Philosophy 1 lecture 1
Philosophy 1 lecture 1 Some of the issues covered in our text, Think, by Simon Blackburn, are questions our ancestors have wondered about for thousand of years. What are we? Are we eternal souls temporarily trapped in a physical body? Are we evolved primates with complex brains? And what is our conscious self-awareness? Is it an immaterial soul created in the image of an eternal, infinite creator? Is it a property of a complex physical brain? Can this conscious self of ours survive the death of our body, or is it doomed to perish when the brain ceases to function? We also wonder about the choices we make each day. Do we have control over our actions or are they caused by inherited genetic tendencies and the external environment? Or perhaps our choices are determined by impersonal fate or an all-powerful creator. Can we infer the existence of such a creator from the world around us? How, if at all, is it possible to acquire knowledge of the nature of reality?These are some of the questions addressed in philosophy. This term comes from ancient Greece, where philosophy originated in what historians refer to as the axial age (900-200 BCE). Philosophy is a contraction of the Greek terms for “love” and “knowledge.” It is best defined as the love of exercising our curiosity and intelligence. The term is first found in the writings of Pythagoras (ca. 530 BCE). Pythagoras said we observe three types of people at the Olympic games. There are merchants, attempting to become rich; athletes, attempting to become famous; and the spectators who are taking it all in. These “contemplative seekers of truth” are like the philosophers. They don’t care for wealth or fame; they want to understand the nature of reality.These days, philosophy has four main areas. Metaphysics (sometimes called ontology) covers what is ultimately real. Traditionally, metaphysics was primarily concerned with God, the soul, and immortality. Today issues in metaphysics include arguments for and against the existence of God; the nature of the mind; and the freedom of the will. Logic investigates argument. The primary tool of philosophers. How can we distinguish between good arguments and bad arguments? Epistemology is the third main area of philosophy. It concerns the theory of knowledge. How can we obtain knowledge of our world? Do our five senses give us knowledge of the world? What are their limitations? Can we use reason to discover truth? The fourth main area of philosophy is ethics, the study of good and bad, right and wrong. In this course we will cover three of the four main area in philosophy; logic is covered in other courses at LA Mission (Philosophy 6, 5, and 9). Philosophy, Religion, ScienceWhen all of us came in to this world religion, philosophy, and science were all part of the human story. But philosophy and science were not there from the beginning. As far as we can tell, religion has always been a part of the human experience. We can find no evidence of a human society that did not have some form of religious belief and practice. Religion does many things, but one thing it does is provide explanations. Religion explains our origins, our destiny, our purpose, and things we should and should not do. So, to some extent, issues in metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics are addressed by religious traditions. One thing we notice when we compare the answers that religious traditions give us to the existential questions that humans are curious about, is that they contradict each other. Western religions claim that time has a beginning, while Hindu tradition says that the world has always existed. Western religions came to believe that our eternal destiny (in heaven or hell) is decided after just one lifetime. But eastern tradition came to believe in reincarnation, that we live many lives, perhaps an infinite number. Western religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) believe that ultimate reality is a personal God; but Hinduism thinks ultimate reality is an impersonal absolute (Brahman). Buddhism, on the other hand, thinks that neither of these options is correct. How can such disputes be resolved? How can a proponent of one religion prove that her religion is correct and the other ones are wrong? There does not appear to be a good answer to that question.One thing that led to the appearance of philosophy on the world scene was dissatisfaction with religious explanations of reality. The first philosopher, Thales (620-546 BCE), doubted explanations that appealed to supernatural forces. He didn’t think rain was caused by Zeus. He felt that we could explain things naturalistically, relying on reason and observation. So, as soon as philosophy appeared on the scene, it was already in conflict with religion. The pre-Socratic philosophers all tried to give naturalistic explanations of things, without appeal to supernatural forces or beings. This all came to a head with Socrates, who was given the death penalty by an Athenian jury for not accepting the gods of the state, and for corrupting the youth for advising them to doubt claims that can’t be supported by evidence. These early Greek philosophers, however, could not reach a consensus about philosophical issues. Aristotle studied with Plato for nineteen years but completely rejected the metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical theories of his teacher. “Dear is Plato,” he said, “but dearer still is truth.” Aristotle created a theory of nature that seemed right to the western world for almost two thousand years. But it all came crashing down when science appeared on the human scene. What we think of as modern science, which employs the scientific method, appears on the scene around 1543, with Copernicus and Vesalius, followed shortly by Galileo and many others. As you know, when Galileo defended the heliocentric theory of Copernicus, it was not well-received by the Roman Catholic Church. He was forced to recant under threat of torture. Conflicts between religion and science have continued since that time. Darwin’s theory of evolution was another scientific hypothesis that religion initially rejected. Over time, some religious traditions came to accept Darwin’s theory, and adapted their theology to fit with the new theory. Other religions rejected it, called it bad science, and pretended that the account of creation in Genesis was more consistent with “true” science. What distinguishes science from both religion and philosophy is that scientific theories can be tested. Experiments can be done to verify or falsify a scientific theory. Science had a huge impact on philosophy, leading to the modern period in philosophy from Descartes to Kant. All these modern philosophers struggled with the implications that science has on issues in metaphysics and epistemology. Those discussions continue into the contemporary period. Why Study Philosophy?Since philosophy is not a science, we can’t prove that a certain philosophical theory is correct. So, some might wonder, what is the point of philosophical investigation? Why should we waste our time discussing issues that can’t be settled in a definitive way? Simon Blackburn addresses this question in the introduction to our text What follows is my account of that discussion. For some, philosophical inquiry is actually enjoyable. Thinking carefully about what we have been taught, how we know what is true and what may not be, is an activity that can be liberating. That was certainly true for me when I took my first philosophy course as a Bible major at Biola College. I didn’t quite get it but I wanted to know more. The Bible teachers were telling me what to believe, and the philosophy teacher was asking why I believed anything at all. (At least Hume was asking that in the readings that Dr. Hanson assigned.)Some students, however, do not find such investigations fun. So why should they study philosophy? Blackburn thinks there are at least two benefits from studying philosophy, whether you like it or not. One is the habit of mind that philosophy cultivates. Careful, critical thinking is an essential skill for every human endeavor. At the very least, it will help you avoid being conned by someone selling a miracle cure, a religious ideology, on an unfounded conspiracy theory. It will also help you reach informed opinions on social policy issues, since you will demand evidence and not fall for emotional appeals. Socrates, a founding father of philosophy, thought that the practice of philosophy demands intellectual humility. So, if you do seriously attempt the practice of philosophy, you can expect to improve your character and your job performance. An additional benefit of the kind of careful thinking engendered by the study of philosophy is its tendency to further bend the moral arc of the universe towards justice. Martin Luther King Jr. famously adapted a quote from the abolitionist Theodore Parker, saying: "The arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends towards justice." What this means is that the human story, despite its moments or horror and great evil, is a story where justice increases an injustice decreases. The first major step forward was the worldwide abolition of slavery, which was a direct result of the argument of philosophers in the enlightenment period. Gender equity, respect for human rights, gay rights, animal rights; all of these efforts to increase justice occurred because people questioned the assumptions of their tradition.It is undeniable that unjust practices are often wedded to religious traditions. The caste system in India declared that economic status is determined by past life behavior, implying that those who are born into poverty are just getting what they deserve; reaping what they planted in a past life. This turns injustice into justice and denies the evils of economic injustice. The Christian belief that everything will be great in heaven was used to make slavery and low wages more acceptable. Just accept your fate and wait for your rewards in the next life. The great union organizer, Joe Hill, wrote a song called “Pie in the Sky,” reminding workers not to accept that bad reasoning. All humans deserve a fair wage in the here and now! As Blackburn puts it, bad theories lead to bad practices; and the best way to expose a bad theory is through careful philosophical analysis. Philosophers in the enlightenment period coined an important new term, autonomy. It combines the Greek terms for self and law. To be autonomous is to be self-ruled, not ruled by others. Every human being has the capacity to reason. To look at the relevant evidence and reach an informed decision about what is the right thing to do or believe. No one should tell us what to do or what to think, we are all equally capable of doing this for ourselves. This powerful idea led to the creation of political democracies to replace monarchies. To find the best policies, let everyone bring their proposals to the table, provide their arguments, and then let the people decide by popular vote. This beautiful experiment in democracy has been tainted by the use of propaganda. Rich and powerful people who benefit from unjust laws try to persuade us that change will be bad. “We can’t provide healthcare for all, that will be too expensive, you may not get the operation you need.” Fear and anger are the emotions that are appealed to most when people lack good evidence to support their policies. Democracy only works when citizens become philosophers, who reason carefully and do not fall for bad reasoning. For me, critical thinking has been liberating. I have not been trapped in the ideology of my ancestors. I continue to reflect on my current beliefs and practices. Any of my views on controversial moral and social issues could be wrong, or only partially correct. The sort of dialogue and reflection that philosophical analysis cultivates, assists in the ongoing process of attempting to live an examined life. I hope you will find philosophy useful in your own intellectual journey. ................
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