Poetic Devices/Techniques



Literary Terms

The following is a list of terms that describe elements of writing and devices/techniques that you may find useful to know when writing and reading poems, stories and informative pieces.

1. Allegory: A story or visual image with a second distinct meaning partially hidden behind its literal or visible meaning. Oftentimes, an allegory is created through the use of personification where abstract qualities are given human shape. A very good example of allegory is George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm, where farm animals revolt against the farmer. On a literal level it is a simple story about a farm. On a secondary level, it is an allegory of the Russian Revolution with each animal representing an historical person or abstract quality from the Revolution.

2. Alliteration: When several words that begin with the same letter/sound are used in close proximity. This technique is used to draw attention to a particular part of a poem or narrative. It also serves to add continuity or fluidity to verse or narrative writing.

For example: The slippery snake slowly slithered sideways.

3. Allusion: A reference to some person, place, event or artistic work (statue, book, poem, painting etc.) the nature and relevance of which is not explained by the author. It is up to the reader to understand the allusion or look it up. It is often described as an “economical means of drawing on the vast history and tradition of literature and art.” In short, it is a way of saying a lot in few words.

i) Literary Allusion: Any reference to a significant piece of literature. Literary allusions are usually made to classic works that are generally known. One very common type of literary allusion is Biblical Allusion.

4. Ambiguity: When the meaning or outcome of a text could be interpreted in different ways.

5. Analogy: The use of a more familiar or simpler thing or event to describe something that is less familiar or more complex. For example: Think of the human brain as a calculator.

6. Antagonist: A character that is often seen to be creating conflict in a story. He or she stands opposite to the protagonist but is not always evil. He or she may actually help the protagonist solve his or her conflict.

7. Archetype: A symbol, theme, setting or character that is so common throughout the history of literature that we instantly recognize it. For example: the rose symbolizes love, the snake, treachery, the sun, life.

8. Bias: In informative pieces, when the writer’s opinion comes through and is detectable by the careful reader. In an objective piece bias is supposed to be avoided, though it is obviously necessary in an editorial or persuasive piece.

9. Cacophony: When several words used together are difficult to pronounce, or when the meaning of several words together is lost, you typically have an example of cacophony. For example: Live vicariously rarely. The language in this line seems harsh, rough and unmusical.

10. Character Types: There are four main types of characters differentiated by how much we know of them and whether or not they change.

i) Flat: A character about whom we know only one or two things. (Two dimensional)

ii) Round: A character about whom we know many things. (Three dimensional)

iii) Static: A character, either flat or round, that does not change at all throughout the story.

iv) Dynamic: A character, either flat or round, that does change at some point in the story.

11. Characterization: The process by which a character is described in a story. There are two types:

i) Direct Characterization: The character is described by the narrator or another character as being a certain way. For example: Jack was tough-minded with a strong-jaw to match.

ii) Indirect Characterization: We learn something about the character through the character’s actions, words or how he looks. For example: Everyday Jack climbed the steps like he was scaling Mt. Everest. OR Jack says “I never really liked other children when I was growing up.” OR Jack’s pants never seemed to be clean.

12. Conflict: An element of plot, conflict is the obstacle that a main character faces in a story. There are two main types:

i) External: Character vs. nature or character vs. character.

ii) Internal: Character vs. self.

13. Connotation: This is the perceived meaning of something which may be very different from the denotation, or literal-dictionary meaning of it. A word can have a positive or negative connotation. For example: the denotation of “worm” is a long slender animal that burrows in the earth. This word has a negative connotation since we often think of worms as slimy and disgusting. We also refer to someone who is not honest or straightforward as a ‘worm.’

14. Denotation: This is the dictionary definition of a word.

15. Deus ex machine: “God from the machine.” This term is derived from Greek plays when a device was often mechanically lowered onto the stage to solve some otherwise unsolvable conflict in the plot. It is now taken to mean any unlikely event or feature of a story that the author uses to resolve the conflict in the plot.

16. Diction: An author’s word choice. A good author will choose his vocabulary carefully in order to enhance other elements of the story. For example: vocabulary in the native language of a character or from the dialect or language spoken in the place/country the story is set in. OR vocabulary that is dated or taken from an older time period. OR vocabulary that is clearly that of a child. OR varied complexity in vocabulary use to help with characterization.

17. Dilemma: When one or more characters is faced with a choice between two similar options. Both may have equally positive or negative consequences, making the choice a difficult one.

18. Epic: A long story, usually in poetic form, that tells the story of a hero. The hero is usually caught in the middle of fighting gods and is often struggling to gain control of his or her own fate. The hero is typically superhuman, having been born of the gods. For example, Achilles from The Iliad and Odysseus from The Odyssey. (Both these epics were written by Homer.) The Norse epic Beowulf and The Epic of Gilgamesh are two other examples. We may consider Prometheus an epic that is also a myth since it fits the description of an epic but also describes the circumstances under which humanity came to be.

19. Euphemism: The use of polite language to describe something that is not nice or desirable. For example: ‘He passed on’, OR ‘he has gone to a better place’ instead of ‘he died.’

20. Fable: A brief tale that conveys a strong moral lesson, usually by giving human speech and manners to animals or inanimate things. For example, the story of the Tortoise and the Hare or George Orwell’s novella Animal Farm.

21. Flashback/Flashforward: An element of plot whereby an author reveals plotline that occurs before or after the present. For example: the T.V. series Lost makes use of both of these plot techniques. Although the “present” in the show involves characters surviving on an island, it characterizes them by flashing back to their lives before crashing on the island and by flashing forward to after they have been rescued.

22. Foil: A character that balances against another opposite kind of character. For example: one character may be strong-willed, the other meek.

23. Imagery: Imagery is when the author uses various techniques (metaphor, simile, personification, literal description, symbolism etc.) in an attempt to put an “image” into the reader’s mind. We have to be aware that imagery is a two-way process in that the reader will also interpret the image in his own way. The end result is always remarkable as true imagery will “leap” into your mind. He sat prostrate before his killer, blood streaming from the gash in his throat. Reaching the floor, his life essence lazily painted a red ribbon upon the cold marble of the foyer. Imagery is sensory: visual, auditory (hearing), tactile (touch) or olfactory (smell).

24. In media res: A technique whereby the author begins the story at an exciting point in order to grab the reader’s attention, rather than starting at the beginning.

25. Irony: Basic irony is when something happens that was not expected to happen. There are several types of irony.

i) Situational Irony: When something occurs that we would not expect to occur.

Ted is afraid of bears so he doesn’t like to camp outdoors. His wife loves camping and grudgingly, he agrees to go on a trip, but only in Texas where there are no bears. Unfortunately, the very day he arrived, a ferocious Grizzly bear escaped from the Austin City Zoo and mauled him as he slept unsuspecting in his tent.

ii) Dramatic Irony: When the reader, and often several characters in a story or play, knows something that one or more characters does not. Depending on what type of character is left in the dark the reader may feel pity, happiness, or anxiety as a result of what may be in store for them. For example: In the short story “Lamb to Slaughter”, three policemen who are investigating a murder are eating a tasty leg of lamb. Little do they know that the woman who has just cooked it for them, recently used it while it was frozen to beat her husband to death. The irony is that they do not realize they are eating the very thing they are looking for—the murder weapon.

iii) Verbal Irony:

❖ Understatement: Purposely downplaying something to create the opposite effect of drawing attention to it. For example: A plane is crashing and a passenger says “well this sucks.”

❖ Overstatement (Hyperbole): Purposely exaggerating something to the point of disbelief in order to make someone believe it. For example: I’ve got like a billion of those.

❖ Sarcasm: Purposely saying the opposite of what is meant in order to convey a message. It is usually done in a spiteful way thought it can also be used in a humorous way. C’mon man, everyone knows KFC is the healthiest food available. Message: you shouldn’t eat KFC.

26. Juxtaposition: Placing two things closely together that are very different in order to create effect. One common form of juxtaposition is when a story features two characters that are opposites. Lisa Simpson and Bart Simpson. Juxtaposed characters are also called foils. Another example that occurs often in literature is the good and bad twin brother (Think of the movie the Iron Mask). Another form of juxtaposition occurs when one setting is contrasted with another. In Brave New World we have the poverty stricken “Reservations” and the rich “Brave new World.” A more common example that occurs often in literature is heaven and hell. This example occurs so often we may call it a motif and even an archetype.

Note: When something occurs again and again in literature or even when it occurs often in a single piece of literature, you have an example of a motif. A more extreme case of motif is the archetype.

27. Legend: A story or group of stories that have been passed on through oral story-telling tradition. They may be based on an actual event or person but have been ‘exaggerated’ over time such that they may be very different from the original. For example: the stories of Robin Hood or King Arthur.

28. Metaphor: When one thing, idea, or action is referred to by a word or expression normally meaning another thing so as to suggest a common quality shared by the two. Metaphor is a way to convey deep meaning in a brief statement. It is therefore useful when describing things. For example: That guy is a diamond in the rough. Literally, this statement refers to a diamond that is found in a mine in its natural state, before it is cleaned, cut and polished. Figuratively, this expression is used to describe someone who is still pretty rough but has a good heart and with time will be a great person.

29. Motif: A character, event or setting that is very common in the history of literature or that occurs several times in one piece of literature. For example, the character that pretends to be in need of assistance one too many times and then when in real need of assistance finds that there is none offered as in “The Boy Who Cried Wolf.” OR The idea that the world will end suddenly in a flood. OR The use of fog, rain and cold to accompany battle or a miserable situation. OR The sunrise signalling a new beginning.

30. Myth: A story that accounts for the social customs and/or religious beliefs of a culture. It communicates deep, fundamental truths about human existence or explains the origin of humanity, but may itself not be a true story. For example: The story of Adam and Eve can be considered a myth since it is a tale about the origin of humanity.

31. Omen: An object, animal or event which signals that something good or bad is about to happen. For example the superstitious belief that a crow signals death.

32. Onomatopoeia: When a word sounds like its meaning. For example: A skirt “swishes.” OR A bat “cracks.” OR A bee “buzzes.”

33. Oxymoron: A compressed paradox when a word or series of words cancels one another out. For example: bittersweet OR sound of silence.

34. Paradox: When two things that should not exist together are placed together. For example: It was both night and day in that frosty part of the world. OR The child is the father of a man. Time travel is said to create paradox because a person cannot be in two places at once. Paradox exists in a simpler form as oxymoron.

35. Pathetic Fallacy: When natural phenomena, which cannot feel as humans do, are described as if they could. Usually, pathetic fallacy occurs in poetry. For example: Clouds may “weep,” or flowers may be “joyful.” The difference between pathetic fallacy and personification is that the natural phenomena are personified according to their perceived attributes—Clouds give rain which could be tears. Flowers typically make us happy. It is called “pathetic” because when overdone (as with the romantic poets) it is kind of “cheesy.” The fallacy is that it clouds obviously don’t ‘weep’ and flowers cannot be ‘joyful’.

36. Personification: When human qualities are given to something that is not human. For example: The tree swayed in the breeze, its arms waving to me as I passed.

37. Plot: The sequence of events in a narrative (story). Plot typically consists of four main elements. Depending on the genre of the story, certain elements may be more or less evident. In some cases, elements may be completely absent.

i) Initial Situation (exposition): Setting and character are introduced and the reader learns what the conflict is.

ii) Rising Action: A series of major events which serve to increase suspense and brings the protagonist closer to solving (or not solving) the conflict.

iii) Climax: This is a pivotal event where the protagonist is either solves or does not solve the conflict.

iv) Resolution (denouement): The outcome of the climax is explained and the reader sympathises or celebrates with the protagonist or in some cases comes to dislike the protagonist.

38. Point of View: This is the perspective from which the story is told. Depending on the perspective, we will know varying amounts of information about character’s minds and their perception of events and other characters. There are three types:

i) First person: Uses “I.” One character is telling the story from her perspective.

ii) Second person: Uses “You.” The author speaks directly to the reader. Usually used in non-fiction.

iii) Third person: Uses “he,” “she,” or “it.” The author is telling about the characters.

There are three types of third person.

❖ Limited omniscient: The author tells us the story through the thoughts and feelings of only one character.

❖ Omniscient: The author tells us everything about the story including the thoughts and feelings of all the characters, and even information in the author’s mind that no character knows.

❖ Dramatic or Objective: We are only told what happens and what is said; we do not know any thoughts or feelings of the characters. It is called “dramatic” because it is similar to a play, where as an audience, we only know what we see and hear. (we must guess what the thoughts of the characters are)

39. Propaganda: When something is written or produced for the sole purpose of convincing people of a particular point of view we may say that it is propaganda. For example, George Bush’s administration relied heavily on propaganda through CNN to convince the American public that it was necessary to attack Iraq to stop the fundamentalist group Al Queda. Fundamentalist Islamic schools rely heavily on propaganda to convince students that they should attack the American infidels.

40. Protagonist: A character facing a conflict in a story or poem that she must overcome. Often, the antagonist is creating the conflict though the antagonist may also be seen to be helping the protagonist by “pushing” them along.

41. Sarcasm: A type of verbal irony where what is meant is the opposite of what is said. For example: I love studying.

42. Satire: A piece of literature where the object is to ridicule or poke fun at some aspect of society. Usually, the purpose is to point out a common flaw in human nature. It may be in “light” form where the tone is humorous, or “dark” form where the tone is more ominous, often containing a warning for humanity.

43. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as.” It is used to enhance our understanding of a thing, person or event. That dog is dumb as a post.

44. Stereotype: A character that has all of the expected traits of a “group.” For example: The nerd, the jock, or the damsel in distress. Stereotyped characters are usually a sign of bad writing, but in some cases-especially minor characters, or in satires and fables, they are useful.

45. Symbol: A common object that has a deeper meaning. A symbol is something that stands for something else. There are universal symbols, which we find often in literature and film. For example: shapes such as the red cross, which symbolizes help and healing; animals, such as the dove, which symbolizes peace; and colours, such as black, which often symbolizes death. An object or event may often be regarded as symbolic of something in the future. Ex. omens of good or evil.

46. Theme: A theme is a message the reader takes away from a story. Usually we identify themes as consisting of two parts. A subject such as love or companionship or prejudice and the author’s view of this subject such as love is rare, companionship is essential to a happy life or prejudice happens to all of us.

47. Tone/Voice: The tone, or voice, is the author’s attitude towards what he is writing about. The author may have the same tone throughout or it may change at key points. Tone is often referred to as sarcastic/ironic or serious, dark or light, pessimistic or hopeful, biased/opinionated or objective.

Poetic Devices

Assonance: When the vowel sound within a word matches the same sound in a nearby word, but the surrounding consonant sounds are different. For example: “Tune” and “June” rhyme. “Tune” and “Food” are assonant. Assonance gives a sense of flow to a piece of poetry.

Cacophony: When the language in a poem seems harsh, rough and unmusical. When several words used together are difficult to pronounce, or when the meaning of several words together is lost, you typically have an example of cacophony. For example: Live vicariously rarely.

Consonance: The repetition of similar consonant sounds, especially at the end of words. For example: lost and past or confess and dismiss.

Dissonance: Harshness of sound or rhythm, usually through repetition of disharmonious vowel or consonant sounds. For example:

Law of thyself complete, thine own track firmly holding,

(No sweetness debonair of tearful harp or glib piano thine,)

Thy trills of shrieks by rocks and hills return’d,

From Walt Whitman’s To a Locomotive in Winter

Enjambment: In poetry, the continuation of one sentence from one line onto the next.

For example: South of the bridge on Seventeenth

I found back of the willows one summer

day a motorcycle with engine running

as it lay on its side, ticking over

slowly in the high grass. I was fifteen

From William Stafford’s Fifteen

Inversion: Reversing the normal grammatical order of a sentence or part of a sentence for effect. See the example above.

Repetition: Especially in poetry, repeating a word or phrase for effect.

Other devices important to poetry (see literary terms) include: Alliteration, Irony, Juxtaposition, Metaphor, Oxymoron, Paradox, Pathetic Fallacy, Personification, Simile, and Symbol.

1) Poetry often relies on rhyme for its effect.

Blank Verse: Any piece of poetry where there is no clear rhyme.

Rhyme: The repetition of similar sounds occurring at determined, or regular intervals. For example:

i) End Rhyme: the near duplication of sounds at the end two or more lines in a poem.

ii) Internal Rhyme: when sounds are similar within the same line.

iii) Perfect Rhyme: when the final accented vowels of the rhyming words and all of the sounds following the rhyming words are identical. The rhymed sounds are all alike.

iv) Rhyme Royal: A seven line, iambic pentameter stanza with the rhyme scheme

a b a b b c c.

Rhyming Lines:

i) Rhyming Couplet: Two lines that rhyme.

ii) RhymingTriplet: Three lines that rhyme.

Rhyme Scheme: The pattern of rhymed words. Stanzas are often contain a regular rhyme scheme. When analyzing a poem, we can indicate rhyme scheme by using letters. For example:

Spot is a dog a

Freckles is a cat b

I found a frog a

My brother, a rat b

2) Poetry often relies on structure for effect. Structure includes:

i) how poems are organized

ii) rhythm

i) Organization: Poems are organized into lines and groups of lines called stanzas. In some cases such as with shape poetry or acrostic poems (first letters of the lines spell a word), organization is essential to the poem.

Free Verse: Poetry with no regular organization.

Line: The sequence of words printed as a separate entity on a page. In longer poems, lines are often numbered for easy reference.

Stanza: A grouping of lines ‘separated’ from another group. For example:

Couplet : Two line stanza.

Triplet : Three line stanza.

Quatrain : Four line stanza.

Quintet : Five line stanza.

Sextet : Six line stanza.

Septet : Seven line stanza.

Octet : Eight line stanza.

ii) Rhythm: This is the “beat” of a poem. To analyze rhythm is a poem we consider the meter.

Meter: The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line or group of lines or an entire poem. We can determine meter by counting syllables in a line and marking which are accented (stressed) and which are unaccented (unstressed). See the example on the next page.

Feet: Groupings of stressed and unstressed syllables. For example:

Iambic Foot: Consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.

Trochaic Foot: Consists of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable.

Anapestic Foot: Consists of two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable.

Dactylic Foot: Consists of one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables.

Metric Line: Defined by the number of feet in line. For example:

Monometer: one foot Pentameter: five feet

Dimeter: two feet Hexameter: six feet

Trimeter: three feet Heptameter: seven feet

Tetrameter: four feet Octameter: eight feet

We combine the type of foot with the metric line to determine meter. For example iambic pentameter is a metric line of five iambs (foot with two syllables-the first stressed, the second unstressed)

Iambic Pentameter: One common type of meter, found mainly in older English poetry is iambic pentameter. Shakespeare’s sonnets are written predominantly in iambic pentameter. Each sonnet line consists of ten syllables. The syllables are divided into five (pent) pairs called iambs or iambic feet. An iamb is a metrical unit made up of one unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable. An example of an iamb would be good BYE.

Sonnet 18

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate:

Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,

And summer's lease hath all too short a date:

Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,

And often is his gold complexion dimm'd;

And every fair from fair sometime declines,

By chance or nature's changing course untrimm'd;

But thy eternal summer shall not fade

Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest;

Nor shall Death brag thou wander'st in his shade,

When in eternal lines to time thou growest:

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,

So long lives this and this gives life to thee.

-William Shakespeare

A line of iambic pentameter flows like this:

baBOOM / baBOOM / baBOOM / baBOOM / baBOOM.

From the above sonnet:

Shall I / com PARE/ thee TO / a SUM / mer’s DAY? (ten syllables, five feet)

Thou ART / more LOVE / ly AND / more TEM / per ATE (ten syllables, five feet)

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