial sweeteners do not promote tooth decay, but may have diarrhea as side effect (incorrect use). They are good for diabeticsThe role of ‘active non-nutrients’ in the dietActive non-nutrients are substances that aren’t essential in diet, but can enhance body functioning or contribute to good health.Antioxidants – inhibits oxidation reactions and prevents rancidity of oils and fats. Occur naturally in fresh fruits, e.g. vitamin E and C. Antioxidants are widely used as ingredients in dietary supplements for health purposes, i.e. neutralizing radical action thus preventing cancers, controlling cholesterol levels, improving cardiovascular health. Vegetarians have an abundance of antioxidants in their body. PHYTOCHEMICALS are non-nutrient chemicals found in plants acting as antioxidants in the body:Flavonoids and Carotenoids – found in fruit and vegetablesIsoflavonoids - found in seeds, nuts, legumes, soya beans (becoming popular in diets)Dietary fibre – found in plant foods such as fresh fruits, vegetables, legumes. Also found in processed foods such as breads and cereals, and in fibre supplements. In conjunction with gastrointestinal flora in the large intestine or colon, it swells when mixed with water, increasing size of digested matter that passes through the colon. This prevents constipation, and reduces risk of colon cancer (carcinogens in the waste are in contact with colon walls for less time)Omega 3 fatty acids – refer to chemical structure of fatty acids. Their function is to act as a precursor to prostaglandins, which are involved with the function of the CV immune system. They do this by: reducing formation of blood clots and help damaged blood vessels. Food sources include fish and canola oils, linseed, and soya beans. Omega 3 fatty acids can also help with deperession and memory loss when growing older.Probiotics – are micro-organisms of human intestinal origin, which improve healthy stomach environment and reduce rate of gastrointestinal problems, e.g. lactic acid bacteria. Used to maintain health immune system, replace killed micro-organisms, improve action of intestinal bacteria thereby improving digestion/absorption, and help vitamin K production. Foods include yoghurt, creams, dairy products (such as yakult), soya drinksThe role of supplements in the dietMinerals, vitamin and protein used to compensate for their reduction in our daily food intake. Also used due to less time to carefully prepare food, frequent intake of processed food, loss of traditional food preparation skillsVitamin supplements – excess intake of water soluble vitamins are expelled through urine. Excess fat soluble vitamins are stored in body fat and may become toxic if excess levels are experienced. Consuming correct amounts of fruit/veg and other foods, overdoses are nonexistent. Certain life stages or groups need supplements, i.e. pregnancy – folate to help eliminate birth defects. Australia offers a diverse range of foods, so a varied and balanced diet should provide all the vitamins needed. Eating foods instead of taking supplements also provides a chance to consume other nutrients, and the feeling of satiety. By weight, foods are also cheaper than supplements.Mineral supplements – evidence of mineral deficiencies in Australia. E.g. osteoporosis, anemia, iodine. Minerals are needed sparingly but needed every day. Excess may lead to being stored in body, and effects include diarrhea or constipation. Iron supplements may be needed for women, vegetarians and athletes. But only required for people with low levels or have anaemia. Calcium supplements may be used if person is lactose intolerant. Like vitamins, minerals needed are found in a balanced diet, though certain people require supplements for their deficiency.Protein SupplementsRole of different groups in promoting good healthGovernment – make legislations related to food industry, such as chemicals used, health, safety, and hygiene issues, quarantine, processing techniques, labeling laws, advertisements, etc. Food industry – developing products suitable for consumers’ needs, and variety of products contributing to good health (e.g. functional foods), ensuring safety through quality assurance, and informing consumers of the product so they can make an informed decisionCommunity groups and private agencies – shape consumer perception and guide the food industry. They watch manufacturers’ products and claims then publish the information to the public, e.g. Australian Consumers Association uses Choice Magazine. Public voice is also spread to companies, e.g. genetic engineering, healthy foods. Individual – bombarded with a variety of products, therefore, consumers need to be informed and aware of their nutritional requirements and nutritional value of different foods. They need to ensure a balanced diet.Influences on nutritional statusHereditary plays a significant role in determining health status, especially with diabetes, heart disease, colon cancer, obesity, and metabolic malfunctions caused by intolerances and allergies.Role of diet in the development of conditionFood intolerance – caused by non-allergy mechanism, response to chemical/s. Takes longer time to appear than allergies and doesn’t involve immune system. Symptoms include migraines, respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms, lethargy, and behaviour changes. Common substances relating to intolerances are:Salicylates – group of chemicals found commonly in plant foods: fruit and vegetables, herbs, spices, nuts, coffee, tea, wine.Monosodium glutamate – food additive (flavour enhancer), naturally occurring in tomatoes, cheeses, mushrooms.Lactose intolerance – difficulty in lactose digestion. Insufficient lactase produced by body (enzyme that breaks down lactose), therefore lactose reaches colon causing diarrhoea (colon bacteria may digest lactose, producing gas causing cramping/pain). Lactose is found in dairy foods, person should strictly limit intake of these foodsFood allergy – reaction when immune system incorrectly identifies a specific food protein (allergen) as foreign, body releases antibodies to fight and destroy the protein. The combination of the allergen and antibody produces a reaction, which may cause breathing difficulties, and physical responses to cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract and skin. Common allergens are found in eggs, cow milk, wheat (gluten), fish and peanuts. The body becomes desensitized to the allergen over time.Milk allergy – people allergic to milk protein need to avoid milk products, and be careful for products that contain milk protein solids or casein (most common milk allergen)Coeliac disease – gluten allergy. Gluten is a protein found naturally in wheat, barley, rye and oats. Family history can contribute to the allergy. The person must have a strict diet which includes gluten-free ingredients. E.g. gluten-free cakesCVD and diabetes – consumers need to pick healthy foods and have a balanced diet Asthma – asthmatics must carefully read food labels and avoid foods that trigger their asthma Media and the impact of advertising practices on food consumptionFood industry uses media for brand awareness, guide us in our choices, and to shape consumer perceptions of their products, though laws protect from inaccurate claims. Our diet includes functional foods, fast foods, healthy options, processed foods, social gatherings all associated with foods. The media includes TV ads (majority), newspaper, radio, and internet. All 24/7. Media forces awareness and understanding of the product, therefore a biased perception is developedPromotion of health foods - Fresh fruit and vegetables, breads, and grains are seldom advertised. Recent ads include bananas, apples, and berries. Companies now advertise functional foods to increase market share.Promotion of fast foods – fast foods use a ‘saturation’ advertising technique making it highly effective. Multinationals have convinced us that their products are an acceptable and inevitable part of life. Large portion of media is dominated by fast food. Today, with an increase in healthy eating, these food chains are opting for healthy options, i.e. skin free chicken from red rooster, fruit in maccaz, sale of water, fibre enriched maccaz bread, subway saladsCompanies that can afford appealing promotions are large multi-national manufacturers, usually of fast food, i.e. nestle coke, maccaz, KFC, dominoes. Their ads are full of symbols, slogans, images, and often use healthy images to sell unhealthy foods (e.g. models). Media also has a strong influence on body image and eating patterns. I.e. teenage girls may go anorexic because of models; teenage boys may take supplements to become tank.Lifestyle and effect of cultural and social practicesOur lifestyle is characterized by not having to look for food, sedentary, social gatherings with food, casual work times/shift work, mobile population, food delivery.Exercise patterns – exercise is necessary for fitness and to balance energy intake, or else overweight/obesity may occur. Machines are now dominant in the work force and therefore workers are becoming more sedentary, more supervising instead of manual labour. Many Australians are regularly involved in exercise, but many people still aren’t.Alcohol consumption – popular today, overconsumption is bad for health: liver damage, memory loss, etc., social impact on family and friends, affects performanceAn individual’s attitudes to food are established in childhood and carried into adult life. Cultural influences include parental likes/dislikes, preparations methods in home, disposable income for food, religious foods.Culture and religion– food taboos mean certain foods are excluded from diet, but as part of social or religious practices. E.g. vegetarian Buddhists, no meat on good Friday for catholics, Muslim Ramadan, taboo on dogs in Australia but not ChinaSocial practices – e.g. birthday parties, guest parties, after work drinks, meeting for coffee, barbeques, social traditions. The type and place of social environment determines the nutritional status of food available. E.g. barbeques have burgers, sausages, though also have salads. Why Australia expresses nutrition problemsLack of nutritional knowledge – we need to eat vitamin B to assist energy release from carbs, e.g. vegemite on toast. Water and fat soluble vitamins all need to be consumed in daily dietHighly processed foods are energy dense (fatty) – consumption of extra fat may reduce nutrient content consumption and absorptionHalf Aussies eat less than RDI of fruit and veg – due to pre-prepared foods being readily available, quick, easy, cheapElderly Aussies may experience low levels of Vitamin C and DFAD diets restrict some nutrientsVegetarians and vegans restrict iron, zinc, Vitamin B12 intakeUnsupervised food choices by children may cause nutrient imbalances (Single parents, dual income families, part time and shift workers) ................
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