Persuasive Techniques, Fallacies, and Claims
Propaganda Packet
Appeals, Persuasive Techniques, Fallacies, and Claims
Propaganda—writing or images that seek to persuade through emotional appeal rather than through logical proof; written or visual texts that describe or depict using highly connotative words or images—favorable or unfavorable—without justification
Purpose—the specific reason or reasons for the writing
It conveys what the readers have to gain by reading the essay. Purpose is the objective or the goal that the writer wishes to establish.
A writer’s purpose might be to:
• Support a cause
• Promote a change
• Refute a theory
• Stimulate interest
• Win agreement
• Arouse sympathy
• Provoke anger
Audience—the writer’s targeted reader or readers
The relationship between the writer and the audience is critical. Students should consider the kind of information, language, and overall approach that will appeal to a specific audience.
Aristotle— (384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) The Greek philosopher was a student of Plato and the teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote about many diverse subjects including physics, poetry, government, ethics, biology and more. It is said that he took the very abstract work by Plato and made it easier to understand.
Aristotle named three appeals one could employ when trying to persuade someone: ethos, logos, and pathos.
Aristotle’s Persuasive Appeals
Ethos (ethics) means that a person is influenced by the writer’s character or image as shown in the syntax, voice, attitude and presentation. Aristotle called it the “moral rightness” of an argument. It also includes the expertise and knowledge of the speaker (or writer). Aristotle said that if a speaker has “good sense, good moral character and goodwill,” we are inclined to believe what the person has to say. To apply the technique of ethos, consider the following:
1. What kind of image do you want to project?
2. How can you protect this image?
3. What words or ideas do you want to avoid in order not to harm your image?
4. What effect do misspelled words and grammatical errors have on your image?
Logos (logic) means an argument based on reason. He saw it as the ability to construct logical arguments and to persuade that your assumptions are true, therefore the solution is true. To apply the technique of logos, consider the following:
1. Could you lay out your problem like a mathematical equation?
2. Are any of the common fallacies apparent?
Pathos (passion) is the use of emotional appeals to get the audience to accept one’s viewpoint. It is intended that the message inspire followers. A common use of pathos in argument is to create a sense of rejection if the audience doesn’t agree. To apply the technique of pathos, consider the following:
1. What assumptions are being made by the presenter?
2. What is the emotion being addressed (anger, love, belonging, fear, prestige, etc.)?
3. Is the appeal appropriate to the audience?
Appeal to Authority: Although this rhetorical strategy was not termed by Aristotle, writers in today’s world recognize it as a having a strong effect on audiences. It uses any authority position (whether that authority is real or not) to strengthen the argument.
Persuasive Appeals
(The broad categories of persuasive techniques)
|Argument |Explanation |Example |
|Appeal to authority |Calls on an expert (individual, group or other source) to |Dentist promotes a certain brand of toothpaste. |
| |provide credibility or importance to product, service or | |
| |position. | |
|Appeal to emotion |Uses emotionally charged language or images. |Audience is shown pictures of devastation caused by |
|(Pathos) | |natural disasters and is asked to support relief |
| | |efforts. |
|Appeal to ethics |Positions the writer or speaker as a person of good sense, good |A political candidate says he refuses to mud-sling |
|(Ethos) |moral character and good intentions. |and prefers to talk about the issues instead. |
|Appeal to logic |Provides rational arguments to support one’s claim using facts, |Facts are given that support the need to reduce |
|(Logos) |figures and statistics. |traffic fatalities. |
Specific Persuasive Techniques
Review:
|Technique |Explanation |Example |
|Bandwagon |Attempts to convince the audience that something is good because |“Everyone is switching to this cell phone network. |
| |“everyone” is buying into it (“jumping on the bandwagon”) by |Shouldn’t you?” |
| |appealing to the desire to be part of the group or appealing to the| |
| |desire to be included. | |
|Endorsement / testimonial |Uses a popular figure such as a celebrity to endorse a product, |Celebrities with beautiful complexions endorse |
| |service or cause. |Proactive. |
|Euphemisms |Substitutes an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may|The phrase “though we are experiencing heavy |
| |offend or suggest something unpleasant. |casualties” to describe people dying. |
|Glittering generalities |Uses slogans or simple phrases that sound good but provide little |A politician states, “A vote for me is a vote for |
| |or no information due to the vagueness of the message or the |peace.” |
| |positive connotations of the words. | |
|Loaded words |Chooses words that will influence audience’s perception of an item |“The assignment was asinine.” vs. “The assignment was |
| |or issue. |irksome.” |
|Plain-folks appeal |Works by suggesting that everyday things are superior to special or|Country Time lemonade sells itself as simple and |
| |extravagant things. |therefore valuable — a return to the “good old days” |
| | |when plain folks and simple ways were important. |
| | |“As a busy mother, I can’t afford to be sidelined by a |
| | |cold, so I use XYZ sinus product, and you should too.” |
|Rhetorical questions |Asks a question in which no response is expected or desired (the |“Can we continue to allow our troops to die?” |
| |answer is obvious). The question is used for effect or is used to | |
| |emphasize a point. | |
|Snob appeal |Plays on our desire for fancy items and the “good life.” |Video shows the glassware to call a cat to a Fancy |
| | |Feast dinner. |
New:
|Technique |Explanation |Example |
|Bait and Switch |A tactic in which a customer is attracted by the advertisement of a|Wal-Mart “rolls back” the price on it’s generic |
| |low-priced item but is then encouraged to buy a higher-priced one. |brand of paper towels, but before the shopper can |
| | |get to the paper towel aisle, she sees a center |
| | |display for Bounty paper towels that are on sale, |
| | |but for a higher price than the generic brand. |
|Card stacking |Leaves out information necessary for the audience to make an |A newspaper uses a large picture of a smiling |
| |informed decision; “stacks the cards” in favor of one’s viewpoint |spokesperson for an organization that it favors or|
| |by using only arguments that support a position or by ignoring or |a less-attractive or smaller picture of a person |
| |denying the arguments against it. |speaking on behalf of a position they do not |
| | |endorse. |
|Exaggeration |Overstates the effectiveness or importance of a product. |An anti-wrinkle cream promises to take off 10 |
| | |years in one night. |
|Fear |Presents a dreaded circumstance and usually follows it up with the |“This is your brain (image of an egg). This is |
| |kind of behavior needed to avoid that horrible event. |your brain on drugs (image of the egg being |
| | |cracked into a hot frying pan).” |
|Name calling |Uses derogatory implications or innuendoes to turn people against |Burger King implies that its flame-broiled burgers|
| |something. |are superior to the other fast-food companies, |
| | |specifically McDonald’s. |
|Repetition |Repeats product, service or position several times. |“Head On — apply it directly to your forehead. |
| | |Head On — apply it directly to your forehead. Head|
| | |On — apply it directly to your forehead.” |
|Scientific approach |Uses tests, statistics and scientific-sounding jargon or diagrams |A chair is ergonomically designed to fit the |
| |to lend credibility to something. |contours of your body. |
|Sex appeal |Uses beautiful and sexy people to sell you something. |A handsome man promotes using a Gillette razor. |
|Something for nothing |Belief that most people are seeking a “good buy” or “something for |“If you buy this computer, we’ll throw in a free |
| |nothing.” |printer.” |
|Transfer |Uses words, images or symbols that arouse emotions and connect the |A tire dealer places red, white and blue banners |
| |viewer’s emotion to the product being sold. |throughout his store, or a political activist |
| | |closes his speech with a prayer. |
|Urgency / call to action / |Creates the impression that you have to act fast. |“Order now! Supplies are limited! Everything must |
|Exigency | |go!” |
Types of Logical Fallacies—Errors in Logic
Misusing logical appeal in a persuasive setting can hurt the credibility of a claim or person. Below are different types of logical fallacy that can cause one to lose credibility.
Review:
|Logical Fallacy |Definition |Example |
|Ad hominem / Attacking the |An attack against an opponent’s character instead of against an|Francis Bacon’s philosophy should be dismissed since |
|person |argument. |Bacon was removed from his chancellorship for |
| | |dishonesty. |
|Hasty generalization |When a claim draws a conclusion based on insufficient evidence.|Women are bad drivers. |
| |A stereotype is one type of hasty generalization. | |
|Stereotype |A generalization that results from an oversimplification or a |Blondes are dumb. |
| |bias. | |
New:
|Logical Fallacy |Definition |Example |
|Begging the question |When the claim is included in the evidence, so nothing is |Since I’m not lying, I must be telling the truth. |
| |proven. | |
|Card stacking |Completely leaving out one side of an argument. |There should be no “moment of silence” in schools |
| | |because it discriminates against certain religions, |
| | |causes unnecessary controversy and takes away from study|
| | |time. |
|Circular Reasoning |Trying to prove one idea with another idea that is too similar |A writer is a person who writes. |
| |to the first idea; such an error logical moves backward in its | |
| |attempt to move forward | |
|Either / or; also called |When only two options are given when many choices exist. |Either you’re for the Republican plan or you’re a |
|False dilemma | |socialist and un-American. |
|Faulty cause and effect |Lack of connection between two consecutive events. |Because I watched “Friends” last night, I passed my math|
| | |test. |
|Overgeneralizing |Very little is true all of the time, so be careful of sweeping |The only reason teenagers quit school is to avoid the |
| |statements. |work. |
|Oversimplifying |Most issues worth arguing are complex, so be wary of “quick fix”|If women would just stay home to care for their |
| |explanations or solutions. |children, we would have no day-care problem in this |
| | |country. |
|Wrong direction |The cause-and-effect relationship is reversed. |Cancer causes smoking. |
Types of Advertising Claims
Review:
|Claim |Definition |Example |
|The Weasel Word Claim |A weasel word is a modifier that practically negates the claim that follows. Words or|Helps, like, virtually, fights, etc.|
| |claims that appear substantial upon first look but disintegrate into hollow |“Helps control dandruff symptoms |
| |meaninglessness on analysis are weasels. |with regular use.” |
| | |“Listerine fights bad breath.” |
|The Unfinished Claim |The ad claims the product is better, or has more of something but does not finish the|“Anacin: Twice as much of the pain |
| |comparison. |reliever doctors recommend most.” |
| | |(Twice as much as what pain |
| | |reliever?) |
|The Scientific or |This method uses some sort of scientific proof or experiment, very specific numbers, |“Certs contains a sparkling drop of |
|Statistical Claim |or an impressive mystery ingredient. |Retsyn.” |
| | |(“Retsyn” is their name for |
| | |vegetable oil) |
New:
|Claim |Definition |Example |
|The “Compliment the |This claim butters up the consumer with some form of flattery. |“We think a cigar smoker is someone|
|Consumer” Claim | |special.” |
|The “So What” Claim |This is a claim which is true, but which gives no real advantage to the product. It |“Geritol has more than twice the |
| |is similar to the “water is wet” claim, except it claims an advantage which is not |iron of ordinary supplements.” |
| |shared by most of the other brands in the product category. |(But is twice as much beneficial to |
| | |the body?) |
|The Vague Claim |The vague claim is simply not clear. It uses words that are colorful but meaningless|“Lips have never looked so |
| |and subjective and emotional opinions that defy verification. It often overlaps with|luscious.” |
| |other claims. |(How could you prove or disprove |
| | |such a claim?) |
|The “Water is Wet” Claim |This technique claims something about the product that is true for any brand in that|“Rheingold, the natural beer.” |
| |product category. This is usually a statement of fact, but not a real advantage over|(It is made from grains and water, |
| |the competition. |as are other beers) |
|“We’re Different and Unique”|The claim states simply that there is nothing else quite like the product |“There is no other mascara like it.”|
|Claim |advertised. The uniqueness is supposed to be interpreted as a claim to superiority. | |
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