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5553075-170815Tommy Hicks6th period – AP Psych00Tommy Hicks6th period – AP PsychAP Psychology – Chapter 5: SensationOpeningThe brain does not hear, feel, or see on its ownSensation – process in which we detect physical energy from the environment and encode it as neural signalsPerception – process in which we select, organize, and interpret our sensationsBottom-up processing – sensory analysis starting at the entry level starting with sensory receptors and working up to high level processingTop-down processing – perceptions drawing both on sensations coming bottom-up to the brain and our own experience and expectations Prosopagnosia – when people lose a temporal lobe and can’t recognize people Complete sensation but incomplete perception Unfamiliar face = no reactionFamiliar face = autonomic nervous system responds with measurable perspirationWouldn’t recognize herself either – cannot process top-down Sensing the World: Some Basic Principles Frogs – eyes with receptor cells that only respond to small, dark, moving objects > if the objects didn’t move, the frog would starveMale silkworms – sensitive receptors – can sense a billionth of an ounce of a female’s sex attractant odor Humans are specifically designed to sense certain noises – crying and human voicesThresholds We exist in a sea of energyWe are being struck by all kinds of waves that we cannot directly sense:X-raysRadio wavesUltraviolet and infrared lightSound wavesBirds use magnetic compassBats and dolphins locate prey with sonarBees use polarized light to navigate on a cloudy day Psychophysics – study of how physical energy/stimuli (x-rays, radio waves, ultraviolet light, infrared light) relates to our psychological experience Absolute thresholds Humans are extremely sensitive to some stimuliA candle atop a mountain range 30 miles awaySmell drops of perfume in a small apartment Absolute thresholds – the minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a light, sound, pressure, taste, or odor 50% of the timeThe 50/50 recognition point defines your absolute threshold Signal detection Detecting a weak stimulus depends on the signal’s strength and on our psychological state – experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness Signal detection theory – predicts when we will detect weak signals measured as our ratio of “hits” to “false alarms”Why people respond to stimuli differently Heightened responsiveness in Veterans > more false alarms People’s ability to catch faint signals diminishes after 30 minutes (airport workers) Depends on the task, time of day, and on whether participants exercise 10 hours of video game playing + instantly responding to intrusions improved signal detection skills Subliminal StimulationImperceptible messages - Drink Coca-Cola, Eat popcorn; we can unconsciously sense stimuli and without our awareness, there stimuli have extraordinary suggestive powers Rock music – play satanic messages when played backwards- when played forwards, can send unconscious messages Subliminal – below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness Prime – persuade an answer > we feel what we do not knowPriming – the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response Most of our info processing occurs automatically, out of sight, off the radar screen of our conscious mind Entrepreneurial messages > like astrologers – yes there are plants, but no they do not directly affect usAnthony Greenwald + college student subliminal tapes showed no effects but the students perceived themselves receiving the benefits they expectedPlacebo effects – those students who thought they had heard a memory tape, believed their memory improved even though it didn’t Result: “subliminal procedures offer little or nothing of value to the marketing practitioner”Differential Thresholds In addition to absolute thresholds, we need to be able to sense differences among stimuliDifference threshold – the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli half of the timeThe difference threshold increases with the stimulus magnitude Add 10 grams to a 100 gram weight > detect difference Add 10 grams to a 1 kilogram weight > won’t detect difference Weber’s Law – the difference threshold is not a constant amount but some constant proportion of the stimulus average person perceive light intensity difference of 8%two objects must differ in weight by 2%tone .3%two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for their difference to be perceptible Weber’s Principle: our thresholds for detecting differences are a roughly constant proportion of the size of the original stimulus Sensory Adaptation Smell a bad odor, feel cold water > get used to it after a little while Sensory adaptation – our diminishing adaptation to an unchanging stimulus (pool water temperature, neighbor’s house’s odor)After constant exposure to stimuli, our nerve cells fire less frequently Vision fades perceptions of objects the longer we lookBeer peer peep bee beBenefit > enables us to focus on informative changes in our environment without being distracted Mary’s eyes move the images from the projector moves as well – “everywhere that Mary looks, the scene is sure to go”“our perceptions are organized by meanings that our minds impose”Sensory adaptation enables us to focus on informative changes without being distracted by uninformative constant stimulations (garments, odors, street noise) Sensory adaptation explains television’s attention – getting power “we perceive the world not exactly as it is, but as it is useful for us to perceive it”VisionTransduction – the process by which our sensory systems encode stimulus energy as neural messages (eyes transduce light/energy into neural messages that the brain can process)The Stimulus Input: Light Energy We see pulses of electromagnetic energy > visual system perceives as color Electromagnetic spectrum – ranges from gamma rays to visible light to radio waves (short to long)Bees cannot see red; they can see ultraviolet light Wavelength – the distance from one wave peak to the nextHue – the color we experience (determined by wavelength) Intensity – the amount of energy in light waves (determined by amplitude/height) > influences brightness DIAGRAMShort wavelength = high frequency (bluish colors, high pitched sounds)Long wavelength = low frequency (reddish colors, low pitched sounds)Great amplitude (bright colors (yellow), loud sounds)Small amplitude (dull colors (green), soft sounds) The EyeCornea – lets light in; protects the eye and bends light to provide focus Pupil – a small adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters Iris – colored muscle surrounding the pupil that regulates the amount of light entering the pupil > pupil sizeUnique to every person > security eye scans Lens – is behind the pupil and focuses rays into images on the light – sensitive back surface of the eyeAccommodation – process by which the lens changes its curvature Retina – a multilayered tissue that is the eyeball’s light-sensitive inner surface > on which the rays focusWe receive upside-down images > Leonardo da Vinci thought that the fluid in the eye itself bends light rays, reinverting the image to the upright position Johannes Kepler showed that the retina does indeed receive upside down images“I leave it up to the philosophers”Images are not read as a whole; retina’s millions of receptor cells convert light energy into neural impulses which are sent to the brain and constructed there into a perceived, upright-seeming imageAcuity – sharpness of vision < affected by small distortions in the eye shapeNearsightedness – when the eye is misshapen and focuses light rays from distant object in front of the retina Objects perceived clearer up close or if extreme, nothing is clear Glasses, contact lenses, and laser-assisted surgery (LASIK) reshape the cornea and correct the problemFarsightedness – when light rays from nearby objects reach the retina before they produce a focused image > near objects are blurry In children, flexible lenses can usually correct the problem; some may still suffer from eyestrain and may get headachesMildly farsighted people often do not discover their condition until middle age > the lens becomes less flexible and can’t correct itself as well > need glassesThe RetinaRods + cones – receptor cells which when hit with light, produce chemical changes that generate neural signals Rods – retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond Cones – retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions Signals then activate bipolar cells which activate ganglion cellsthe axons from the network of ganglion cells converge like rope strands to form itOptic nerve – carries information to the brain (thalamus distributes info)Nearly a million messages can be sent at once – through nearly a million ganglion fibers Blind spot – where the optic nerve leaves the eye and there are no receptor cells Fovea – the retina’s central area of focus which cones cluster around Cones have direct connections/hotlines to the brainRods don’t have direct connections so their messages get combined Does not contain rods Peripheral vision – rods predominate ConesRods-enable color perception-detail sensitive-color sensitive-(6 million)-low sensitivity in dim light-location in retina: center -dominant with black + white (faint light)-high sensitivity in dim light -(120 million)-location in retina: periphery Visual Information ProcessingAny retinal area relays its information to a corresponding location in the occipital lobe (a.k.a – visual cortex) Retinal cells are so responsive, pressure triggers themBrain interprets the firing as lightFeature Detection David Hubel + Torsten Wiesel showed that the visual cortex has feature detectors – neurons that receive information + responds to a scene’s specific features (shape, angle, or movement)Temporal lobe (behind right ear) > controls facial recognition Damage to this region would prevent facial recognition, but you could still recognize other objects fMRIs can determine what type of object someone is looking at based on the specific combinations of temporal lobe activity James Haxby - Patterns of brain activity reflect what object a person looks atDavid Perrett – monkeys/humans have “vast visual encyclopedia” He identified nerve cells that specialize in responding to a specific gaze, head angle, posture, or body movement Instant analysis aided in our survivalThe brain activity that underlies perception combines sensory input with our assumptions + expectations Necker Cube – image doesn’t change; brain makes multiple perceptions of same thing Certain nerve cells activate for a top-down or for a down-up Objects > broken into patterns of changing light intensity > described mathematically Artificial visual systems – (using mathematical code – how we perceive) Parallel Processing Parallel processing – doing multiple things at once Brain divides visuals into sub dimensions: color, depth, movement, formResults in individual perceptions Brain integrates information from retina with stored information > recognition It requires 30% of the cortex to recognize a face, 3% for hearing (10x as much)Brain neurons synchronize activity; ? of a second > thousands of neurons create gamma wavesConscious recognition achieved in this instantDestroyed neural workstations > cannot observe movement > only see phases in movement Pouring tea > glass is empty then glass is fullBlindsight – a spot of blindness in your field of vision (stroke patients) Patients with partial blindness asked about sticks in front of them > can’t see them but they know whether they are vertical or horizontal The brain’s two visual systems: “one that gives us our conscious perceptions + one that guides our actions” – David Milner The 2nd – “the zombie within” Roger Sperry: “the insights of science give added, not lessoned, reasons for awe, respect and reverence” Visual information > transduced > sent to brain as neural impulses > constructed into features > composed into meaningful image More complex than taking a care apartColor Vision A tomato is everything but red because it absorbs all the other colors Red: long wavelengths A color is our mental construction Isaac Newton – “the light rays are not colored”Colors resides in the theater of our brains, not the object We have low color difference thresholds > we can see 700 million different variations of color1 in 50 people are color deficient > usually males because its genetically sex linkedHerman von Helmholtz – 19th century and Thomas YoungInferred that eyes have 3 types of color receptors (red, green, blue)Young – Helmholtz trichromatic theory (three color) – the retina’s three different types of color receptors are sensitive to red/blue/green Used various colored stimuli and various cones to test theory ^ Used additive color mixing No yellow receptor – when both red + green sensitive cones are stimulated mixing paint is subtractive color mixing (black) because the more colors are added, the fewer wavelengths can be reflected back; additive color mixing (white) adds wavelengths + increases light > example: combining red, blue, and green makes white light “colorblind” – sometimes people lack functional red or green sensitive cones + sometimes both (monochromatic – one color/dichromatic – two colors)Recessive genetic disorder > red-green color blindness Dogs lack red sensitive cones > dichromatic vision Ewald Herring – afterimages (after you stare at a white spot, you see its opponent/complementary color); theorized that there were two additional color processes (red vs. green, blue vs. yellow) Opponent process theory – information leaves the receptor cells and is analyzed in terms of the opponent colors red + green, blue + yellow, and black + white. Then in the retina + thalamus, some neurons turn on/off by red and turn off by green and vice versa 2 stages of color vision processing:The retina’s cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli (red, green, blue)Their signals are then processed by the neurons system’s opponent-process cells, in route to the visual cortex Color Constancy Our color experience depends on contextColor constancy – color remains roughly constant as the lighting and wavelengths shift Dorothea Jameson (1985) – saw that blue colored chip under indoor lighting matches the wavelengths reflected by a gold chip in sunlight Example: snow still looks white after putting on yellow tinted goggles Color constancy comes from the object and everything around it as well > we see color thanks to the object’s relativity to its surrounding objects Monkeys have trouble recognizing same color if they were raised under restricted range of wavelengths Color constancy affects artists, interior decorators, and clothing designers Comparisons govern our perceptions Hearing Audition – the process by which we transduce air pressure waves into neural messages the brain interprets as a meaningful symphony of sound We hear most sounds that are within the range of human voices Sensitive to faint sounds > (evolutionary characteristic) survival while hunting, child’s whimper Acutely sensitive to differences in sounds Ears extract essential features from sounds and then compare them to past experiences > familiarity The Stimulus Input: Sound WavesWaves of compressed and expanded air > Like the ripples on a pond circling out from a dropped stone Ears detect brief air pressure changesLoud low bass sound > feel the vibration We can hear by both air and bone conductionEars transform vibrating air into nerve impulses > brain decodes as sounds Loudness – strength/amplitude of sound waves Frequency – number of wavelengths that passes a point in a given time Pitch – tone’s experienced highness of lowness long waves have low frequency + low pitch; short waves have high frequency and high pitch a piccolo produces shorter, faster sound waves than a tuba Decibels – unit of measurement for sound energy Absolute threshold for hearing is 0 decibels Every 10 decibels corresponds to a tenfold increase in sound 60 decibel conversation is 10,000 times louder than a 20 decibel whisper 100 decibel train is 10 billion times louder than faintest detectable sound Prolonged exposure to sound above 85 decibels can produce hearing loss The EarOuter ear – channels the sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum Eardrum – a tight membrane that vibrates with wavesMiddle ear – transmits the eardrum’s vibrations through A piston made of 3 bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) to the cochleaCochlea – a snail-shaped tube in the inner ear through which sounds waves trigger nerve impulsesInner ear – innermost part of ear containing cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacsIncoming vibrations causes the cochlea’s membrane to vibrate, jostling the fluid that fills the tube Motion causes ripples in the basilar membrane Basilar membrane is lined with hair cells (produce electrical signals)The hairs in the basilar membrane are bent, triggering impulses in adjacent nerve fibers, which converge to form the auditory nerveBy means of mechanical chains of events, sound waves cause hair cells of the inner ear to send neural messages to the temporal lobes’ auditory cortexDamage to the hair cells accounts for most hearing loss“quivering bundles that less us hear” – Howard Hughes Medical Institute 16,000 hair cells are in the cochlea Eye has 130 million photoreceptors Hair cells can turn neural current on/off 1,000 times per second Loudness is determined by the number of activated hair cells If a hair cell loses sensitivity to soft sounds, it may still respond to loud sounds…Loud sounds may seem loud to people with and without hearing lossCompressed sounds (soft sounds are amplified more than loud ones) Close-Up: A Noisy Noise AnnoysBrief exposure to extremely intense sounds can damage receptor cells and auditory nervesGunfireAmplified music Health clubs blast 100+ decibel music General Rule: if you cannot talk over a noise, it is potentially harmful Pain and ringing of the ears > alerts for possible hearing damage (hearings equivalent to bleeding)“condoms or, safer yet, abstinence,” – sex educators; “earplugs or walk away,” – hearing educators Tasks requiring more alertness > people work less efficiently in loud surroundings & make errorsPeople who are around constant noise (airports) suffer elevated rates of stress-related disordersHigh blood pressureAnxietyFeelings of helplessness David Glass + Jerome Singer – tape recorded chatter of office machines and of people speaking mixed languages > people adapted to the predictable noiseUnpredictable noises – people more prone to make errors Noise is especially stressful when unanticipated or uncontrollable How Do We Perceive Pitch?Helmholtz’s place theory – (explains high pitches sounds) we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea’s basilar membraneGeorg von Bekesy – cut holes in cochleas of guinea pigs and human cadavers; looked inside with microscope; cochlea responded to sound by vibrating like a bedsheet High frequencies – large vibrations at beginning of cochlea membrane Low frequencies – large vibrations near the end of cochlea membrane Frequency theory – (explains low pitched sounds) the brain can read pitch from the frequency of neural impulses Frequency of waves per second = number of impulses to the brain per second HOWEVER, individual neurons can’t fire faster than 1000 times per second Volley principle: neural cells can alternate firing; can achieve combined frequency above 1000 times per second How Do We Locate Sounds?Two ears results in 3D/stereophonic hearing Two ears > intensity and time > you can hear things louder and sooner from one side Sound travels at 750 miles per hour; ears are 6 inches apart Noticeable difference in sounds 0.000027 seconds When sounds are equidistant > cock your head to try and locate soundOwls (and probably humans) – process timing differences in one neural pathway + intensity differences in another before merging their information to pinpoint a sound’s location Hearing Loss and Deaf Culture Conduction hearing loss – caused by problems with the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea Sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness) – damage to the cochlea’s hair receptor cells Caused by disease; or caused by heredity, aging, prolonged exposure to ear-splitting noise/musicOnce tissues are destroyed, they remain destroyed Hearing aids > amplifies vibrations for high frequencies + compress soft sounds Sharks/birds – hair cells can regenerate Scientists have found ways to stimulate hair cell growth in guinea pigs and rat pupsCochlear Implants Cochlear implant – restores hearing for people with nerve deafness using a device that translates sound into electrical signals that convey information about sound to brain with wiring in the cochlea’s nerves Helps children become less distractible and impulsive (2003) 60,000 people worldwide had cochlear implants Controversy between hearing parents of deaf children + (National Association of the Deaf) deaf culture advocates who say deafness isn’t a disability because they can still communicate through signing William Stokoe: Sign is its own language with its own grammar, syntax, and semantics ASL (American sign language) – those who learn it as children have difficulty learning to read/writeCued speech (links signs to English) – allows for deaf people to be essentially bilingual People who go deaf are more likely to describe it as an impairment than those born deaf **Helen Keller: “found deafness to be a much greater handicap than blindness….blindness cuts people off from things. Deafness cuts people off from people….”Close-Up: Living In a Silent World Academics are rooted in spoken languages > some kids had great trouble Social exclusion and low self-esteem results from deaf kids being around hearing kids “seeking social interaction was not worth the effort” > frustration Sensory Compensation Some view deafness as “vision enhancement” rather than “hearing impairment” Impaired senses transfer to other senses:Blind musicians are more likely to develop perfect pitchWith one ear plugged, blind people are more accurate at locating a sound sourceBlind people can measure dimensions of objects more accurately (carton of eggs) Deaf people’s auditory cortex becomes responsive to touch and visual input Helen Keller – areas normally dedicated to visual + auditory inputs are available for other uses > discriminating touch sensations Many deaf people are visually skilled > engineers, architects, mathematicians Stephen Hawking – lacking a functional body forced him to use his brain People with aphasia (loosing ability to express language) become more accurate at attending to face, body and voice clues > better at spotting deception Stroke aphasia patients could spot liars 73%Other Important SensesWe rely on seeing and hearing for communication (sharks/dogs rely on smell)6 senses: seeing, hearing, touch, taste, smell, sense of body position and movement TouchEssential for our development: infant rats deprived of their mother’s touch produce less growth hormones and have a slower metabolism Monkeys are extremely unhappy when not allowed to touch Babies born prematurely can gain weight faster if hand massaged Dave Barry: Touch is pressure, warmth, cold and painOnly pressure has identifiable receptors Stroking adjacent pressure spots creates a tickleRepeated gentle stroking of a pain spot creates an itching sensationTouching adjacent cold and pressure spots triggers a sense of wetness, which can be experiences by touching dry, cold metal Stimulating nearby cold and warmth spots produces sensation of hot Self-produced tickly produces less somatosensory cortex than if someone else did the tickling [activation] Unexpected stimulation has a greater effect Top-down influence > fake hand – likely to perceive its stimulation response as yours PainTells you something is wrong > change behavior immediately People born without the ability to feel pain usually die by early adulthood Pain that won’t shut off (hyperalgesia) > sensory receptors and brain work together to make life miserable Biological, Psychological, and Social-Cultural Influences on PainRelevant because pain has to deal with our expectations Carrie Armel + Vilayanur Ramachandran > fake hand experiment > people “felt it”/started to sweat from the pain Phantom limb sensations - 7/10 amputees feel pain/movement in nonexistent limbs (even those born without a limb) Because brain misinterprets central nervous activity that occurs in absence of normal sensory input Hearing loss patients hear phantom sounds/ringing (tinnitus) We can sense without functioning sensesVision loss patients (glaucoma, diabetes, cataracts, macular degeneration) experience nonthreatening hallucinations Taste phantoms – water can taste sickeningly sweet Phantom smells – nonexistent rotten food We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel with our brain, which can sense without functioning senses Pain can be triggered with or without sensory input Brain in a jar could experience pain Pain is not located in a simply neural cord running to a specific area of the brain; does not have receptors dedicated to pain perception Stimuli that produce pain also produce warmth, coolness, smoothness, roughness Gate-control theory – theory of pain that includes a gate in the spinal cord that controls feelings of pain by blocking or allowing pain signals to pass on to the brain Small nerve fibers conduct pain signals; large nerve fibers inhibit pain signals Treat chronic pain by stimulating “closing gate” activity in the large neural fibersBrain-to-spinal-cord messages can shut off pain messages We often don’t realize pain till later > Jay Burson broke his neck in a football game and kept playing (endorphins counteract)Gene that boosts availability of body’s natural painkillers (endorphins) are less bothered by pain(Descartes – pain is only a physical phenomenon); we perceive pain more + endure it less when we are around those in pain 1980s Australian keyboard operators – outbreaks of severe pain without physical abnormalities “sometimes the pain in sprain is mainly in the brain” Memories of pain – after surgery people overlook pain durationPeople remember peak moments and how much pain at the end Daniel Kahneman – experiment with hands in cold water for 60 seconds > switch hands > then try for 30 seconds > people preferred 60 second experiment due to less pain felt at the end Taper down approach to pain is far better than abrupt ending Pain ControlTreated physically + psychologically > drugs, surgery, acupuncture, electrical stimulation, massage, exercise, hypnosis, relaxation training, thought distraction, or even a placebo (mimic analgesic drugs) Lamaze method of childbirth > relaxation (deep breathing and muscle relaxation), counter stimulation (gentle massage), and distraction (focusing attention) Distraction increases pain tolerance Roger Ulrich – people overlooking nice landscapes during hospital stay required less pain medication and had shorter stays fMRI’s show playing in virtual reality reduces the brain’s pain-related activity TasteBasic sensations – sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and more recently >>> umami (meaty taste)Bad tastes warn us about possible poisons > evolutionary defense mechanism Chemical sense: each tongue bump has 200+ taste buds each with food chemical-catching pores50-100 taste receptor cells Need some of the stuff in your nose or mouthReceptors respond and trigger responses in temporal lobe Taste receptors reproduce about every week or twoas you grow older, taste sensitivity decreases (fewer taste buds) adults like stronger tastes > saltysmoking and alcohol accelerate decline in taste buds and sensitivitiesLinda Bartoshuk’s facts about taste:Emotional responses to taste are hard-wiredPeople without tongues can still taste – through receptors in the back and on the roof of the mouth If you lose taste sensation from one side of tongue, you probably won’t notice > other side becomes correspondingly supersensitive Brain doesn’t localize taste wellWe can’t taste nor smell most nutrients – fat, protein, starch, and food vitamins (except sugar)Smell adds to our perception of taste and also changes itSavoring tastes include other senses < sensory intersection – principle that one sense may influence another Smell + texture + taste = flavorMcGurk Effect – brain combines simultaneous signals – neurons project from somatosensory cortex back to visual cortex see something, hear something else > both are blended together to create a combination of both inputsSynesthesia – when one sense/sensation produces another Seeing the number 3 may evoke a taste sensationSmell (olfaction)Breaths come in pairs – except at birth and death 20,000 breaths a dayYou inhale a bit of whoever/whatever you smellSmell is a chemical sense; 5 million receptor cells at top of each nasal cavity ---seeing and hearing are more dominant Need some of the stuff in your nose or mouth No elemental odors, olfaction-system cannot separate smells like the retina does with color Combination of olfactory receptors allows us to distinguish aromasSharks and moths use odors to direct their way; salmon follow olfactory cues back to their home streamHumans – attractiveness of smells depends on learned associations > babies do not have this Odors can also evoke memories and feelings Rachel Herz – experimented on Brown University students – exposed them to unpleasant odors > did poorly on verbal task due to unpleasantness > rekindled frustration Marcel Proust – “the smell and taste of things bears unfaltering, In the tiny and almost impalpable drop of their essence, the vast structure of recollection” Lunn Poly (company) – pumps in the aroma of coconut suntan oil into its shops to evoke memories of lounging on a beach Body Position and Movement200 muscles need feedback and instructions Sensorimotor coordination – dwarf computations for reasoningMuscles, tendons, joints – packed with position and motion sensors Kinesthesis – the sense of our body parts’ position + movement Without it people (Ian Waterman) feel disembodied – destroyed nerves that enabled sense of light touch and of body position and movement Vision interacts with kinesthesis Vestibular senses – sense of body movement and position, including sense of balance; monitors the head’s position and movementSemicircular canals (3D pretzel) + vestibular sacs contain fluid that stimulates hair receptors when the head moves > sends messages to cerebellum at the back of the brain Explains dizziness: the fluid in your semicircular canals and your kinesthetic receptors won’t immediately return to their natural state ................
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