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Pearson

Edexcel AS and A Level

in History

Topic booklet

ROUTE C: REVOLUTIONS IN EARLY MODERN AND MODERN EUROPE

Route C: Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe

This topic booklet has been written to support teachers delivering Route C of the 2015 AS and A level History specifications. We’re providing it in Word so that it’s easy for you to take extracts or sections from it and adapt them or give them to students.

For the route as a whole and for each topic within it, we’ve provided an overview which helps to provide contextual background and explain why we think these are fascinating topics to study. These overviews could be used, for example, in open evening materials or be given to students at the start of the course.

You’ll also find a student timeline, which can be given to students for them to add to and adapt, a list of resources for students and for teachers, and – where possible – information about overlap between these topics and the 2008 specification.

For more detail about planning, look out for the Getting Started guide, Course planner and schemes of work.

Contents

Route C: Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe 1

Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe 1

Overview 1

Paper 1, Option 1C Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement 2

Overview 2

Content guidance 3

Themes 3

Historical interpretations: How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89? 4

Student timeline 5

Mapping to 2008 specification 8

Resources and references 9

Paper 2, Option 2C.1: France in revolution, 1774–99 15

Overview 15

Content guidance 16

Student timeline 18

Mapping to 2008 specification 20

Resources and references 24

Paper 2, Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution, 1894–1924 28

Overview 28

Content guidance 29

Student timeline 31

Mapping to 2008 specification 33

Resources and references 36

Revolutions in early modern and modern Europe

Overview

The Chinese revolutionary leader Mao Zedong declared that: ‘A revolution is not a dinner party. A revolution is an insurrection, an act of violence by which one class overthrows another.’ Mao’s dictum might help in explaining several twentieth-century revolutions, including his own, but it is only a partial explanation for the revolutions within this route.

The role of individuals is central to an understanding of revolutions. Charles I, regarded by some as the worst monarch since Henry VI, was a king who firmly believed in his divine right to rule and, even after his defeat in the civil wars, refused to compromise with his opponents. His son, James II, lacked most political skills and was forced from the throne after just three years. Louis XVI of France was intent on maintaining the country’s ancien regime and was duly swept away by revolution. On his accession to the Russian throne Nicholas II declared that a constitutional monarchy was a ‘senseless dream’ and that he intended to maintain ‘the principle of absolute autocracy’. Alexander Kerensky possessed neither the support nor the vision to establish a popular government in Russia. However, these weaknesses among rulers would not have been fatal without determined opponents. Cromwell, Robespierre and Danton, Lenin and Trotsky, were all powerful personalities who drove the process of change within their respective countries.

Revolutions are also driven by ideologies and beliefs. The rulers of England, France and Russia tried to maintain their personal rule at a time when new ideas on government were increasing in popularity. Many English politicians opposed the Stuart kings’ support of Catholicism in a largely Protestant country, believing that the Stuarts favoured absolute monarchy on the lines of the Catholic king Louis XIV. French absolutism was challenged by the rationalism of the Enlightenment, while Tsarism and democratic rule in Russia proved powerless in the face of socialist and communist ideas.

Three of the revolutions in this route happened very quickly. James II was rapidly dispatched following William of Orange’s invasion in 1688: the storming of the Bastille in Paris in 1789 signalled the fall of the old order in France; and Tsarism was overwhelmed after a week of demonstrations in Petrograd in 1917. While the fall of the Provisional Government in Russia was also a speedy affair, some historians regard the Bolshevik seizure of power as more of a coup d’état than a popular revolution. The English Revolution was a different affair, dividing the whole country and involving widespread civil conflict from 1642–49.

In simply political terms, most revolutions disappoint their supporters. The English republican experiment lasted just eleven years before the Stuart monarchy was restored, while the French revolution, after collapsing into Bonapartism and Empire, ended with the Bourbon restoration in 1814. Lenin’s communism was supplanted by Stalinist totalitarianism before entering a prolonged decline until its collapse in 1991. Perhaps the only successful revolution in this route is the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 which established limited monarchy once and for all, and developed government institutions which allowed for the rapid rise of England (and Britain) to the status of a world power.

In this route, students study:

Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement

with either France in revolution, 1774–99

or Russia in revolution, 1894–1924

Paper 1, Option 1C Britain, 1625–1701: conflict, revolution and settlement

Overview

Paper 1 is a study in breadth of monarchical and republican rule in England during the troubled period of Stuart rule between 1625 and 1688. The interpretation considers the nature and effects of the Glorious Revolution of 1688–69, which removed James II from the throne.

The Tudor dynasty ended with the death of the childless Elizabeth I in 1603. She was succeeded by another of Henry VII’s descendants, James VI of Scotland. James had reigned in Scotland for 36 years, and would rule both kingdoms for a further 22 years until his death in 1625. James firmly believed in the religious dimension of monarchy, though he had to temper his divine right views by ruling through parliament. His successors were less skilful. Charles I argued constantly with parliament, ruled alone for 11 years, and when parliament met in 1640, divisions ran so deep that civil war was the only solution. Between 1649 and 1660, England experimented with republican forms of government influenced by radical Protestant beliefs, before this expedient was abandoned with the Stuart restoration in 1660. Charles II and his brother James II proved unable to rule with parliament, and so a further solution was attempted in 1688–89. William of Orange and his Stuart queen Mary both ruled with the support of parliament; and this limited monarchy finally established a stable system of government.

Disputes over religion were an important feature of seventeenth-century life. Elizabeth had devised a successful religious formula of the ‘middle road’ between Catholicism and Protestantism, but the Stuarts sought to position the Church of England more closely with Catholic practices. This policy, promoted at a time of growing Puritan sentiment and religious radicalism, was an important reason for the outbreak of the civil war in 1642. The later Stuart kings continued to sympathise with Catholicism, and bitter divisions over religion were not settled until long after 1689.

The term ‘revolution’ in the title of this paper also refers to the extraordinary flowering of ideas in the seventeenth century. Political thinkers such as Hobbes and Locke promoted radical ideas which included the equality of all people and the rights of the individual. Both believed that political power should be based on the consent of the governed, which challenged Stuart beliefs in divine right. There were also advances in scientific ideas, fostered by the Royal Society, including the promotion of the experimental method.

This was also an age which saw a changing identity for the English state as it began to expand beyond its territorial boundaries. Colonies were first established in America in 1607, and these grew in size and importance throughout the century. Catherine of Braganza brought Bombay to England as part of her marriage dowry for Charles II. Combined with the growth of the navy begun by Cromwell, and of commercial institutions under William, these developments were to lead to the creation of the first British Empire.

The option is divided into the following four themes, though students need to appreciate the linkages between themes, as questions may target the content of more than one.

Theme 1 The quest for political stability, 1625–88

Theme 2 Religion: conflict and dissent, 1625–88

Theme 3 Social and intellectual challenge, 1625–88

Theme 4 Economy, trade and empire, 1625–88

The historical interpretations focus is: How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89?

Content guidance

This section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.

Overview

The four themes identified require students to have an overview of political, social, economic and religious change in England over the period.

Students need to have knowledge of the specified themes and be able to analyse and evaluate cause, consequence, key features and change and make comparisons over and within the period studied in dealing with factors which brought about change.

Themes

Theme 1: The quest for political stability, 1625–88

In studying Theme 1, students need to understand the nature of Stuart and republican rule and the reasons why neither system provided a stable system of government in the given period. They should understand Charles I’s political ambitions and the extent of parliamentary opposition to the king. Detailed knowledge of the events of the civil wars is not required, but students should understand the growing political and military power of parliament in the years to 1646, and Charles’ unwillingness to compromise his royal authority. Detailed knowledge of each of the republican systems introduced in the years 1649–60 is not required, but students should understand the reasons for the unpopularity of these experiments and the factors which led to the end of republican rule and the restoration of the monarchy. They should be aware of military involvement in politics and the extent to which it influenced political stability in the years 1646–60. Students should understand the shortcomings of the Restoration Settlement and the reasons why conflict between crown and parliament led to the collapse of the Stuart monarchy in 1688.

Theme 2: Religion: conflict and dissent, 1625–88

In studying Theme 2, students should be aware of the diversity of religious beliefs and opinions during the given period. They should understand Laud’s attempts to impose Arminian practices and beliefs, and the opposition to religious uniformity in both England and Scotland. They should be aware of changes imposed on Anglicanism during the Commonwealth and Protectorate, and the reasons for the church’s dominance under Charles II. They should understand the extent of religious radicalism during republican rule. Detailed knowledge of laws against dissenters during the Restoration is not required, but students should be aware of the extent of persecution and its effects during these years. They should understand the significance of Catholic influence over the Stuart monarchs during the Restoration period to 1688.

Theme 3: Social and intellectual challenge, 1625–88

In studying Theme 3, students should be aware of key changes in society and cultural life during the given period. They should understand the extent of population growth and its effects on poverty and vagrancy. They should understand the increasing urbanisation of the period including the growth of London and other towns and cities. They should be aware of the impact of radical political ideas in challenging both the monarchy and the confessional state. They should understand the spread of new scientific ideas in society and in education.

Theme 4: Economy, trade and empire, 1625–88

In studying Theme 4, students need to be aware of significant changes in agriculture and in trade. They should understand the trend towards specialised farming as new markets developed, and the impact of major capital investments in agriculture. They should be aware of changing trade patterns including those developments driven by imperial expansion in North America and the Caribbean. They should understand the impact on the British economy of mercantilist ideas and Britain’s control of the triangular trade.

Historical interpretations: How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89?

The four issues identified in the specification highlight key aspects of the debate.

This topic focuses on the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 which led to the fall of James II and the accession of William and Mary as joint sovereigns. Students will need to understand the revolutionary ideals which led to the overthrow of James II. The significance of the Bill of Rights of 1689 and the Act of Settlement of 1701 should be understood, and the extent to which these acts confirmed the end of divine right and established a constitutional monarchy. Students should be aware of the importance of the Toleration Act and of those who were excluded from the Act’s provisions. They should note the extent to which the supremacy of the Anglican Church, and of a confessional state, were both undermined. The importance of the role of parliament in the years 1688–1701 should be understood, and students should be aware of how far parliament had become a partner with the monarchy, in the government of the country. They should be aware that William III’s war with France led to a restructuring of government finances, public scrutiny of government income and expenditure and the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694. Students should understand the significance of the change from royal control of finance to parliamentary oversight.

Student timeline

Whether the content for Paper 1 is taught mainly chronologically or primarily through themes will be the decision of individual teachers. However, whatever the approach taken to teaching, it will be important that students develop a secure grasp of the chronology. The timeline below could be given to students for them to use and amend. Students may find it useful to colour-code events, for example highlighting the different Paper 1 themes in different colours.

Inclusion of dates and events in this timeline should not be taken as an indication that these are prescribed or that students must know them all: the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.

|1625 |Charles became King of Britain |

| |Charles’ first parliament. Granted two subsidies and tonnage and poundage for one year; Lords refused to accept so Charles|

| |collected the customs revenues without parliamentary consent throughout reign |

| |Due to outbreak of plague, parliament met in Oxford. Criticisms of Buckingham led Charles to dissolve parliament |

| |Buckingham led an expeditionary force to Cadiz |

|1626 |York House Conference on religion between different factions in the church |

| |Attempt to impeach Buckingham. Commons complained about collection of tonnage and poundage without parliamentary consent |

| |Charles dissolved parliament |

| |The Privy Council decided to raise a forced loan from all taxpayers. Lord Chief Justice Carew refused to endorse the |

| |legality of the loan and was dismissed |

|1627 |Buckingham led an expedition to the Isle of Re, off La Rochelle: this ended in defeat |

| |Archbishop Abbot suspended after refusing to license a sermon defending the forced loan |

| |The ‘Five Knights’ imprisoned without being put on trial |

| |Laud appointed to the Privy Council |

|1628 |Charles’ third parliament; Petition of Right; five subsidies granted; attacks on Arminianism |

| |First session of parliament ended |

| |Buckingham assassinated |

| |Wentworth appointed president of the Council of the North |

| |Laud appointed bishop of London |

|1629 |Second session of Charles’ third parliament |

| |Speaker of the Commons prevented from dissolving parliament until three resolutions passed |

| |Charles dissolved parliament: beginning of the ‘personal rule’ |

|1630 |King’s right to levy knighthood fines supported by exchequer judges |

| |Treaty of Madrid ended war with Spain |

|1631 |Book of Orders issued |

|1632 |Wentworth appointed Lord Deputy of Ireland |

| |Death of Sir John Eliot in the Tower of London |

|1633 |Charles crowned in Scotland |

| |William Laud appointed Archbishop of Canterbury |

| |Feoffees for impropriations (Puritan sympathies) dissolved on Laud’s initiative |

| |Book of Sports of 1618 reissued |

|1634 |William Prynne sentenced |

| |Ship money writs sent to coastal, maritime counties |

| |Charles negotiated with Spain for a treaty against the Dutch |

|1635 |War between France and Spain |

| |Ship money extended to inland counties |

|1636 |William Juxon, bishop of London, appointed Lord Treasurer |

|1637 |Common law judges asked to give opinion on legality of ship money |

| |Burton, Bastwick, Prynne and Lilburne mutilated for attacks on Laudian bishops |

| |Riots in St Giles Church, Edinburgh, against the new prayer book |

|1638 |Scottish National Assembly issued the National Covenant |

| |Exchequer Chamber decided 7–5 in favour of the king in Hampden’s case challenging ship money |

| |Scottish National Assembly abolished bishops |

|1639 |First Bishops’ War |

| |Wentworth returned from Ireland and advised Charles to recall parliament |

| |‘Taxpayers’ strike’ 1639–40 |

|1640 |Wentworth created Earl of Strafford and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland |

| |Short Parliament met |

| |Second Bishops’ War |

| |Treaty of Ripon |

| |Long Parliament met |

| |Strafford imprisoned |

| |Root and Branch Petition |

| |Laud impeached |

|1641 |Debates on Root and Branch Petition |

| |Triennial Act passed |

| |Trial and execution of Strafford |

| |May: First Army Plot revealed |

| |The Ten Propositions |

| |August: Ship money declared illegal |

| |Charles concluded settlement with the Scots |

| |Outbreak of the Confederate War |

| |Second Army Plot revealed |

| |The Grand Remonstrance |

|1642 |Charles failed to arrest five MPs |

| |Charles replied to the Nineteen Propositions |

| |Charles raised his standard at Nottingham: beginning of the Civil War |

| |Battle of Edgehill |

| |Royalist headquarters established at Oxford |

|1643 |Failure of peace talks |

| |Solemn League and Covenant |

|1644 |Battle of Marston Moor |

|1645 |Laud executed |

| |Failure of peace talks at Uxbridge |

| |Creation of New Model Army |

| |Battle of Naseby |

|1646 |Charles surrendered to the Scots: end of First Civil War |

|1647 |Charles handed over to parliament |

| |Army protested against disbandment |

| |Army presented Heads of the Proposals to Charles |

| |Putney Debates |

| |Charles escaped to Carisbrooke Castle |

| |Charles signed agreement with the Scots |

|1648 |Outbreak of Second Civil War |

| |Cromwell’s victory at Preston: end of Second Civil War |

| |Pride’s Purge |

|1649 |Trial and execution of Charles I |

| |Abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords: establishment of the Commonwealth |

| |Cromwell in Ireland |

|1650 |Cromwell defeated royalists at Dunbar |

|1651 |Charles II crowned king in Scotland |

| |Royalists defeated at Worcester |

| |Navigation Act |

|1652 |First Anglo-Dutch War |

|1653 |Rump Parliament dissolved: Nominated Parliament (July–December) |

| |Instrument of Government. Cromwell appointed Lord Protector |

|1654 |First Anglo-Dutch War ended |

| |First Protectorate Parliament |

|1655 |First Protectorate Parliament dissolved |

| |Penruddock’s Rising |

| |Rule of the Major-Generals |

|1656 |Second Protectorate Parliament |

|1657 |Rule of the Major-Generals ended |

| |Humble Petition and Advice |

| |Cromwell refused the throne: became Lord Protector for life |

|1658 |Death of Oliver Cromwell: Richard Cromwell becomes Lord Protector |

|1659 |Third Protectorate Parliament |

| |Recall of Rump Parliament |

|1660 |General Monck’s army arrived in London |

| |Rump Parliament dissolved itself |

| |Declaration of Breda. Convention Parliament met |

| |Return of Charles II |

| |Act of Indemnity and Oblivion |

| |Worcester House Declaration |

| |Convention Parliament dissolved |

|1661 |Venner’s (Fifth Monarchist) Rising |

| |Savoy House conference |

| |Cavalier Parliament met (to 1679) |

| |Militia Act, Financial Settlement, Corporation Act |

|1662 |Charles married Catherine of Braganza |

| |Act of Uniformity; Quaker Act; Hearth Tax |

| |Charles issued Declaration of Indulgence |

|1663 |Charles forced to withdraw Declaration of Indulgence |

|1664 |Triennial Act; Conventicle Act |

|1665 |Second Anglo-Dutch War |

| |Plague in London; Five Mile Act |

|1666 |Great Fire of London |

|1667 |Clarendon’s resignation |

|1670 |Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles and Louis XIV |

|1672 |Stop of the Exchequer |

| |Second Declaration of Indulgence. Third Anglo-Dutch War |

|1673 |Charles withdrew Declaration of Indulgence |

|1674 |End of Third Anglo-Dutch War |

|1675 |Secret agreement between Charles and Louis XIV |

|1677 |Princess Mary married to William of Orange |

|1678 |The Popish Plot |

|1679–81 |Exclusion Crisis |

|1681 |Whigs purged from local office |

|1683 |Rye House Plot |

|1685 |Death of Charles II and accession of James II |

| |Monmouth’s rebellion |

| |Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV |

| |James issued dispensations to Catholics |

|1686 |Godden v. Hales case |

|1687 |Declaration of Indulgence |

|1688 |Declaration of Indulgence reissued, to be read in all churches |

| |Trial of the seven bishops |

| |Birth of the Prince of Wales |

| |Seven peers issued an invitation to William of Orange |

| |William landed at Torbay and marched towards London |

| |James fled to France |

| |William called the Convention Parliament |

|1689 |Nine Years’ War |

| |Toleration Act |

| |Bill of Rights |

|1690 |Convention Parliament dissolved |

| |Battle of the Boyne |

|1694 |Bank of England established |

| |Death of Queen Mary |

| |Triennial Act |

|1695 |Recoinage Act |

|1697 |Peace of Rijswijk |

|1698 |Civil List established |

|1700 |Death Anne’s only surviving son |

|1701 |Act of Settlement |

| |Oath of Abjuration |

|1702 |Death of William III and accession of Queen Anne |

Mapping to 2008 specification

There is overlap between this option and the following topics from the 2008 specification.

• Unit 1, Option B, Topic B7: Crown, Conflict and Revolution in England, 1660–89: overlaps with the later years of themes 1 and 2 of this topic, including the debate topic on the revolution of 1688–89.

• Unit 3, Option A, Topic A2: Revolution, Republic and Restoration: England, 1629–67: overlaps with the earlier years of the topic, mainly with themes 1 and 2.

• There is also some overlap between theme 4 and Unit 1, Option C, Topic C1: The Origins of the British Empire, c1680–1763 in the 2008 specification.

Resources and references

The table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published.

Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others — may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.

A new textbook for this route is expected to be published by Pearson in 2015.

|Resource |Type |For students and/or teachers? |

|Angela Anderson, An Introduction to Stuart Britain, |Textbook |For students. Clear and detailed overview of |

|1603–1714 (Hodder Education, 1999) | |Stuart Britain. |

|Barry Coward, Stuart England 1603–1714 (Longman Advanced|Textbook |Written for students. |

|History, Longman, 1997) | |Very readable, less detailed. Covers economic |

| | |and social developments and the full period of |

| | |the topic. |

|Barry Coward, The Stuart Age (Routledge, fourth edition,|Textbook |Written for students. |

|2011) | |Detailed and up-to-date surveys; covers the full|

| | |period of the topic and deals with economy and |

| | |society as well as political developments. With |

| | |good summaries of recent debate it is |

| | |potentially very helpful for the third and |

| | |fourth themes in this topic. |

|Barry Coward and Christopher Durston, The English |Textbook |Written for students. |

|Revolution: A Source Book (Hodder Education, 1997) | |Contains excerpts from many of the key articles |

| | |and texts of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, with |

| | |source exercises and sample essays. |

|Dale Scarboro, England 1625–1660: Charles I, the Civil |Textbook |Written for students. |

|war and Cromwell (Hodder Murray, 2005) | |In the SHP series with charts, activities, |

| | |sources and clear narrative. Good basic |

| | |textbook, but avoids covering debates. |

|Graham Seel, Regicide and Republic: England 1603–1660 |Textbook |Written for students. |

|(Cambridge University Press, 2001) | |Very clear narrative, written for OCR’s 2001 |

| | |specification. Chapters at end cover economic |

| | |and social developments. |

|David L Smith, A History of the Modern British Isles |Textbook |Written for students. |

|1603–1707 (Blackwell, 1998) | |Very clear narrative and analysis from a leading|

| | |historian. Much-used by students and covers the |

| | |full period of this option. |

|John Adamson, The Noble Revolt (Orion, 2007) |Academic |For teachers. |

| | |Important new interpretation – but see books by |

| | |Miller and Cust for more accessible work. |

|Michael Braddick, God’s Fury, England’s Fire: A New |Academic |For teachers. |

|History of the English Civil Wars (Penguin, 2008) | |Detailed new interpretation; draws on a lot of |

| | |recent work on the ‘public sphere’ and print |

| | |especially. |

|Andrew Bradstock, Radical Religion in Cromwell’s |Academic |For teachers. |

|England: A Concise History from the English Civil war to| |Has a concise chapter on each of the radical |

|the End of the Commonwealth (I B Tauris, 2010) | |groups mentioned in the topic. |

|Barry Coward (editor), A Companion to Stuart Britain |Academic |For teachers. |

|(Blackwell, 2003), including: | |In addition to the chapters listed there are |

|Jason Peacey, ‘The Outbreak of the Civil Wars in the | |thematic chapters focused on society, the |

|Three Kingdoms’, pages 290–308 | |economy and ideas which would also be relevant |

|David Scott, ‘The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, | |to the specification content. |

|1642–1649’, pages 311–30 | | |

|David L Smith, ‘Politics in Early Stuart Britain | |Effectively summarises views of the period c2003|

|1603–1640’, pages 233–52 | |reflecting on ‘revisionism’ and the challenges |

|Tom Webster, ‘Religion in Early Stuart Britain | |to it since the 1970s and early 1980s. |

|1603–1642’, pages 253–70 | | |

|David Cressy, England on Edge: Crisis and Revolution |Academic |For teachers, but excerpts could be used by |

|1640–42 (Oxford University Press, 2006) | |students. |

| | |Highly entertaining and evocative account of the|

| | |years leading up to the Civil War. |

|Richard Cust and Ann Hughes (editors), The English Civil|Academic |For teachers. |

|War (Hodder Education, 1997) | |Set of essays, including key articles by Russell|

| | |on the ‘British Problem’, and Morrill on the |

| | |religious context of, the Civil War. Very useful|

| | |for slightly older but still influential views. |

|Richard Cust, Charles I: A Political Life (Pearson, |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|2005) | |Reliable and up-to-date biography which |

| | |summarises much of the important work of recent |

| | |decades. |

|Richard Cust, Charles I and the Aristocracy 1625–1642 |Academic |For teachers. |

|(Cambridge University Press, 2013) | |Chapters 4 and 5 in particular draw on and |

| | |summarise more accessibly Adamson’s The Noble |

| | |Revolt (2007), described by Cust as a |

| | |‘ground-breaking study’ (page 5), both |

| | |confirming (e.g. page 222) and modifying (e.g. |

| | |page 220) his conclusions. |

|Peter Gaunt, Oliver Cromwell: British Lives (British |Academic (but designed |For teachers and students. |

|Library, 2004) |for general readership) |Exceptionally readable biography. Very |

| | |accessible to students. |

|Ian Gentles, Oliver Cromwell (Palgrave, 2011) |Academic |For teachers and students. |

| | |Most recent biography which summarises recent |

| | |work and provides a clear narrative and |

| | |analysis. |

|Ian Gentles, The English Revolution and the Wars in the |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|Three Kingdoms (Pearson, 2007) | |Excellent, detailed, up-to-date overview by a |

| | |leading authority on the period. |

|Tim Harris, Restoration: Charles II and his Kingdoms |Academic |For teachers |

|(Penguin, 2006) | | |

|Anna Keay, The Magnificent Monarch: Charles II and the |Academic |For teachers |

|Ceremonies of Power (Bloomsbury, 2008) | | |

|Patrick Little (editor), Oliver Cromwell: New |Academic |For teachers. |

|Perspectives (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) | |Up-to-date essays on Cromwell. |

|John Miller, The Stuarts (Hambledon Continuum, 2004) |Academic |For teachers and students. |

| | |Very readable; nice overview of Charles II. |

|John Miller, A Brief History of the English Civil War: |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|Cavaliers, Roundheads and the Execution of the King | |A really valuable, readable overview which draws|

|(Constable & Robinson, 2009) | |on recent research; chapter 3 summarises the |

| | |important work of Adamson in 2007 succinctly. |

|Jonathan Scott, England’s Troubles: Seventeenth-Century |Academic |For teachers. |

|Political Instability in its European Context (Cambridge| |Important recent interpretation emphasising the |

|University Press, 2000) | |influence of European events and continuities |

| | |across the period covered by the topic. |

|John Spurr, The Post-Reformation: 1603–1714 (Pearson, |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|2006) | |A clear narrative history which works through |

| | |the period chronologically and covers the full |

| | |period of this topic; contains additional |

| | |chapters focused on religious developments, |

| | |helpful for the second theme. |

|Edward Vallance, A Radical History of Britain (Abacus, |Academic |For teachers. |

|2009) | |Useful on the levellers and radical groups. |

|Austin Woolrych, Britain in Revolution 1625–60 (Oxford |Academic |For teachers. |

|University Press, 2002) | |In-depth narrative. |

|Blair Worden, The English Civil Wars 1640–60 (Orion, |Academic |For teachers. |

|2009) | |Concise overview by a leading historian. |

|Blair Wordern, God’s Instruments: Political Conduct in |Academic |For teachers. |

|the England of Oliver Cromwell (Oxford University Press,| |Chapters 5–8 contain important recent articles |

|2012) | |on Cromwell by Worden; chapters 1–3 present |

| | |earlier influential pieces of work on religion |

| | |and Cromwell. |

|Jenny Wormald (editor), The Seventeenth Century (Short |Academic |For teachers. |

|Oxford History of the British Isles, Oxford University | |Chapter on the Economic and Social Context by J |

|Press, 2008) | |A Sharpe particularly useful for themes 3 and 4 |

| | |of the topic; for more see the same author’s |

| | |textbook of 1987, Early Modern England: A Social|

| | |History (Arnold, 1987). |

|Richard Cust, Charles I, History Review, December 1995, |Article |Written for students. |

|pages 15–19 | | |

|Historical Association |Podcast |Accessible to students. |

|Podcast on Cromwell, including the execution of Charles | | |

|I: | | |

|.uk/podcasts/#/e/289 | | |

|National Archives |Website |Accessible to students. |

|Site on the English Civil Wars: | | |

|.uk/education/civilwar/  | | |

|BBC |Website |Accessible to students. |

|English Civil War website: | |Readable articles from leading historians such |

|bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/ | |as John Morrill, Richard Cust, Ann Hughes, |

| | |Ronald Hutton and Mark Stoyle. Includes articles|

| | |on figures such as Charles I and II, Cromwell |

| | |and the Levellers. |

|BBC/Open University, 2002 |Documentary series |Accessible to students. |

|The English Civil War, presented by Tristram Hunt | |Clear overviews from c1640–49: four episodes. |

|Channel 4, 2005 |Documentary series |Accessible to students. Also available on |

|Blood on our Hands – the English Civil War | |YouTube. |

|Channel 4 |Documentary series |Useful episodes on Charles II and the Glorious |

|Monarchy, presented by David Starkey | |Revolution in particular, but also on Charles, |

| | |the civil wars and Cromwell. |

How revolutionary, in the years to 1701, was the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89?

This table lists additional resources that may be useful for the historical interpretations section of this topic.

|Resource |Type |For students and/or teachers? |

|Barry Coward, The Stuart Age (Routledge, fourth edition,|Textbook |For students. |

|2011) | |Clear narrative of era with concise summaries of|

| | |debates. |

|Robert Beddard, The Revolutions of 1688 (Oxford |Academic |For teachers. |

|University Press, 1991) | |(Only available in expensive hardback edition, |

| | |though.) |

|Eveline Cruickshanks, The Glorious Revolution |Academic |For teachers, but excerpts could be used by |

|(Macmillan, 2000) | |students. |

| | |Summarises debates within a clear narrative. |

|Jonathan Israel (editor), The Anglo-Dutch Moment |Academic |For teachers. |

|(Cambridge University Press, 1991, paperback edition | |Set of essays. |

|2003) | | |

|Mark Knights, ‘Public politics in England c1675–c1715’ |Academic |For teachers. |

|in Nicholas Tyacke (editor), Politics, Religion and | |A brief accessible summary of the arguments in |

|Communities (Manchester University Press, 2007) | |his book of 2005. Examines the role of the |

| | |voting public as arbiter in the wake of the |

| | |Glorious Revolution. |

|Steve Pincus, 1688: The First Modern Revolution (Yale |Academic |For teachers. |

|University Press, 2009) | |A detailed narrative and analysis. Part IV on |

| | |Revolutionary Transformations is particularly |

| | |relevant to the question in the interpretations |

| | |section. |

|Edward Vallance, The Glorious Revolution (Abacus, 2007) |Academic |For teachers and students. |

Paper 2, Option 2C.1: France in revolution, 1774–99

Overview

This option comprises a study of the causes and course of the French Revolution 1774–1799; a tumultuous period of change for the French people as they experienced a maelstrom of revolutionary activity, war and constitutional experiment, and one that would inspire revolutionary movements around the world.

For most historians, 1789 is seen as the year in which the history of modern Europe began. It was year which saw a popular revolution from below overthrow the autocratic power of the French monarchy and aristocracy. This political earthquake sent shock waves across Europe and its aftershocks continue to affect the continent right up to the present.

In 1774, Louis XVI inherited from his grandfather, Louis XV, one of the most powerful monarchies in the world. Louis ruled over a political system which is referred to as the ancién regime. This meant that although he needed the aristocracy (the nobles) to help maintain control over such a large country, Louis was an absolute monarch who could rule practically as he wished. Indeed with such power, it seemed there was little threat to the privileged world of Louis and his Austrian-born wife, Marie Antoinette.

However, underneath the apparent stability of the ancién regime lay the seeds of revolution. Europe was experiencing the Enlightenment. Philosophers and political thinkers were beginning to question European systems of government and society. Scientists and inventors were making discoveries which would see economic wealth made from manufacturing industry rather than the land. French politics and society, in particular, were ripe for Enlightenment criticism. France was a country of about 28 million people and all the privilege, power and wealth lay in the hands of about 500,000 people. Writers such as Rousseau and Voltaire challenged the right of the few to tell the many what to do. When combined with the poor living standards, high taxes and frequent harvest failures experienced by ordinary people these ideas were potentially revolutionary.

In the late 1780s, these factors combined further with the financial incompetency of Louis XVI and his ministers to create a recipe for revolution itself. In 1789, asked to finance France’s bankruptcy with greater taxation, the French people chose instead to revolt – much in the same way as the North American colonists did against the British a decade before. The storming of the Bastilles fortress to release its prisoners on 4 July symbolised the outbreak of revolution.

The next decade would see extraordinary upheaval and bloodshed, as the revolutionaries searched for the most stable and workable form of popular government for France. This turbulent period of democratic experimentation included rule by constitutional monarchy, republican assembly, National Convention, twelve-man committee and a five-man Directory interspersed with periods of ‘terror’ in which thousands died. This was finally brought to end by the coup d’état of Brumaire (1799) but only to be replaced by the equally tumultuous and influential rule of Napoleon Bonaparte (1799–1815).

The legacy of these revolutionary years has been revolutionary in itself. It can be seen in the great ‘-isms’ of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: liberalism, radicalism, socialism, communism, conservatism and nationalism. It influenced — along with developments in the USA and Britain — the ‘model’ of the liberal-democratic state championed by western nations today; not least in its reminder of the ‘terror’ that political fanaticism can bring. It inspired other revolutions across the world, including in Russia (1917), and millions of ordinary people to fight for rights and freedoms.

The option is divided into the following four key topics, though students need to appreciate the linkages between topics, as questions may target the content of more than one key topic.

Topic 1. The origins and onset of revolution, 1774–89

Topic 2. Revolution and the failure of constitutional monarchy, 1789–93

Topic 3. The National Convention and the Terror, 1793–94

Topic 4. From the Directory to Brumaire, 1795–99

Content guidance

This section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.

Overview

The focus of this unit is on the key developments in France from the accession of Louis XVI in 1774, through the years of growing unrest, revolution, terror and the turbulent search for stability in the years after 1785 to the military coup of 1799.

Students will be required to place documentary extracts in their historical context, but the knowledge they will need to have will be central to that specified in the topics.

Although the unit topics are clarified separately below, students need to appreciate the linkages between them since questions, including document questions, may be set which target the content of more than one topic. For example, students might draw on elements from Topics 2, 3 and 4 to show understanding of the evolution of support for a republic, or they might draw on content from Topics 1 and 2 to consider significance of Louis XVI in the collapse of the monarchy.

Topic 1: The origins and onset of revolution, 1774–89

The topic covers both the contingent and conditional causes of the outbreak of revolution in France from the accession of Louis XVI to the storming of the Bastille.

Students should be aware of both the challenges inherited by Louis XVI in 1774 and the consequences of actions taken by Louis and his ministers during his reign. Students should understand the impact of the American Revolution on France was both political and financial. They should also understand the extent to which the problems facing France deteriorated considerably in the years leading up to 1789.

Students should understand the significance of the decision to call the Estates-General in 1789 and the rapidity with which revolutionary activity took hold.

Topic 2: Revolution and the failure of constitutional monarchy, 1789–93

The topic covers the period from 1789–93 when attempts to create a constitutional monarchy under the rule of Louis XVI were undermined by the radicalisation of the revolution and the actions of the king and his supporters.

Students should be aware of the often chaotic nature of events during this period and the competing political pressures on the National Assembly and the Legislative Assembly from above, from within and from below. They should understand the role of both key political groups, including the Feuillants, the Girondins and the Jacobin, and individuals in creating a revolutionary environment.

Students do not need detailed knowledge of the French military involvement in war but should be aware of the impact of war on the domestic situation in France.

Topic 3: The National Convention and the Terror, 1793–94

The topic covers the period in the aftermath of the execution of the king as the revolutionaries attempted to create a viable republic rule and the descent into ‘terror’. Students should understand the extent to which the Terror was affected by a fear of the consequences of external threat from the supporters of the French monarchy and other European powers, particularly after the creation of the First Coalition, 1793.

Students should be aware of the impact of both the fast-moving pace of events and the institutional and organisational machinery used by the revolutionaries on the nature of the Terror. Reference to the legalisation of terror and centralisation refers to laws passed in 1794 to define the enemies of the state and centralise revolutionary justice in Paris.

Students should understand the role of Robespierre in the radicalisation of events and the reasons for his downfall.

Topic 4: From the Directory to Brumaire, 1795–99

The topic covers the period of the longest lasting of the revolutionary governments as attempts were made to implement a more moderate republican constitution for France. The topic ends with the failure of the Directory and the establishment of military rule under Bonaparte as First Consul.

Students should be aware of both the external and internal pressures on the government of the Directory and the extent to which it was undermined by legacy of the previous years of revolutionary activity. With regard to the significance of war in the years 1795–99, students do not need to have detailed knowledge of military actions but they should be aware of the key events in Europe and Egypt and should understand the impact of these events on the domestic situation in France.

Student timeline

The timeline below could be given to students, and could be further edited and added to by them. Inclusion of dates and events in this timeline should not be taken as an indication that these are prescribed or that students must know them all: the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Italicised text is outside the dates of the specification but has been included as useful background context.

|1756–1763 |Seven Years War |

|1774 |Accession of Louis XVI |

|1776 |Outbreak of American War of Independence |

| |Necker published account of royal finances |

|1778 |France joined American War of Independence |

|1781 |Necker resigned |

|1783 |End of War of Independence |

| |Calonne became Finance Minister |

|1784 |The Diamond Necklace Affair |

|1786 |Calonne warned that France was on the verge of bankruptcy |

|1787 |Meeting of the Assembly of Notables |

| |Calonne replaced by de Brienne |

| |July: Paris Parlement rejected financial reforms |

| |15 August: Parlement of Paris exiled to Troyes |

|1788 |The Parlement of Paris established itself as the representative body of all France |

| |Resignation of Brienne |

| |16 August: Payments suspended from Treasury |

| |Calonne reappointed to deal with the financial crisis |

| |September: Necker reappointed as Finance Minister |

| |Winter: The cahiers de doléances |

| |27 December: Third Estate representation doubled |

|1789 |5 May: Opening session of the Estates-General |

| |17 June: Abbe Sieyes proclamation that the Third Estate constitutes the National Assembly |

| |The Tennis Court Oath |

| |23 June: Royal Session |

| |11 July: Necker dismissed |

| |Storming the Bastille |

| |Late July–August: Attacks on nobles’ property |

| |4–11 August: The National Assembly abolished feudal rights and privileges |

| |Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen |

| |The march to Versailles |

| |2 November: The nationalisation of church property |

| |First issue of assignats |

|1790 |19 June: Abolition of the Second Estate |

| |12 July: The Civil Constitution of the Clergy |

| |August: Parlements abolished |

| |27 November: The clerical oath of loyalty to the state administered |

|1791 |April: Pope condemned Civil Constitution |

| |20–21 June: The Flight to Varennes |

| |The Champs de Mars massacre |

| |Austria and Prussia declared their support of Louis XVI |

| |14 September: The King accepted the constitution |

| |September: Constituent Assembly dissolved |

| |The Legislative Assembly |

|1792 |20 April: France declared war against Austria |

| |27 April: Banishment of refractory priests |

| |8 June: Camp of fédérés established |

| |12 June: The King dismissed the Girondin Ministry |

| |20 June: The sans-culottes invaded the Tuileries Palace |

| |11 July: The Legislative Assembly called on all French men and women to defend the revolution |

| |25 July: The Brunswick Manifesto |

| |Louis XVI taken prisoner |

| |The September Massacres |

| |Meeting of the National Convention |

| |Abolition of the monarchy |

| |6 October: French won the Battle of Jemappes |

|1793 |21 January: The Execution of Louis XVI |

| |1 February: The National Convention declared war on Great Britain |

| |11 March: A counter-revolutionary revolt began in La Vendee |

| |Formation of the Committee of Public Safety |

| |Federalist Revolt in Lyons |

| |4 May: The Law of Maximum |

| |Sans-culottes rising against the Girondin government |

| |Jacobins took power from the Girondins |

| |Constitution issued |

| |13 July: Marat assassinated |

| |27 July: Robespierre took over the Committee of Public Safety |

| |23 August: The levee en masse decree |

| |28 August: British troops take Toulon |

| |4–5 September: Rebellion of the sans-culottes in Paris |

| |5 September: Formation of the Revolutionary Army |

| |29 September: The Law of General Maximum |

| |5 October: Introduction of the revolutionary calendar |

| |9 October: Fall of Lyons to the Jacobins |

| |16 October: Marie-Antoinette executed |

| |31 October: The Girondins executed |

| |10 November: The Festival of Reason |

| |4 December: Law of Frimaire |

| |19 December: Toulon recaptured from the British |

| |22 December: Last Vendéan army defeated |

|1794 |24 March: Execution of the Hébertists |

| |5 April: Execution of the Dantonists |

| |8 June: Festival of the Supreme Being |

| |10 June: The Law of Prairial |

| |26 June: Defeat of the Coalition Army at Fleurus |

| |27–28 July: Execution of Robespierre |

| |August–December: Thermidorean Reaction |

| |August: Revolutionary Tribunal purged and powers of committees reduced |

| |12 November: The closure of the Jacobin Club |

| |December: Maximum price controls from Terror abolished and Girondin deputies reinstated |

|1795 |April: Rising of hungry Parisians put down |

| |8 June: Death of Louis XVII |

| |24 June: Declaration of Verona by Louis XVIII |

| |22 August: Constitution of Year III |

| |5 October: Royalist rising put down |

| |2 November: Directory established |

|1796 |February: Assignats abolished |

| |10 March: Babeuf’s Conspiracy put down |

| |11 April: Napoleon invaded Italy |

|1797 |4 September: Coup of Fructidor |

|1798 |11 May: Coup of Floréal |

|1799 |9 October: Napoleon lands in France |

| |9–10 November: Coup of Brumaire |

Mapping to 2008 specification

There is overlap between this topic and the following topic from the 2008 specification: Unit 3, Option B, Topic B1: France, 1786–1830: Revolution, Empire and Restoration.

|2015 specification |2008 specification |

|The origins and onset of |The ancién regime and its challenges in 1774: absolutism and court faction; the |Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the political and social structure of |

|revolution, 1774–89 |parlements; the three estates; rights of nobles and church privilege; the impact of |France and the criticisms of both, current in the 1780s. |

| |the Enlightenment and the spread of new ideas. | |

| |Problems facing France in the 1780s: rural poverty and urban food prices; taxation and|Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the political and social structure of |

| |crown debt; corruption at court; impact of the American Revolution. |France and the criticisms of both, current in the 1780s. |

| |The failings of Louis XVI and his ministers: Louis’ character; financial reforms of |Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered Louis XVI and his court and the financial |

| |Turgot, Necker and Calonne; attitudes to Marie Antoinette; opposition in the Paris |problems of the crown and various attempts at reform. |

| |Parlement; the Assembly of Notables and the revolt of the aristocracy. | |

| |The onset of revolution in 1789: summoning and breakdown of the Estates-General; |Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the summoning of the Estates General; the |

| |declaration of the National Assembly; significance of the Tennis Court Oath; revolt in|loss of royal control over both Paris and the Estates General and the evolution of |

| |Paris and the significance of the storming of the Bastille. |the latter into the National Assembly. |

|Revolution and the failure of |Attempts to create a constitution, 1789–91: the Great Fear and the abolition of |Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the significance of the decrees of August |

|constitutional monarchy, 1789–93 |feudalism; the Declaration of the Rights of Man; the October Days and the impact of |abolishing feudalism and the promulgation of the Rights of Man, and the return of |

| |the march on Versailles; the reforms of the National Assembly. |the king and royal family to Paris in October. |

| |The political environment, 1789–93: key political groups; the role of individuals |The first controversy: Centres will have covered the breakdown of constitutional |

| |including Mirabeau, Brissot, Robespierre and Danton; popular protest and the |monarchy of Louis XVI between October 1789 and January 1793. |

| |sans-culottes; royalist support; revolutionary culture. |Groups and individuals likely to have been taught anyway. |

| |Breakdown of relations with the king, 1791–92: flight to Varennes and |The first controversy: Centres will have covered the debate surrounding whether |

| |counter-revolutionary activity; divisions in the Legislative Assembly; the emergence |Louis’ personality and the flight to Varennes were central to the breakdown, as |

| |of Republicanism; the impact of war with Austria and Prussia. |opposed to the impact of war or the accelerating economic crisis. |

| |The revolution radicalised, 1792–93: the invasion of the Tuileries; the impact of the |Content likely to have been taught. |

| |state of national emergency; the journée of 10 August; revolutionary government and | |

| |the September massacres; the creation of the National Convention; the trial and | |

| |execution of the king. | |

|The National Convention and the |Preconditions for ‘terror’: the significance of external threat; the impact of the |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the domestic impact of the changing |

|Terror, |Vendée revolt; economic pressures; political pressures, including the Girondin purge, |fortunes of war. |

|1793–94 |Federalist revolt and Marat’s death; the power of the sans-culottes and the Paris | |

| |Commune. | |

| |Organising the Terror: the Committee of General Security; the Revolutionary Tribunal; |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered how the Jacobin terror evolved and the |

| |the Committee of Public Safety representatives on mission; Watch Committees; the Laws |work of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety in securing the |

| |of 19 March, Suspects and Frimaire. |revolution against its internal foes and invading foreign enemies in 1793–94. |

| |The Great Terror 1794: the purge of the Hébertists and Indulgents; religious |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the bitter divisions within the new |

| |radicalism; the legislation of terror and centralisation; the extent and nature of the|Republic between its supporters and opponents in 1793. |

| |Terror in Paris and the regions; the role of Robespierre and St-Just. |Aspects of new content likely to have been taught. |

| |The coup of Thermidor: growing economic and political fear; Robespierre under |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the reasons for the downfall of |

| |pressure; the arrest and execution of Robespierre and supporters; Thermidorean |Robespierre and St-Just. |

| |government established. | |

|From the Directory to Brumaire, |Problems facing the Directory: political violence, including the White Terror; |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the establishment and instability of the |

|1795–99 |political divisions; economic and financial pressures; popular protest. |Directory. |

| |The work of the Directory: the 1795 constitution; economic and financial reforms; |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the establishment and instability of the |

| |martial law; attempts to control factionalism; Directorial terror; the extent of |Directory. |

| |popularity and success. | |

| |Dealing with internal and external threats: the Verona Declaration and the émigrés; |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the establishment and instability of the |

| |Parisian unrest; revolt in the provinces and reaction to conscription; the |Directory. |

| |significance of war for the domestic situation, 1795–99. | |

| |The coup de Brumaire 1799: the Directory under threat; the role of Sieyés; the |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the coup of Sieye and Bonaparte in 1799. |

| |significance of the return of Bonaparte; the coup of November and establishment of the| |

| |Consulship. | |

1. Resources and references

The table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published.

Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others — may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.

A new textbook for this route is expected to be published by Pearson in 2015.

|Resource |Type |For students and/or teachers? |

|Andrew Matthews, Revolution and Reaction: Europe 1789–1849 |Textbook |For students. |

|(Cambridge University Press, 2001) | |Written to support OCR’s 2001 specification. First |

| | |three chapters provide a clear narrative of the |

| | |Revolution and Napoleonic Era. |

|D Murphy et. al., Europe 1760–1871 (Flagship History series, |Textbook |For students |

|Collins, 2000) | | |

|A Stiles, Napoleon, France & Europe (Access to History series, |Textbook |For students |

|Hodder, third edition, 2009) | | |

|Duncan Townson, France in Revolution (Access to History series, |Textbook |For students |

|Hodder, fourth edition, 2008) | | |

|Sally Waller, France in Revolution 1776–1830 (Heinemann, 2002) |Textbook |For students |

| | |Written for 2000 specifications. Mostly |

| | |chronological chapters but with thematic essays in |

| | |the ‘A2’ section. |

|Jocelyn Hunt, The French Revolution (Questions and Analysis in |Textbook (essays and |Selection of sources useful for paper 2, and |

|History series, Routledge, 1998) |sources) |analytical essays addressing key questions briefly.|

| | |Chapter on the Terror is particularly helpful. |

|Nigel Aston, The French Revolution 1789–1804: Authority, Liberty |Academic |For teachers, but excerpts could be used by |

|and the Search for Stability (European History in Perspective | |students. |

|series, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) | | |

|Richard Ballard, A New Dictionary of the French Revolution (L B |Academic (reference) |For teachers |

|Tauris, 2011) | | |

|Gregory S Brown, Cultures in Conflict – The French Revolution |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|(Greenwood Press, 2003) | |‘Historical Overview’ in first chapter could be |

| | |particularly useful; also includes a timeline, |

| | |glossary and study questions. |

|Malcolm Crook, Napoleon Comes to Power: Democracy and |Academic |For teachers. |

|Dictatorship in Revolutionary France 1795–1804 (University of | |Chapter 2 provides an overview of the Directory |

|Wales Press, 1998) | |that may be of use to students. Includes a set of |

| | |28 documents useful for paper 2 preparation and an |

| | |introduction to the debate. |

|Malcolm Crook, Elections in the French Revolution: An |Academic |For teachers. |

|apprenticeship in democracy, 1789–1799 (Cambridge University | |Key work on an important area of focus during the |

|Press, 1996) | |1990s; provides a chronological survey of |

| | |elections. |

|William Doyle, Origins of the French Revolution (Oxford |Academic |For teachers. |

|University Press, third edition, 1999) | |First section reviews the historiography; |

| | |subsequent sections mix chronologically-focused and|

| | |thematic chapters. |

|William Doyle, The French Revolution: a Very Short Introduction |Academic (but for |For teachers and students. |

|(Oxford University Press, 2001) |general readership) |Concise, readable overview with helpful chronology |

| | |and suggestions for further reading. |

|William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|(Oxford University Press, second edition, 2003) | |Follows a chronological approach from c1776–1802 |

| | |and could be an accessible form of further reading |

| | |for students. |

|William Doyle and Colin Haydon (editors), Robespierre (Cambridge |Academic |Series of essays; chapter 10 by Norman Hampson on |

|University Press, 1999) | |‘Robespierre and the Terror’ is particularly |

| | |relevant. |

|Geoffrey Ellis, Napoleon (Profiles in Power series, Pearson, |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|1997) | |Early chapters helpful on Napoleon’s rise to power.|

|Alan Forrest, The French Revolution (Historical Association |Academic |For teachers. |

|Studies, Blackwell, 1995) | |Thematic chapters (with chapter 4 on society |

| | |particularly helpful) and a chronology 1787–99. |

|Hugh Gough, The Terror in the French Revolution (Studies in |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|European History series, Palgrave, 1998) | |Readable and brief (79 pages). Analysis of a key |

| | |episode, with a detailed chronology of 1789–96. |

|C Jones, The Longman Companion to the French Revolution (Longman,|Academic (reference) |For teachers. |

|1988) | |Includes short biographies of figures in the |

| | |Revolution. |

|P M Jones, Reform and Revolution in France: The Politics of |Academic |For teachers. |

|Transition, 1774–1791 (Cambridge University Press, 1995) | |Thematic overview and guide to debates, with more |

| | |chronologically focused chapters on 1787–91. |

|James Livesey, Making Democracy in the French Revolution (Harvard|Academic |For teachers. |

|University Press, 2001) | |Thematic survey focused on the conscious |

| | |establishment of democratic, republican ideals and |

| | |how the new ideas of citizenship were implemented |

| | |in practice. |

|Colin Lucas (editor), Rewriting the French Revolution (Oxford |Academic |For teachers. |

|University Press, 1991) | |Bicentennial collection of essays. |

|J M Roberts, The French Revolution (Oxford University Press, |Academic (but for |For teachers and students. |

|second edition, 1999) |general readership) |Short introduction. |

|Simon Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|(Viking, 1989) | |Evocative, illustrated in-depth narrative of the |

| | |Revolution. Can be used to bring colour to the |

| | |topic as well as for additional detail. Emphasises |

| | |the violence inherent in the Revolution. Typical |

| | |are the vivid narratives of the fall of the |

| | |Bastille (pages 399–406) and its commemoration |

| | |(pages 406–19), and of the September Massacres of |

| | |1792 (pages 624–39). |

|John Hardman, Louis XVI (Yale University Press, 1993) |Biography |For teachers. |

| | |Adopts a chronological approach, useful for detail |

| | |on key episodes and political developments before |

| | |the revolution. |

|John Hardman, Robespierre (Longman, 1999) |Biography |For teachers |

|Napoleon’s Letters, selected, translated and edited by J M |Documents |For teachers and students. |

|Thompson (Prion, 1998) | |Selection of documents. |

|Malcolm Crook, ‘The Resistible Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte’, 1998:|Web article |Written for students. |

| | |Examines the Directory. Article version of book |

| | |listed above. |

| | |Historical Association subscription required (£). |

|History Today and History Review |Articles |For teachers and students. |

|John Dunne, The Unpredictable Past: French Revolution, History | |Note that a subscription is required to read the |

|Review, March 1998, pages 8–12 | |online articles (£). |

|Published online as ‘Fifty Years of Rewriting the French | | |

|Revolution’: | | |

|john-dunne/fifty-years-rewriting-french-revo| | |

|lution | | |

|Douglas Johnson, On Second Thoughts: Winds of Change, History | | |

|Today, May 1989, pages 3–9: | | |

|douglas-johnson/winds-change | | |

|John Hardman, Louis XVI and the French Revolution, History | | |

|Review, September 1996, pages 37–41: | | |

|john-hardman/louis-xvi-and-french-revolution| | |

|Marisa Linton, The Origins of the French Revolution – two-part | | |

|article: | | |

|The Last Years of the French Revolution, Modern History Review, | | |

|February 1997, pages 8–11 | | |

|The Final Crisis, Modern History Review, April 1997, pages 2–5 | | |

|Nigel Aston, Turbulent Priests? The Church and the Revolution, | | |

|History Today, May 1989, pages 20–25 | | |

|Published online as ‘Turbulent Priests? The French Church and the| | |

|Restoration’: | | |

|nigel-aston/turbulent-priests-french-church-| | |

|and-restoration | | |

Paper 2, Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution, 1894–1924

Overview

This option comprises a study in depth of the causes, course and consolidation of the Russian Revolution of 1917, which had a momentous effect on twentieth-century Russia and throughout the modern world.

Nineteenth-century Russia stood outside the mainstream of European nations. Already immense in size, its borders were extended by Alexander II (1855–81) deep into central Asia and to the Pacific in the Far East. The country was as much Asiatic in character as it was European, and this was reflected in its society and government. Russia was an overwhelmingly agricultural economy: 80 per cent of the population worked the land, and there were only a few pockets of industrial development. Limited industrialisation meant that there was only a tiny middle class: the population was essentially divided between a large and multi-national peasantry and a smaller, but very powerful, nobility. The Enlightenment and modern political ideas had all passed Russia by: it remained an absolute monarchy with the Orthodox Church playing a central role in national life.

The Romanov dynasty, which had ruled since 1613, were unwavering in their belief that they had a divine right to rule the country. The autocratic system worked with determined and powerful Tsars, but began to break down under Nicholas II (1894–1917). Scorned by his own father as a ‘girlie’, Nicholas was a weak-willed man who confused obstinacy with firmness. As Russia industrialised through the reforms of his finance ministers, notably Witte and Stolypin, Nicholas did not try to understand the reasons for growing social unrest, especially in the towns: his simple answer was to repress it.

Revolution in 1905 forced Nicholas to compromise with opposition to his rule by introducing a very limited form of constitutional government through the dumas. This concession appeased some opposition groups for a time, though the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Bolsheviks continued to work for the overthrow of Tsarism. But it was the disasters of the First World War rather than revolutionary activity that brought about the collapse of Tsarism in February 1917 and the creation of a republic. This Provisional government lasted for just eight months before it, too, was swept away by the Bolsheviks with their seizure of power in October.

Many were convinced that, like its predecessors, the Bolshevik government would be temporary, but the firm leadership of Lenin and Trotsky helped ensure its survival. Lenin was a brilliant politician. He ended Russia’s involvement in the war, outlawed all other parties, and imposed Bolshevik rule by using Cheka violence. Trotsky organised and carried out the October seizure of power, and went on to create the large Red Army which defeated the Bolsheviks’ enemies in the civil war.

When Lenin died in 1924 Bolshevik rule was firmly established and, after a struggle for power, Stalin became the leader of the country. Historians are divided over Stalin’s rule: some feel that the creation of a totalitarian state was Stalin’s own doing, but others believe that Stalinism was a natural development of Leninism. Whatever the answer might be, communist power dominated Russian life until it came to an end in 1991.

The option is divided into the following four topics, though students need to appreciate the linkages between topics, as questions may target the content of more than one topic.

Topic 1. The rule of Nicholas II, 1894–1905

Topic 2. The end of Romanov rule, 1906–17

Topic 3. The Provisional government and its opponents, February–October 1917

Topic 4. Defending the Bolshevik revolution, October 1917–24

Content guidance

This section provides additional guidance on the specification content. It should be remembered that the official specification is the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance.

Overview

The focus of this unit is on key developments in Russia from the accession of Nicholas II in 1894, through years of growing unrest including the revolutions of 1905 and February 1917, to the October revolution and the consolidation of Bolshevik power under Lenin.

Students will be required to place documentary extracts in their historical context, but the knowledge they will need to have will be central to that specified in the topics.

Although the unit topics are clarified separately below, students need to appreciate the linkages between them since questions, including document questions, may be set which target the content of more than one topic. For example, students might draw on elements from Topics 1 and 2 to consider the reasons for growing revolutionary activity in the period 1905 to February 1917, or they might draw on content from Topics 3 and 4 to explore the contributions of Lenin and Trotsky to the October revolution and the establishment of Bolshevik power.

Students need to be aware of the differences between the Gregorian and Julian calendars. Question papers will use the Julian dates for the February and October revolutions, but some source extracts may refer to the March and November revolutions.

Topic 1: The rule of Nicholas II, 1894–1905

The topic covers the years 1894–1905, when Tsarism faced increasing challenges to its rule which culminated in the 1905 revolution. Students need to understand the nature of opposition to Tsarism and the different aims of opposition forces.

With reference to the 1905 Revolution, students need to understand the nature of the threat which revolutionary activity posed to the regime.

Topic 2: The end of Romanov rule, 1906–17

The topic covers the final years of Tsarist rule before its collapse in 1917. Students need to understand the political changes in the years 1906–14, and the extent to which the Tsarist system of government had been modified.

Students should understand the impact of the activities of Alexandra and Rasputin in promoting instability in government during the war.

Detailed knowledge of the military campaigns of the war is not required, but the impact on the Tsarist regime of Russia’s involvement the war should be understood.

Topic 3: The Provisional government and its opponents, February–October 1917

The topic covers the brief months of freedom in Russia before the overthrow of the Provisional government in October 1917. Students should understand the difficult situation which faced the Provisional government in February 1917, the extent to which it responded to the country’s problems and the reasons for its overthrow.

With reference to the October Revolution, but students should understand the central importance of Lenin and Trotsky in directing events.

Topic 4: Defending the Bolshevik revolution, October 1917–24

The topic covers the period from the Bolshevik seizure of power in October 1917 to the death of Lenin in 1924. Students should understand the extent of popular support for the Bolsheviks, and the ways in which they imposed their rule by force. Detailed knowledge of the terms of Brest-Litovsk is not required, but students should understand the extent of Russia’s territorial losses.

In considering the twin threats of the civil war and foreign intervention, students should understand the geography of the civil war the difficulties faced by the Bolsheviks’ enemies in fighting a war on extended and separate fronts and the reasons for the Bolsheviks’ success.

Student timeline

The timeline below could be given to students for them to use and amend. Inclusion of dates and events in this timeline should not be taken as an indication that these are prescribed or that students must know them all: the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Dates and events in italics are outside the dates of the specification content, but have been included as useful background.

|1861 |Emancipation of the Serfs |

|1881 |Alexander II assassinated |

| |Alexander III succeeds as Tsar |

|1894 |Nicholas II succeeded Alexander III as Tsar |

|1897 |Lenin exiled to Siberia |

|1898 |Formation of Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) |

|1900 |Formation of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs) |

| |Lenin joined RSDLP |

|1903 |RSDLP split between Bolsheviks and Mensheviks |

| |Communes no longer responsible for land tenure |

| |Trans-Siberian Railway completed |

|1904 |Assassination of Interior Minister Plehve |

| |Liberal ‘Banquet Campaign’ |

|1904–05 |Russo-Japanese War |

|1905 |‘Bloody Sunday’ |

| |Revolution: strikes, mutinies |

| |‘Union of Unions’ formed |

| |End of redemption payments; peasants seize land |

| |October Manifesto |

| |St. Petersburg Soviet formed |

| |Troops returning from the war with Japan suppressed soviets |

|1906 |Fundamental Laws |

| |Parties legalised |

|1906–07 |First and Second Dumas dissolved after a few months |

|1906–11 |Stolypin’s agricultural reforms |

|1906–17 |Lenin in exile abroad |

|1906–07 |Repression of Tsarism’s opponents |

|1907 |Stolypin’s ‘coup’: Electoral Law restricting the franchise |

|1907–12 |Third Duma |

|1910 |New wave of strikes |

|1911 |Assassination of Stolypin |

|1912 |National insurance scheme |

| |Lena goldfields massacre |

|1912–13 |Wars in the Balkans |

|1912–14 |Fourth Duma |

|1914–18 |Russia went to war against Germany and Austria |

|1914 |Suspension of Fourth Duma |

|1915 |Fourth Duma recalled |

| |June: Kadets and Octobrists formed the Progressive Bloc |

| |August: Tsar appointed himself Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces |

| |Control of the government in the hands of Alexandra and Rasputin |

|1916 |Murder of Rasputin |

|1917 |February: Strike began at Putilov factories in Petrograd |

| |February Revolution |

| |March: Abdication of Tsar |

| |Provisional government set up |

| |March: Petrograd Soviet issues ‘Order No.1’ |

| |April: Return of Lenin: April Theses |

| |July Days |

| |July: Failure of the Kerensky Offensive |

| |August: Kornilov Revolt |

| |Trotsky joined Bolsheviks |

| |Bolshevik majorities in Petrograd and Moscow soviets |

| |Military Revolutionary Committee established |

| |October: Bolshevik seizure of power |

| |Sovnarkom established |

| |Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic set up |

| |November: Constituent Assembly Elections |

| |November: Decrees on Land and Workers’ Control |

| |December: Cheka founded |

|1918 |January: Bolsheviks disbanded Constituent Assembly |

| |March: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk |

| |Assassination attempt on Lenin |

| |July: Tsar and imperial family murdered |

| |Bolsheviks renamed (All-)Russian Communist Party (until 1925) |

|1918–21 |War Communism |

|1919 |Communist International Founded |

|1920 |Russo-Polish War: Loss of western Ukraine |

|1921 |Kronstadt Rebellion |

| |Tenth Party Congress – ban on factions |

| |Introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) |

|1921–22 |Famine |

|1922 |Cheka renamed as GPU |

| |Stalin became General Secretary of the Central Committee |

| |USSR established |

|1922–23 |Lenin suffered series of strokes |

|1923 |‘Scissors Crisis’ |

|1924 |Lenin’s death |

| |USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) constitution agreed |

| |GPU expanded into OGPU |

1. Mapping to 2008 specification

There is overlap between this topic and the following topic from the 2008 specification: Unit 1, Option D, Topic D3: Russia in Revolution 1881–1924.

|2015 specification |2008 specification |

|The rule of Nicholas II, |The nature of autocratic rule: the Tsarist principles of autocracy, nationality and |Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the nature of the autocracy and the use of|

|1894–1905 |orthodoxy; the oppression of nationalities; anti-semitism; the Okhrana. |repression. |

| |Opposition to Tsarism: unrest among peasants and workers; middle-class opposition and |Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the growth of reformist/revolutionary |

| |the League of Liberation; the Socialist Revolutionaries and the Social Democrats; |groups such as the Kadets, Social Revolutionaries and the Social Democrats. |

| |reasons for the lack of success of opposition groups. | |

| |The 1905 Revolution: the impact of the Russo-Japanese war; Bloody Sunday; the spread |Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the causes of the 1905 Revolution, |

| |of revolutionary activity among peasants, workers and national minorities; the St. |including the impact of the Russo-Japanese War and the nature, extent and |

| |Petersburg Soviet. |significance of that revolution. |

| |Nicholas II’s response: the failure of the August Manifesto; the October Manifesto and|Bullet point 1: Centres will have covered the nature, extent and significance of the|

| |the response of opposition groups; the crushing of the Moscow Uprising; the extent of |1905 Revolution. |

| |the recovery of Tsarist power. |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

|The end of Romanov rule, |Change and continuity in government: the Fundamental Law; the radicalism of the first |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered constitutional developments and how far |

|1906–17 |two dumas; Nicholas II’s relations with the dumas, 1906–14; the nature of Tsarist |autocracy was modified. |

| |government and royal power in 1914. |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |Repression and reform, 1906–14: Stolypin’s repression and the restoration of |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered how far Stolypin transformed rural Russia |

| |stability; actions against revolutionary parties; reform of agricultural landholdings |before 1911. |

| |and emigration to Siberia; the Lena goldfields massacre 1912. |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |The impact of the First World War: the state of the armed forces in 1914; economic |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered the importance of the First World War in |

| |problems including inflation and supplies for cities; Nicholas, Alexandra and |undermining Tsarism. |

| |Rasputin; the Progressive Bloc and Zemgor. |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |The February Revolution: growth of unrest in towns and countryside; International |Bullet point 2: Centres will have covered what precipitated the February Revolution.|

| |Women’s Day and the Petrograd general strike; the creation of the Provisional | |

| |Committee and the Petrograd Soviet; the abdication of Nicholas II. | |

|The Provisional government and |The nature of dual power: the political complexion of the Provisional government; the |Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered the nature of the Provisional government |

|its opponents, February–October |extent of its power and support; the aims and membership of the Petrograd Soviet; |and the problems it faced. |

|1917 |early political reforms. | |

| |Opposition to the Provisional government: conflicting attitudes on the continuation of|Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered the importance of Lenin’s return in April |

| |the war; Lenin’s return to Russia and the April Theses; the Milyukov crisis; the June |and his influence thereafter and the July Days. |

| |Offensive and the July Days. |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |The second Provisional Government, July–October: Kerensky as Prime Minister; the |Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered the impact of events such as the renewed |

| |membership of the new government; problems in industry and agriculture; the Kornilov |Russian offensive in the summer and Kornilov’s attempted coup. |

| |affair and its impact on the government and the Bolsheviks. |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |The October Revolution: Lenin’s influence on the Central Committee; the Constituent |Bullet point 3: Centres will have covered Trotsky’s role and the Bolshevik seizure |

| |Assembly elections; Trotsky and the Military Revolutionary Committee; the events of |of power in Petrograd and Moscow. |

| |24–26 October; the formation of the Bolshevik government. | |

|Defending the Bolshevik |Consolidating Bolshevik power: the closing of the Constituent Assembly; making peace |Bullet point 4: Centres will have covered the evolution of the Bolshevik |

|revolution, October 1917–24 |at Brest-Litovsk; the formation of the Cheka; attacks on Bolshevik opponents; the Red |dictatorship, the creation of a police state and the dominance of three key |

| |Terror. |institutions: the Party, the Red Army and the secret police. |

| | |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |Bolshevik economic policies: state capitalism; War Communism; the Tambov rising and |Bullet point 4: Centres will have covered the flexibility in economic policy. |

| |the Kronstadt mutiny; economic and political results of the New Economic Policy; the |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |ban on factions 1921. | |

| |Defeat of domestic enemies: the Social Revolutionaries, national minorities and the |Bullet point 4: Centres will have covered the military victories of the Red Army and|

| |Whites; Trotsky and the Red Army; the geography of the civil war; the defeat of |the persecution of any rivals. |

| |Kolchak, Denikin and Yudenich. |Additional detail likely to have been taught. |

| |Foreign intervention in Russia: reasons, nature and extent of intervention; the impact|New content (although arguably implicit in military victories). |

| |of war weariness and the lack of support in the west for intervention; the end of | |

| |intervention. | |

Resources and references

The table below lists a range of resources that could be used by teachers and/or students for this topic. This list will be updated as and when new resources become available: for example, if new textbooks are published.

Inclusion of resources in this list does not constitute endorsement of those materials. While these resources — and others —may be used to support teaching and learning, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance. Links to third-party websites are controlled by others and are subject to change.

A new textbook for this route is expected to be published by Pearson in 2015.

|Resource |Type |For students and/or teachers? |

|Peter Callaghan, Russia in Revolution |Revision textbook |Aimed at AS students. Written for Edexcel 2008 |

|(1881–1924) | |specification. |

|(CGP, 2011) | | |

|Chris Corin and Terry Fiehn, Communist Russia |Textbook |Written for students. |

|under Lenin and Stalin (John Murray, 2002) | |Covers period from 1917; includes sources useful for paper|

| | |2 and introduction to debates via excerpts from historians|

| | |as well as clear narrative, charts and activities. |

|Graham Darby, The Russian Revolution: Tsarism to|Textbook (topic book) |Written for students. |

|Bolshevism 1861–1924 (History in Depth series, | | |

|Longman, 1998) | | |

|David Evans and Jane Jenkins, Years of Russia, |Textbook |Written for students. |

|the USSR and the Collapse of Soviet Communism | |Despite being an overview of a much broader period, is |

|1855–1991 (Hodder, second edition, 2008) | |very detailed on episodes such as the 1905 Revolution. |

|Michael Lynch, Reaction and Revolution: Russia |Textbook |Written for students. |

|1894–1924 (Hodder, third edition, 2005) | |A detailed textbook which covers the exact period of the |

| | |paper 2 topic |

|Andrew Mitchell, AS History – Edexcel – Unit 1: |Textbook |Written for students. |

|Russia in Revolution, 1905–17 (Philip Allan | |Designed for 2001 specification but has useful content |

|Updates, 2006) | |summaries and sources useful for paper 2 nonetheless. |

|Derrick Murphy, Russia in Revolution 1881–1924: |Textbook |Written for students. |

|From Autocracy to Dictatorship (Pearson, 2009) | |Designed for Edexcel’s 2008 specification. |

|Derrick Murphy and Terry Morris, Russia |Textbook |Written for students. |

|1855–1964 (Flagship History series, Collins, | |Chapters 3 and 4 cover the period of the paper 2 topic. |

|2008) | | |

|Peter Oxley, Russia 1855–1991: From Tsars to |Textbook |Written for students. |

|Commissars (Oxford University Press, 2001) | |Covers the full period and based on a wealth of research. |

| | |Despite publication date is less obviously tailored to |

| | |previous specifications than some. |

|Anthony Wood, The Origins of the Russian |Textbook (topic book) |Written for students. |

|Revolution 1861–1917 (Lancaster Pamphlets | | |

|series, Methuen, third edition, 2008) | | |

|Anthony D’Agostino, The Russian Revolution, |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|1917–1945 (Praeger, 2011) | |Short chapters should be accessible for students; useful |

| | |up-to-date overview for teachers. |

|Vladimir Brovkin, Russia after Lenin: Politics, |Academic |For teachers, but excerpts can be used by students. |

|Culture & Society 1921–1929 (Routledge, 1998) | |First three chapters contain relevant useful material |

| | |(drawing extensively on contemporary sources). |

|Orlando Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian |Academic |For teachers, but excerpts can be used be students. |

|Revolution 1891–1924 (Pimlico, 1997) | |Evocative, in-depth narrative of the full period covered |

| | |by the topic. |

|Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Russian Revolution |Academic |For teachers and students. Concise overview. |

|(Opus, 1994) | | |

|Gregory Freeze, Russia, A History (Oxford |Academic |For teachers. |

|University Press, 2009) | |Covers history of Russia from 1450. |

|Robert Gellately, Lenin, Stalin and Hitler: the |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|Age of Social Catastrophe (Vintage, 2007) | |Very readable; emphasises violent methods of Lenin. |

|Abbott Gleason (editor), A Companion to Russian|Academic |For teachers. |

|History (Wiley Blackwell, 2014) | |Covers a much broader period but relevant chapters offer |

| | |up-to-date commentary. |

|Mark von Hagen, Soldiers in the Proletarian |Academic |For teachers |

|Dictatorship: The Red Army and the Soviet | | |

|Socialist State, 1917–1930 (Cornell University | | |

|Press, 1990) | | |

|Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: |Academic |For teachers. |

|Russia’s Continuum of Crisis 1914–1921 (Harvard | |Sets Revolution in the context of war, with a particular |

|University Press, 2002) | |focus on the Don Cossacks and issues of food supply. |

|Peter Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union from |Academic |Accessible for students as well as useful for teachers. |

|the Beginning to the End (Cambridge University | |Offers a clear and concise overview of the period from |

|Press, second edition, 2006) | |1917. |

|Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution (Vintage, |Academic |For teachers. |

|1990) | |Detailed, chronological and important account. |

|Richard Pipes, Three Whys of the Russian |Academic |For teachers. |

|Revolution (Vintage 1997) | |Short book (84 pages) of essays addressing why Tsarism |

| | |fell, why the Bolsheviks won and why Stalin succeeded |

| | |Lenin. |

|Chris Read, The Making and Breaking of the |Academic |For teachers, but early sections could also be used be |

|Soviet System (History in Perspective series, | |students. Particularly strong on the role of the party in|

|Palgrave Macmillan, 2001) | |society and the state in the 1920s. |

|Aaron B Retish, Russia’s Peasants in Revolution |Academic |For teachers. |

|and Civil War: Citizenship, Identity and the | |Recent work on the period. |

|Creation of the Soviet State 1914–22 (Cambridge | | |

|University Press, 2012) | | |

|Robert Service, The Russian Revolution 1900–1927|Academic |For teachers. |

|(Studies in European History series, Palgrave, | |Up-to-date summary of debates within a chronological |

|fourth edition, 2012) | |structure. |

|Robert Service, A History of Modern Russia: From|Academic |For teachers and students. |

|Tsardom to the Twenty-First Century, Robert | |Includes an overview of historiography of Russia since |

|Service (Penguin, third edition, 2009) | |1900 in the introduction. |

|Robert Service, Spies and Commissars: The Early |Academic |For teachers. |

|Years of the Bolshevik Revolution (Public | |Recent work from one of the leading writers in the field, |

|Affairs, 2012) | |focused on espionage. |

|(Previously published as Spies and Commissars: | | |

|The Bolshevik Revolution and the West) | | |

|Ronald Grigor Suny (editor), The Cambridge |Academic |For teachers and students. |

|History of Russia: Volume III – The Twentieth | |Chapters 2–6 cover the period of the paper 2 topic and |

|Century (Cambridge University Press, 2006) | |provide concise, readable up-to-date overviews. |

|Rex A Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 |Academic but designed to be |For teachers, but excerpts could be used by students. |

|(Cambridge University Press, 2000) |accessible to the general |Detailed overview of 1917 and early 1918. |

| |reader | |

|Alistair Kocho-Williams (editor), The |Academic reader (reprinting a|For teachers. |

|Twentieth-Century Russian Reader (Routledge, |series of selected, |Chapters 1–8 include recent and older influential essays |

|2011) |influential essays) |on the Revolution by writers such as Leopold Haimson, |

| | |Edward Acton, Sarah Badcock and Sheila Fitzpatrick. |

|Richard Sakwa, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet |Academic – sources and |For teachers. |

|Union 1917–1991 (Routledge Sources in History, |commentary |An extensive collection of source material, useful for |

|Routledge, 1999) | |practising source aspects of paper, chapters 2–4. |

|Ronald Kowalski, The Russian Revolution 1917–21 |Academic – sources and |For teachers. |

|(Routledge Sources in History, Routledge, 1997) |commentary |In depth selection of sources on part of the period for |

| | |this topic, useful for practising paper 2 source analysis |

| | |skills. |

|S A Smith, The Russian Revolution: A Very Short |Academic (but written for |For teachers and students. |

|Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2002) |general readership) |Concise overview by a leading writer on the period. |

|Orlando Figes, The Russian Revolution: A Pelican|Academic (but written for |For teachers and students. |

|Introduction (Pelican, 2014) |general readership) |Concise, very recent overview. |

|Robert Service, Lenin: A Biography (Macmillan, |Biography |For teachers. |

|2000) | |Follows a detailed chronological structure. |

|Graham Darby, The October Revolution, New |Article |Written for students, good on the position of the |

|Perspective for Modern History Students, 1997 | |Bolsheviks in October 1917. |

|John Morison, Russia’s First Revolution, History|Article |Written for students. |

|Review, December 2000, pages 28–33: | | |

|john-morison/russias-first-| | |

|revolution | | |

|Andrew Hannah, Peter Stolypin: The Tsar’s last |Article |Written for students. |

|hope?, Modern History Review, September 1998, | | |

|pages 31–33 | | |

|Peter Waldron, Why did the Imperial Russian |Article | Written for students. |

|government fail to learn the lessons of the 1905| | |

|revolution?, New Perspective for Modern History | | |

|Students, Volume 6, Number 3, March 2001, pages | | |

|22–25 | | |

|James D White, The Russian Revolution of |Article |Written for students. |

|February 1917: The Question of Organisation and | | |

|Spontaneity, New Perspective for Modern History | | |

|Students, 1997 | | |

|Harold Shukman, Causes of the Russian |Article |Written for students. |

|Revolution: Tsars, Peasants and Revolutionaries,| | |

|Modern History Review, September 1995, pages 2–5| | |

|Sam Merry, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin: Doctrinaire |Article |Written for students. |

|Revolutionary, Modern History Review, September | | |

|1991, 30–32 | | |

|Christopher Read, Interpreting Lenin in the |Article |Written for students. |

|Post-Leninist World, New Perspective for Modern | | |

|History Students, Volume 4, Number 1, September | | |

|1998, pages 21–25 | | |

|Sarah Newman, Alexandra and Rasputin, The |Article |Written for students. |

|Historian, Winter 2010 | | |

|Maureen Perrie, The Fall of the Romanovs, New |Article |Written for students. |

|Perspective for Modern History Students, 1997 | | |

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