Higher Biology - Larbert High School



Higher Biology: WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW

UNIT 1: CELL BIOLOGY

|Cell Structure in relation to function |

|Cell Variety |

|Variation in structure of cells in one tissue compared to cells in another tissue. |

|The existence of unicellular organisms. |

|The relationship of structure to function. |

|Structure of plant and animal cells and identify the organelles present in each. |

|Functions of each organelle. |

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|Absorption and secretion of materials |

|Diffusion and osmosis |

|The role of the cell wall and plasma membrane to these processes. |

|Cell wall, reference to cellulose fibres and permeability. |

|Plasma membrane, reference to fluid mosaic model. |

|Membrane made of protein/phospholipid composition |

|Function of plasma membrane in relation to active transport in absorption and release of chemicals. |

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|Photosynthesis |

|The role of light and photosynthetic pigments |

|Absorption transmission and reflection of light by a leaf. |

|Blue and red light is absorbed by chlorophyll. |

|Name the 4 photosynthetic pigments. |

|Know that chlorophyll a is principle pigment and the names of the accessory pigments. |

|Action spectrum (rate of photosynthesis) and absorption spectra of each photosynthetic pigment. |

|Role of chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments. |

|Separation of pigments by chromatography, know the positions and colours of the pigments. |

| Photolysis and Carbon Fixation |

|Chloroplast structure |

|Location and significance of photolysis |

|Splitting of water results in release of oxygen as a by-product. |

|Hydrogen produced is transferred to NADP. |

|ATP produced, and the hydrogen are transferred to the carbon fixation stage. |

|Location of carbon fixation stage (Calvin Cycle). |

|Glucose is produced in a series of enzyme controlled reactions, requiring ATP and hydrogen and CO2. |

|Know the number of carbons in CO2, GP, RuBP and glucose. |

|CO2 enters the cycle and is accepted by ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) |

|CO2 is reduced to form carbohydrate. |

|Hydrogen is accepted by glycerate phosphate (GP) |

|All major biological molecules in plants are derived from the photosynthetic process. |

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|Energy Release |

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|The Role and Production of ATP |

|The importance of ATP as a means of transferring chemical energy. |

|The role of ATP in cellular processes. |

|ATP is continually regenerated from ADP and Pi |

|Respiration is a series of reactions in which 6-carbon glucose is oxidised to form carbon dioxide. |

|This is accompanied by the synthesis of ATP. |

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| Glycolysis |

|Located in the cytoplasm. |

|Does not require oxygen. |

|Glucose (6C) is broken down into pyruvic acid (3C). |

|Net production of 2 ATP. |

|In the shortage of glucose, fats and proteins can enter as alternative respiratory substrates. |

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|Kreb’s Cycle |

|Also called Tricarboxylic acid cycle and Citric acid cycle. |

|Requires oxygen. |

|Location is in the central matrix of the mitochondrion. |

|2-carbon compound (acetyl-CoA) joins the cycle as it reacts with a 4-carbon compound to form citric acid (6C). |

|Citric acid (tricarboxylic acid) is gradually converted, in a cycle of reactions back to the 4-carbon compound. |

|The carbons are lost as carbon dioxide. |

|Know the number of carbon atoms for the intermediates in the cycle. |

|The hydrogen produced is transferred on NAD to the cytochrome system. |

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|The Cytochrome System |

|Requires oxygen. |

|Complete oxidation of glucose only happens in the presence of oxygen. |

|Located on the Cristae (inner membrane) of mitochondria. |

|It is a system of hydrogen carriers which release energy. |

|Hydrogen, carried on NADH2 is passed through these carriers. |

|This energy is used to synthesise ATP from ADP and Pi. |

|The final hydrogen acceptor is oxygen, which forms metabolic water. |

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|Label the different parts of a mitochondrion. |

|In Aerobic respiration 38 ATP are produced per molecule of glucose. |

|In Anaerobic respiration only 2 ATP are produced per molecule glucose. |

|In animal muscle lactic acid is the product of anaerobic respiration. |

|In plants carbon dioxide and ethanol are the products of anaerobic respiration. |

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|Synthesis and Release of Proteins |

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|The role of DNA, RNA and cellular organelles |

|The importance of amino acid sequence in protein structure. |

|The function of protein is closely related to its structure. |

|Fibrous and globular proteins. |

|Named examples of each type. |

|DNA structure (nucleotide structure, bases, double helix) |

|Each genes codes for one protein and makes up a region of the chromosome |

| Structure and function of RNA |

|mRNA and tRNA and their role in protein synthesis |

|The processes transcription and translation |

|Role of rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in processing molecules for secretion |

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|Cellular Response in Defence of Animals and Plants |

|Virus structure |

|The sequence of viral replication in host cells |

|Process of phagocytosis |

|Antibody production |

|Antibody/antigen interaction |

|Toxic compounds produced by plants |

|Isolation of injured areas by plants |

UNIT 2: GENETICS AND ADAPTATION

|Variation |

|Sexual reproduction as a means of maintaining genetic variation |

|Meiosis (outline of process) |

|Crossing over of chromosomes at chiasmata |

|Independent assortment of chromosomes |

|Genetics problems: dihybrid cross |

|Linked genes |

|Frequency of recombination |

|Sex Linked genes |

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|Mutation |

|Mutant alleles |

|Mutagenic agents |

|Changes in chromosome number through non-disjunction |

|Polyploidy: advantages in crop production |

|Changes in chromosome structure (TIDD) :- |

| Translocation |

| Inversion |

| Duplication |

|Deletion |

|Gene Mutations (SIDI), alteration in base type or sequence:- |

| Substitution |

| Inversion |

| Deletion |

| Insertion |

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|(b) Selection and Speciation |

|Natural Selection |

|Survival of organisms best suited to their environment. |

|Concept of a species |

|Speciation through isolating mechanisms, mutations and natural selection on the gene pool. |

|Importance of isolating mechanisms. |

|Adaptive radiation |

|High speed evolution of organisms e.g. antibiotic resistant bacteria and the melanic peppered moth. |

|Conservation of species. |

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|Artificial Selection |

|Evolution of a wide variety of plants and domesticated animals through selective breeding. |

|Hybridisation of genetically different breeding lines. |

|Genetic Engineering |

|Use of gene probes to locate genes. |

|Restriction endonuclease enzymes to cut DNA. |

|Ligase enzyme used to join DNA. |

|E.g. Insulin is produced by E. coli. |

|Somatic fusion in plants is used to overcome sexual incompatibility. |

|Use of cellulose to remove cell walls. |

|(c) Animal and plant adaptations |

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|Animal Adaptations |

|1. Maintaining water balance |

|Osmoregulation in fresh and salt water fish |

|Adaptations for salmon and eel migration |

|Water conservation in a desert mammal |

|Physiological and behavioural adaptations in desert rats. |

|Obtaining food |

|Animals are mobile |

|Foraging behaviour and search patterns |

|Economics of foraging |

|Behaviour must be organised to maximise energy gain. |

|Examples of interspecific and intraspecific competition |

|Dominance hierarchy and cooperative hunting |

|Territorial behaviour in relation to competition for food |

|Coping with dangers |

|Avoidance behaviour and habituation |

|Learning as a long-term modification of response |

|Individual and social mechanisms for defence |

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|Plant adaptations |

|Maintaining water balance |

|Transpiration stream |

|Factors which affect transpiration |

|Stomatal mechanism |

|Adaptations in xerophytes and hydrophytes |

|Obtaining food |

|Compare plants and animals ability to move |

|Competition in plants mainly for light and soil nutrients |

|Effect of grazing on species diversity |

|Compare compensation point in sun and shade plants |

|Coping with dangers |

|Structural defence mechanisms (stings, thorns, spines) |

|Ability to tolerate grazing (low meristems, deep roots systems and underground stems |

UNIT 3: CONTROL AND REGULATION

|CONTROL OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT |

|Growth differences between plants and animals |

|Growth patterns in plants and animals (an annual plant, a tree, a human and a locust) |

|Position and activity of meristems in plants, absence of meristems in animals. |

|Formation of annual rings. |

|Regeneration in angiosperms and mammals. |

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|Genetic Control |

|The Jacob-Monod Hypothesis of gene action in bacteria (lactose metabolism in E. coli; the terms regulator gene, operator and |

|structural gene; repressor molecule and inducer should be known). |

|The part played by genes in controlling metabolic pathways e.g. in phenylkenonuria (PKU). |

|The control of cell differentiation by switching particular genes on or off. |

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|Hormonal Influences |

|Pituitary hormones. The role of the pituitary gland in the control of growth and development involving human growth hormone, |

|thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyroxine produced by the thyroid gland. |

|Plant growth substances e.g. IAA and GA. |

|Sites of production of IAA. Its effects at both cellular and organ levels; role in apical dominance, leaf abscission and |

|fruit formation. |

|Effects of GA on dormancy and in dwarf varieties of plants. |

|Role of GA in amylase induction in barley grains. |

|Practical applications of plant growth substances as shown by herbicides and rooting powders. |

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|Environmental Influences |

|The importance of individual macroelements N,P,K. (These are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.) |

|Symptoms of deficiency of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium in plants |

|The importance of iron and calcium in animals. |

|The inhibiting effect of lead activity. |

|The effects of thalidomide, alcohol and nicotine on foetal development. |

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|5. Light |

|The effect of light on vegetative shoot growth and development |

|The effect of light on flowering in long-day and short-day plants |

|The effect of light in the timing of breeding in birds and mammals |

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|Physiological Homeostasis |

|The principle of negative feedback |

|The need to maintain conditions within tolerable limits (for blood glucose, temperature and osmoregulation) |

|The role of the hormones ADH, insulin, glucagon and adrenaline and the name of the glands which secrete these. |

|Water content of blood and concentration of cell chemicals (the role of ADH and its effect of the kidney tubules) |

|Glucose and energy needs of tissues. The role of the liver as a store of carbohydrate, roles of insulin, glucagon and |

|adrenaline in maintenance of blood glucose. |

|The importance of temperature to enzyme controlled metabolic processes in the body. (Role of hypothalamus, nerve |

|communication, the skin as the effector organ) |

|Endotherms and Ectotherms. |

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|Population Dynamics |

|Regulation of plant and animal populations |

|Population fluctuations; the relative stability of populations despite short-term oscillations in number. |

|Name density dependent and density independent factors which influence population numbers. |

|Monitoring of wild populations for food/raw material sources, as pollution indicators, to protect endangered species and to |

|control pest species. |

|Succession and climax in plant communities including changes in species diversity, complexity of food web and increase in |

|biomass. |

|Unidirectional nature of plant succession and the associated habitat modification. |

|Percentage of a number | |

|Percentage change | |

|Graphs – labelling axis or missing | |

|units | |

|Graphs – plotting | |

|Graphs – scale | |

|Graphs – x/y axis wrong way round | |

|Table – missing headings or units | |

|Ratios | |

|Averages | |

|Interpreting information from a table | |

|Interpreting information from a graph | |

|Controls in an experiment | |

|Experimental design | |

|Describing something | |

|Explaining/Accounting for something | |

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