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European Politics NotesEuropean Politics Competing traditions: research schools in comparative politicsThe “goal” of social scienceApply scientific methodHypothesis to apply to real world dataApply principles of scientific inquiry to human behaviorMethod(s) of analysisCause vs. effect1st approach: rationality structure (micro-level)Cost vs. gain (econ)IncludesSelf-interestStrategic calculationsConstraintsUncertaintyPreferences: instrumental/utilitarian vs. expressive/value-orientedMark decisions based on what is most beneficial to themRationality approach (micro level looking at individuals)Always act in their best interestWeigh costs and benefitsExpressive/value-orientedWhat makes them feel goodSelf expressionBy looking at only micro-level (rationality) we might be missing somethingRationality strategicIndividuals can’t always pursue exactly what they wantThere are constraintsIMP: “rational decisions don’t have to be good decisions”Normative vs. positiveNormative“Should”Good/badMoralityIn political science we try to be objective…PositiveWhat is, objectiveWhat should be (normative) vs. what is (positive)2nd approach: Culture structure (meso-level)Middle level of analysisAcknowledges that nothing is inherently better or worse it is subjectiveAssumes individuals are only able to act within the cultural confines that they knowIntersubjective malleable POWER!!Social beliefs we live in condition what we doMalleable nothing set in stonePowerful for political figures who want to gather people around their ideasCan compel people and groups to act certain waysEx: suicidal terrorists, freedom fighters, pro-democracy protestorsCan be used to manipulate or unifyEx: nationalism vs. patriotism, Civil Rights MovementIMP: Ideals and identities are CONSTRUCTEDPolitical culture: Set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments that provide the basic assumptions and rules that govern behavior 3rd approach: structural approach (macro-level)Something above culture that we can group people intoLooks at context and institutionsInstitutions can change, but not very oftenPro of this approachContext, rules of the game = institutionsEnduring but not necessarily permanentCreates sets of relationships wherein the fates of individuals, groups, and societies are largely determined by their positions within a structureEx: peasant-lord, worker-capitalist, Feudalism“Where you stand depends on where you sit”IMP: this approach would argue against the rational approachSetting boundaries: “who” is Europe?Old vs. new, East vs. West, core vs. peripheryAll ambivalentAll very politicalNo one answer, very debatedUnequal status across the regionsOld vs. newEast vs. westDraws on Cold War distinction (Iron Curtain)North vs. southKind of rich vs. poorCore vs. peripheryCountries in the center tend to be more economically strongCountries on outskirts have more troubleThis is all DEBATABLE/politicalThe role of the “other”Always some other who helps develop who we areWhat is not Europe?There is Europe and there is not EuropeWhat is not Europe helps us define who Europe isGeographical distinction: European continentPolitical distinction: EU (European Union) membership?EU now at 28 official membersEconomic distinction: Schengen area? Eurozone involvement?Even with EU, not all use the Euro currencyMust be a part of EU to use Euro thoughIMP: study p.1 of textbook (the map)Setting boundaries: “who” is West Europe?Picture in classDuring Cold War – Iron Curtain draws line that separates East and West EuropeMain events in WEST European historyGreek and Roman CivilizationsChristianity: Holy Roman EmpireFeudalismRenaissanceThirty Years War; Peace of WestphaliaFoundation of modern nation-stateIndustrial revolutionColonialism/colonizationFrench revolutionNapoleon/Napoleonic warsWorld War IAncient Greece and RomeGreece: ~750 BC – 146 BCRome: ~508 BC – 500 ADPax RomanaFoundations of Western Civilization . . .ChristianityHoly Roman Empire (HRE): combined spiritual (religious) and temporal (political) authorityReformation: 1517 – 1648Protestantism vs. CatholicismReligious wars: 1524 – 1648Government should have spiritual and political authorityRulers “secured by God”This idea causes conflict down the road religious warsFeudalismPolitical, economic, and military order, 9th – 15th centuriesReciprocal obligationsBorn into specific classInherited social rights and obligationsYoutube video: Monty Python and the Holy Grail ExamplePyramid of social classesRenaissance~14th – 17th centuriesStarted in Italy, spread throughout EuropeAge of “Enlightenment”Individualism HumanismStrong belief in rationality and scienceCulminated in RevolutionsLed to Thirty Years WarThirty Years War; Peace of Westphalia1618-1648: most of Europe involved complete devastation1648: Treaty of Westphalia establishes principle of sovereigntyDefinition of sovereignty“The exclusive legal authority of a government over its population and territory, independent of external authorities” (Sodaro 2008:126)After this there is an eruption of “nation-states”Foundation of modern nation-stateAlternative forms of sociopolitical organization?Firmly ended feudal order in Europe4 criteria according to Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of states (Paraguay 1933) Article 1:4 criteria to be a nation-state:Permanent populationDefined territoryGovernmentCapacity to enter into relations with other statesIndustrial revolutionChanged economic order of thingsStarted in Britain, 18th-19th centuriesComplete socioeconomic transformationEmergence of modern capitalist economyWage labor beginsColonialism/colonizationEstablishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of 1 territory by people of another 15th – 20th centuriesColonialism, imperialism, mercantilismAge of discoveryFrench revolution1789-1799Declaration of the Rights of Man and of Citizens (1791/1793)Popular sovereigntyUniversal, natural rightsDid not end in democracy . . . ended in dictatorship . . .Napoleon/Napoleonic warsAssert power 1804; wars from 1803-1815Continuation of revolution; fighting for territoryResults in dissolution of Holy Roman EmpireBritain becomes world’s foremost powerPax RomanaBritish Empire rules everythingLasted pretty much the entire 1800s (19th century)World War IPax Romana comes to an endJuly 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918The “Great” war; the “European” war> 9 million killedVersailles conditionsPACTS – agree to come to allies aid when fighting5th deadliest event in world historyArmistice signed November 11, 1918 – Treaty of VersaillesGermany had to take complete responsibility for the warGermany had to completely disarmGermany had to give up substantial amount of territoryGermany had to pay for what happened (> 3 billion then)What 3 main ideologies were fighting for power after 1918?Ideology: “a set of ideas that constitutes one’s goals, expectations, and actions”Left Right2 dimensions: political vs. economic3 main ideologies fightingDemocracy: rule by “the people”Fascism: “radical and authoritarian nationalist political ideology” far rightNationalism: “national spirit or aspirations . . . excessive patriotism, chauvinism” Nationalism is badPatriotism is goodCommunism: “sociopolitical movement that aims for a classless and stateless society structured upon common ownership of the means of production, wage labor, and property” far leftKarl Marx – MarxismTotalitarianismCan happen under any ideologyGovernment telling people what to do in their private livesWhat we saw in fascist regimes between WWI and WWIIWhy was Hitler so popular?Created economic stabilityHitler was democratically electedRevived German status after WWIHe promised a better economic futureWhy he was electedGood speaker(Review) What 3 main ideologies were fighting for power after 1918 (after WWI)?FascismCommunismDemocracyThe minority at this timeHow did economic despair contribute to the rise of fascism and ultimately WWII?Commanding heights videoCompeting economic ideas:HayekKeynesDifference between fascism and NazismFascism in general shows far right partyStrong state, strong governmentNo element of racial discriminationNazism – kind of fascism, but has element of racial discriminationFascism in Italy and SpainWhat did (Western) Europe learn from its experiences with WWI and WWII?Western Europe says we’ve been fighting so long so now start of European UnionUS likes to take credit for European integrationMarshall PlanComplete discrediting of fascist regimesFascism gone in Europe – no longer competing ideologySo Nazism is gone tooSo now (end of WWII) there are 2 fighting ideologies . . .CommunismDemocracyCentral/Eastern European historyLong-divergent pathsPoliticsEconomicsCultureImplicationsOvercoming the past . . .The Byzantine EmpirePredominantly Greek-speakingCapital = Constantinople (Modern-day Istanbul)Survived 1000 years after collapse of Roman Empire1453: overtaken by Ottoman EmpireWhat we really need to knowOriginally Christian, then Ottoman = MuslimThe “Great Schism”1054: Roman Catholic Church vs. Eastern Orthodox Church(Ottoman Empire at its height over large skipped area between previous and next bullet point)4 main empiresGerman (Prussian): est. 1871Austrian-Hungary (Hapsburg/Habsburg)Occupied HRE throne 1438-1740Continuation of Holy Roman Empire from West EuropeRussian Tsardom: est. 1721Romanov dynastyTurks (Ottoman): Est. 1299ALL ENDED BY 1918WWI ends all of these EmpiresStart of Central/Eastern Europe trying to catch upCentral/Eastern Europe includes many different ethnic groupsSo, seeds sown for future conflictBetween WWI/WWII (Central/Eastern Europe)New states, border readjustmentsOpposite of a “nation state”Short interlude with democracyTried to implement democracyBut didn’t take root (because of ethnic differences)No democratic culture to speak ofAka citizens have no belief that they should be involved in governmentCentral/Eastern far more devastated than West EuropeUsed as battle grounds during WWIIStuck in the middle of enemies in WWIIAfter WWII ends . . . these countries are “liberated” by the USSR (Soviet Union)Cold War (1945-1989)Never direct contact2 competing ideologiesNATO vs. Warsaw PactNATO: US and West EuropeWarsaw Pact: USSR and Central/Eastern CountriesLeads to proxy warsInitial improvements, then economic stagnationSevere political repressionCitizens had no political rightsQuick collapsePost-communist transition (or legacy)Dual nature – political and economic transitionStatusDifferent countries had different approaches to make this transition GradualOR all at once (“overnight”)More successful in long runEconomic TheoriesRecall “The Battle of Ideals”Watched more of Commanding Heights videoKeynes and HayekChicago School2 broad ideologies: capitalism and socialismClassical LiberalismCommunism has its roots in thisLiberalism = pure capitalismFor our lingo in political science/this classAka “capitalism”Adam Smith (1723-1790), David Ricardo (1772-1823), etc.Right-leaning economic philosophy that espouses:Private ownership, property rightsSupply and demandPrices and wages determined by supply and demandLaissez-faire: “free market”Wage labor, profitIdeas of this took a beating after the Great Depression and WWII . . . until revived by Friedrich von Hayek (1899-1992), Milton Friedman (1912-2006), and “The Chicago School”Ideas of classical liberalism died out and lost popularity/credibility until Hayek revives these ideasKeynes/Keynesianism1939-1979: big countries adopting Keynesian ideasJohn Maynard Keynes (1883-1946): Father of MacroeconomicsPredicted disaster from Versailles conditionsRevolution in economic thinking: overturned classical liberalismGovernment can use fiscal and monetary measures to mitigate adverse effects of marketFiscal: taxation and spendingMonetary: exchange rates and supplyDominated policy in Europe (and other countries) from 1939-1979Keynesianism more towards social democracy for sure . . . center-left?Philips CurveAsserts inverse relationship between inflation and the rate of unemploymentCan either have low inflation and low unemployment Trade-off issueKey part of KeynesianismKeynes argues that it is much more important for government to have low unemploymentBelieves government can use fiscal and monetary policies to deal with inflationHe studied the Philips Curve a lotHe blamed the Great Depression on unemploymentSo he believed unemployment issue was more important than inflationGovernment intervention and public responsibility with KeynesianismSocialism Left-leaning economic philosophy that espouse:Public ownership of modes of productionRedistribution of wealthMarxist societyVs. “social democracy” (socialism different from “social democracy”): Center-leftSeeks to “reform capitalism to align it with ethical ideals of social justice while maintaining the capitalist mode of production”Welfare-stateWorker’s rightsLess of the democracy typeChristian DemocracyEmerged in 19th century Europe; merges conservatism with Catholic Social Teaching“Conservative” on cultural, social, and moral issues“Progressive” on fiscal and economic issuesEmphasizes: community, social solidarity, support for a welfare state, support for some regulation of market forcesAll with a market economyMarxism/CommunismKarl Marx (1818-1883)Georg Hegel (1770-1831)Class struggle (owners vs. workers)Bourgeoisie (wealthy): control modes of productionProletariat (working class): wage laborSolution: working class must realize how they are being exploited, and rebel to take control over the modes of productionCapitalism socialism (temporary protectorate) communism (no government needed)Real world applications: not implemented how Marx envisionedEx: Russia, not a clear bourgeoisie and capitalism wasn’t present, got caught up in socialismBig pictureHow governments organize their economies has consequences for citizens’ quality of life20th century: back and forth battle between capitalism and socialismEuropean economies ≠ blank slateWestern European countries = mix of economic philosophiesPresidentialism and ParliamentarismDefining and classifying democracyDistinguish between:Political system vs. electoral systemGovernment, cabinet, administration, regimeUnicameralism vs. bicameralismFederal system vs. unitary stateHow do we define democracy?Electoral-based: simple (dichotomous: D, no D)Rights-based: comprehensive (continuous: degree of D)Democratization vs. consolidationDoesn’t mean a country becomes fully democraticMeans democratic reforms occurringPresidentialism vs. parliamentarism IMP: more than one way to be democraticFeaturePresidentialismParliamentarismPowersSeparationFusionRole of Chief ExecutiveSingle executive = President = Head of State AND Head of GovernmentDual executives: Head of State (Monarch/President) vs. Head of Government (Prime Minister)Selection of Chief ExecutiveDirectly electedSelected by majority party in legislature/ParliamentTerm length/tenurePresident serves for fixed termPrime Minister serves as long as s/he maintains confidence of Parliament“Perils” of presidentialismLinz (1990) argued that presidentialism is more prone to gridlock, instability, and breakdownCompeting mandates/dual legitimacyDivided governmentWhen different parties control different branchesTemporal rigidityDue to fixed length of termExtremists/outsiders can get electedWinner-take-all, zero-sum nativePosition so important and can only be held by one person, so causes instability and fightingWhat’s missing here?Conditional on electoral system; especially bad in multiparty systemsYes, it can be perilous, but depends on the electoral systemEspecially bad in multiparty systemsBecause yeah US has done just fineIs parliamentarism better?ProsHead of state “above” politicsMore efficient policymakingMore responsive to changes in mood of publicSelective recruitment: party acts as gatekeeperConsVoting for whom/what?MPs have to “sell their soul” to retain job during VONC (Vote of No Confidence)Opposition parties excluded, ignored in policy processLess identifiabilty (don’t know who government will be before election)Timid policymakingSelective recruitment: not just anyone can run/winThe Good Ol’ UKSlow and steady . . .Took centuriesUK had an extremely slow process of democratizationA “model” democracy?The Westminster SystemWestminster model = parliamentarism + SMD (single-member district electoral system)HOC vs HOL – BICAMERAL SYSTEMHouse of Commons (lower house)Most important body of parliamentHouse of Lords (upper house)Operates on system of customReplicable?? Can we reproduce this?We aren’t really sureIs all of Europe parliamentary?All of West Europe isMost are parliamentary republics or constitutional monarchies (ex: UK, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Sweden, Iceland, Belgium, etc.)Some are semi-presidential (ex: France, Finland, Portugal)Presidential-parliamentary: dangerous (ala Weimer Republic)Premier-presidentialism (ala France)Division of policymaking powers: foreign vs. domesticCohabitation: when President and Prime Minister come from different partiesTake-away pointsEurope’s unique historyMore than one way of doing thingsPros and cons for eachThe importance of “checks and balances”**rules of the political system alone (ie; presidentialism vs. parliamentarism) don’t determine success/failure also need to consider electoral rules (systems)!Context matters:Economic advantages/disadvantagesHomogeneity/diversityGovernmentHistory, colonization, etc.Electoral SystemsElectoral systemsDefinition: “How votes get translated into seats”The most important institutional decision for any democracy because the electoral system determines:Number of partiesRepresentativenessSatisfaction with democracyAnd moreDistinguishing features of electoral systemsSingle-Member DistrictProportional RepresentationFormulaPlurality/majorityProportional Ballot StructureVote for individualVote for party (open vs. closed list)District Magnitude1 seat per district; many districtsMany seats per district; only one districtProportional representation – makes it possible for every party to be representedMajority = over 51% of the votesMore votes than any other = plurality Single-member district(aka first-past-the-post)Winner takes all“Plurality” rule vs. “majority”Majoritarian electoral systemHard for smaller parties to get representationLend to get automatic majority for one party after the electionDisproportionality between votes cast and seats receivedMakes some people feel disenfranchisedBetter geographic representationProportional representationSeats allocated by % of role receivedTypically have a thresholdNeed some minimum % of vote to get representationMore likely to need to form coalition government . . .No party has a majorityBetter ideological representationPros and consSMD/FPTP (Single-Member Districts/First-Past-The-Post)Clear winner, automatic majority – pro“Safe” seats – pro/conDisproportionality – con Hard (if not impossible) for small parties to get in – pro/conRedistricting = political PR systems More “fair” – proEasier for “extremists” to get in – pro/conMore parties = more complicated policymaking – conPeople in PR systems know they have better chance being heard – con Consequences (type of electoral system effects . . .)“Government” formationSingle-party (almost always have this under SMD)What we tend to see under PR system:Majority coalitionMinority coalitionVoter turnout (government voting system determines how involved people are)Satisfaction with democracyLosers are much happier when they live under PR systems because some shared ideologies will be representedWinners are happier under SMDBecause winner takes allMore people are satisfied under PR systems than SMD systemsRepresentation of political interests/groupsMost affected by type of electoral systemAnd most importantly . . .DUVERGER’S LAWSMD systems usually create two political partiesPR systems produce multi-party system**Electoral system determines number of parties in that country**Duverger’s lawFood for thought . . .Where do electoral systems come from?Why is it so hard for a 3rd party to take hold in the US?Are coalitions good/bad?Which system would you prefer and why?NEED OPINION ON THIS FOR MIDTERMPutting it all together**IMPORTANT**: political system and electoral systems are 2 DIFFERENT, INDEPENDENT dimensionsPresidential DemocracyParliamentary DemocracySMD (aka FPTP)United StatesUnited Kingdom (UK)PRBrazilGermany, Italy, Greece most common in EuropePolitical PartiesGroup discussion questionsWhat is a political “party”?Group of people who seek to make changeGroup of people with ideological similaritiesOrganizationThey are institutionalized representations of ideological preferences/viewsHas to work within and through government to accomplish their objectivesWhat do parties do?Help candidates get electedHelp inform citizensTrying to persuade people for supportWhat determines the number of political parties in a given country?ELECTORAL SYSTEMWhat does party membership look like in Western Europe?Huge drop in party membershipMore distrust in parties than everParties in Western EuropeWhat is a “party”?KEY INSTRUMENTS OF DEMOCRACYIntermediary institution between the people and government in a liberal democracyGovernment/legislature parties peopleVersus civil society and social movementsSocial movements – temporary efforts for particular movement, once they’ve reached their goal they are doneLobby/interest groupFinancial aspectsPursuing their own interestsDifferent from social movements What do parties DO?Link representatives in Parliament to supporters in the mass public via means of a permanent organizationPromote mass membership and bureaucratic organization to further the aims of the . . . Functions of political partiesIntegration and mobilizationCampaigns, voter turnoutOrganize political competitionPolitical success dependent on party labelRecruit political personnelPatronage/”partitocrazia” Iron Law of Oligarchy (p. 205 in Kubicek) Has to do with fact that institutions are like a snowball (get more and more powerful)Aggregation of interestsPromotion of policyParty manifesto/platform/programChannel of communication between citizens and governmentParties in Western EuropeInsider (conservative, bourgeois) vs. outside parties (extra-parliamentary)Cleavages: BaleA divide, something that separates peopleIssues that may create cleavages:Land-industry (aristocracy/bourgeois)Owner-worker (capital vs. labor, SD parties)Urban-rural (agragarian parties)Center-periphery (regionalist/minority nationalist parties)Church-state (clerical/anti-clerical)Revolution-gradualism (SDs and CPs of early 1900s)SD – social democraticCP – communist partyDemocracy-totalitarianism (rise of Fascists)Modernism-postmodernism (environment and quality of life issues)Multiculturalism-homogeneity (far right, populist parties)SEE ALSO: Kubicek p. 206-218Lipset and Rokkan (1967): parties in 60s reflect issues of the 20s = freezing hypothesisDid research showing that political parties’ central issues were a concern way in the past Party families: classify over time and spaceCatch-all party: seeks to attract people with diverse viewpoints; broad support base that defies categorizationMore about ideologyCadre: dominated by elite group of activistsCartel: uses resources of state to maintain its positionMass: huge number of supportersEthnicityMovement/rally For example, you can have a mass, catchall partyNot confined to just one category Party membershipWhat determines the number of political parties in a given countryTHE ELECTORAL SYSTEMWhat does party membership look like?Dealignment: Kubicek p. 205-6Party membership has been decliningVoters falling away from political partiesMair and van BeizenThe “Radical Right”Right-wing riseRise of Eurosceptic partiesWhat makes it “RIGHT”?Nativism, racism, xenophobia, nationalismWhat makes it “RADICAL”?Radical right parties in Western EuropeAustria: Freedom PartyFounded in 1956Had same leader for 40 years, recently changedIssue concerns: immigration, openly anti-IslamFrance: National FrontItaly: Lega NordNetherlands: Freedom PartySwitzerland: Swiss People’s PartyUK: British National PartyGreece: Golden Dawn PartyAnd others . . .When listening to lecture (on phone) think about . . .Leader(s)Policy preferences/issue platformsVoter baseElectoral/government success**MIDTERM** Why has the Radical Right gained so much influence?Hint: British National Party getting 2% of the vote . . .What do all these parties have in common?Seek to un-do the perceived (ill) effects of modernizationLISTEN TO LECTURE ON PHONE FOR RESTWhy have they gained so much popularity?Note the context: would we expect such sentiments in Western Europe during (or after) WWII?Why Radical Right so successful? Need to look at 2 aspects . . . (**ANSWER TO MIDTERM QUESTION ABOVE)Demand factors: those that get the public behind these partiesUnemploymentMosque constructionImmigration, crime, welfare, abuseDistrust in societyMore??Supply factors: political features that allow these parties to form POLITICAL OPPORTUNITY STRUCTURE (POS) allows for entrepreneurial partiesPRParty system polarization (Bale 2 blocs)Legitimization by mainstream parties WHY??Radical Right votersSo who votes for the Radical Right?UnemployedMaleYoungLow-incomeRuralLow educationProtest votersRadical Right associated with:Xenophobia, racism, ethnocentrism(Extreme) nationalismNativismSupremacism: belief in innate superiority/inferiority of certain groups/classes; complete rejection of norm of social equalityRadical Right (continued)Tradeoff: democratic responsibility and electoral ambitionAccording to Bale, which is prevailing and why?How?Right-bloc expansion, issue priming, pledge redemptionRight-bloc expansion involves mainstream more central parties incorporating farther right parties’ stuffWho is the RR taking votes from?The more moderate (center) right conservative partiesIn other words, which types of parties did Radical Right voters used to support??Defection: “sucking votes”Satisfaction with democracyHow institutions individual attitudes and behaviorShift in type of data source this information is coming fromDiffuse vs. specific supportLong vs. short termSystem vs. policyRational- vs. emotion-basedQuestions to measure diffused support:“Are you very satisfied, fairly satisfied, not very satisfied, or not at all satisfied with the way democracy works in our country?Survey data: actually asking people what they think!See Anderson and GuillorySatisfaction with democracy by country graphLijphart: A Democratic “Dilemma”Argues decrease in voter turnout over time is a huge huge problem facing democracyWhy lower voter turnout is problematicDemocratic theoryKNOWWhat does turnout look like in recent years?DecreasingIn which type of election is turnout highest?NATIONAL highestUsually has the most at stakeSALIENCELocal, regional, national, supranationalMidterm vs. generalIMP: what institutional factors influence turnout? How can turnout be improved?6 recommendations on how to increase turnout the mostKNOW THESE ................
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