Foreign Language Learners' Use and Perception of Online ...

MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching

Vol. 9, No. 4, December 2013

Foreign Language Learners' Use and Perception of Online Dictionaries: A Survey Study

Li Jin Assistant Professor Department of Modern Languages DePaul University Chicago, IL 60604 USA ljin2@depaul.edu

Elizabeth Deifell Doctoral Candidate ? Second Language Acquisition, Foreign Language Acquisition Research and

Education (FLARE) Program Graduate Teaching Assistant in Spanish, Department of Spanish and Portuguese

The University of Iowa Iowa City, IA 52242 USA elizabeth-deifell@uiowa.edu

Abstract

The importance of dictionaries in language learning is indisputable. The emergence of online dictionaries has noticeably influenced the way students learn a foreign language (FL). This study examines FL learners' use and perception of bilingual online dictionaries through an analysis of over 250 responses to a web-based survey from learners enrolled in postsecondary language courses in the United States. The most popular online dictionaries among eight languages are presented along with selfreported data regarding look-up behaviors while reading, writing, listening, and speaking the target language. The results suggest that online dictionaries are most often consulted when learners are creating and/or deciphering digitally mediated written texts. Although most FL learners consider online dictionaries to be an essential part of their language learning, they report that not all are reliable. They also report the disparity of quality in online dictionaries across languages. As a result, learners often use multiple online dictionaries and other digital resources for multiple purposes. Based on the findings, pedagogical suggestions are provided to help educators guide FL learners' use of online dictionaries and other digital resources such as online translators.

Keywords: computer-assisted language learning (CALL), foreign language learning, online dictionaries, online translators, Google, Google Translate, digital resources

Introduction

The emergence and development of online resources have affected all fields of education, including foreign language (FL) learning. The majority of FL learners enrolled in college-level language classes in the United States are digital natives (Prensky, 2001), having grown up in an increasingly digitally connected world with immediate access to authentically created and situated texts in various languages and with the convenience of virtual intercultural communication. The emergence of digital and Internet tools have been reshaping views of what FL proficiency is and how to teach and learn a FL (Blake, 2008; Chapelle, 2001, 2009; Murray, 2000; Ortega, 1997). FL educators must address the use of digital resources by FL learners and understand how their language learning and educators' own teaching may benefit from such tools.

The emergence of technological tools has "provide[d] new opportunities for self-directed learning" (Godwin-Jones, 2011, p. 4). One category of these tools is online dictionaries that scaffold language learning both within and outside of the classroom. Few empirical studies have been conducted to understand how FL learners use online dictionaries, despite their popularity. The existing studies on

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online dictionary use in FL learning mainly focused on the advantages of using online dictionaries for vocabulary acquisition in reading and writing tasks (Chun, 2001; Elola, Rodriguez-Garcia, & Winfrey, 2008; Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; Lan, 2005; Laufer & Hill, 2000). This study's aim was to uncover college-level FL learners' use and perceptions of bilingual online dictionaries in FL learning in a variety of tasks and thereby contextualize the pedagogical implications of the use of these online tools to either facilitate online learning or complement classroom-based learning. In this paper, bilingual online dictionaries include those that can be accessed via websites or through apps in mobile devices.

Literature Survey

When examining online bilingual dictionaries, it is important to first identify what is considered a dictionary and what general functions bilingual dictionaries serve in FL learning. To shed light on what has already been investigated about online dictionary use and what has yet to be explored, a review of recent empirical studies on the use of online dictionaries in FL learning will follow.

Dictionary use has been a widely explored topic for over a century for the purpose of both first language (L1) and second language (L2) learning (Lew, 2011). While Miller (1999) acknowledges that dictionaries provide a wealth of important information about a word, he cautions, "dictionary definitions are deliberately decontextualized" (p.10). McAlpine and Myles (2003) clarify the role of the dictionary in basic language learning: to assist learners in broadening their vocabulary knowledge and understanding of common grammatical errors. Indeed, findings from research studies (Hulstijn, Holander, & Greidenus, 1996; Knight, 1994; Luppescu & Davy, 1993) suggest that dictionary use is beneficial for L2 learners' vocabulary expansion and for eventual reading comprehension. In particular, dictionary use helps learners build form-meaning connections. However, researchers (Ghabanchi & Ayoubi, 2012) also caution that dictionary use among FL learners is not significantly more effective for incidental vocabulary learning than other reading conditions, such as L1 and L2 marginal glosses and summary writing. Other researchers (Christianson, 1997; Gonzalez, 1999; Lew, 2011) stress the influence of learners' L2 proficiency and their dictionary use strategies on their successful use of dictionaries. Higher-proficiency learners tend to employ a wider variety of strategies, and they seek semantic meanings rather than merely lexical forms and meanings. Thus, in FL education, emphasis should also be placed on appropriate training in how to use dictionaries to maximize language development.

In recent years a wealth of digital dictionaries has appeared because of expansion of the Internet and new media technologies. indexed the existence of 1,062 online dictionaries in April 2012, a substantial, but not surprising, increase from 188 in 1997. Lan (2005) documented 13 Englishlanguage online dictionaries with quality as good as or better than that of paper dictionaries. Furthermore, the strength of these online dictionaries lies in their innovativeness, which includes their convenience, quick updates, interactivity, and potential for designer/user collaboration.

Empirical studies have been conducted to investigate whether and how the use of online dictionaries benefits L2 development. In his review of 206 papers published from 2001 to 2005 in four major technology and language learning journals, including CALICO Journal, CALL, Language Learning and Technology, and ReCALL, Stockwell (2007) discovered that the use of online dictionaries had been primarily investigated in the context of vocabulary learning and writing. Laufer and Hill (2001) found that the use of electronic dictionaries had a positive effect on learners' incidental vocabulary learning, probably attributed to the wealth of contextual information provided by electronic dictionaries, including L1 translations, L2 synonyms, and audio files providing models for pronunciation.

Differences between language learners of different proficiencies have been explored. Chun's (2001) study revealed that lower-level learners may be overwhelmed or confused by the multiple and nonspecific word definitions provided in online dictionaries. This finding was confirmed in Lenders' (2008) and Loucky's (2010) studies, which determined that a simplified bilingual glossary facilitated L2 readers with lower proficiency levels, whereas more advanced learners benefited from electronic dictionaries which provide more details of language use, including examples of contextualized use and grammatical explanations. In addition, Prichard (2008) found evidence that L2 readers at lower proficiency levels lack efficient reading strategies and look up a large number of words that are not central to deciphering the central meaning of texts in the target language.

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Research findings suggest that online dictionaries that offer more contexts of usage lead to more successful language use by second language learners (C?rdenas-Claros & Gruba, 2009; Jones, 2003; Kaur & Hegelheimer, 2005). Elola, Rodr?guez-Garc?a, and Winfrey's (2008) study revealed that second language users' lookup strategies (e.g., lexical versus semantic) combined with proficiency levels shaped their success in using online dictionaries for vocabulary choices in Spanish writing tasks. Two recent empirical studies revealed that advanced technologies enable online dictionaries to offer adaptive and dynamic scaffolding based on learner lookup history to assist learners' vocabulary learning (Arispe, 2012; Dang, Chen, Dang, & Li, 2013). It is noteworthy that these features have not been widely integrated in most online dictionaries yet.

The literature reviewed above demonstrates that online dictionaries can be beneficial for FL learning. From a sociocultural theoretical perspective (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006; Vygotsky, 1978), the L2 learner's developmental process moves from being object-regulated (learner's language proficiency is influenced by the object used), to being other-regulated (learner's language behavior is controlled by others), to, eventually, being self-regulated (learners know what to do with and how to use language to achieve personal and social purposes). Therefore, skillful use of online dictionaries is one of the indicators of FL learners' self-regulation and consequently of successful language development (Elola, Rodr?guezGarc?a, & Winfrey, 2008). Most empirical studies have focused on learners' use of online dictionaries for vocabulary learning, particularly to augment literary skills. Few studies have investigated whether and how FL learners use online dictionaries, which devices they use, and their purposes and strategies for using dictionaries to support tasks such as listening and speaking. Even fewer studies have been conducted to report the usefulness of online dictionaries in self-directed learning from the perspective of FL learners (Godwin-Jones, 2011). Only with appropriate understanding of learners' current use will FL educators be able to provide helpful guidance to enhance the use of the tools.

This survey study aimed to fill this gap by answering the following research questions:

1. What online dictionaries do FL learners use? 2. How do FL learners use online dictionaries for reading, writing, listening, and speaking? 3. How do FL learners perceive the role of online dictionaries?

Methods

Study Context and Participants

In recent research studies (e.g., Elola, Rodr?guez-Garc?a, & Winfrey, 2009; Laufer & Hill, 2001; Lei, 2009), language learners' use of online dictionaries has been investigated by examining user data such as log files or recorded screen activities. To widen the investigation of online dictionary use to a larger number of FL learners, this study adopted a survey design to gather information about language learners' self-reported use and perceptions of online dictionaries.

The web-based survey (see Appendix A) was hosted by an online survey server: . The survey link () was distributed to language learners enrolled in FL courses in colleges and universities across the United States. The data collection took place in the fall of 2010. The survey contained a total of 17 questions inquiring about respondents' native language(s); the language course(s) in which they were enrolled; the level of their current foreign language course(s); whether and how often they used online dictionaries; what types of online dictionaries they used; how they used online dictionaries when conducting reading, writing, listening, or speaking tasks in the FL; and how they perceived the role of online bilingual dictionaries in FL learning. The survey link was posted on major foreign language professional forums such as the Chinese Language Teachers Association and the American Association of University Supervisors and Coordinators. Instructors contacted via these means forwarded the link to their respective students.

Data Analysis

The data analysis consisted of two phases. The first phase focused on a descriptive analysis of the quantitative data. In this phase, data collected from the web-based survey were grouped in terms of the respondents' native language background, the FL they were learning, the type of FL classes in which they were enrolled, the types of online dictionaries they used, frequency of consulting online dictionaries,

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and the devices they used to access online dictionaries. These data were then tallied and calculated for the percentages. The findings at this phase helped answer Research Question 1.

Phase 2 consisted of a more detailed text analysis of the qualitative data regarding five issues: (1) how respondents use online dictionaries for reading; (2) how they use online dictionaries for writing; (3) how they use online dictionaries for listening; (4) how they use online dictionaries for speaking; and (5) how respondents perceive the role of online bilingual dictionaries for FL learning. The constant comparison method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990) was adopted in this phase. Four steps were taken to conduct text analysis for each issue. In Step 1, the researchers inspected all of the data collected from each question to identify recurring themes for analysis. Step 2 involved grouping all relevant data under those themes. The constant comparison method was used to avoid redundant and/or mislabeled themes. In Step 3, the researchers created a coding scheme for each recurring theme. Step 4 entailed calculation of the frequency of each theme. To achieve inter-rater reliability, both researchers completed Steps 1 through 4 individually. After completing Step 4, the researchers compared their individual findings. To resolve discrepancies, the researchers retrieved and reanalyzed the raw data until agreement was reached. The researchers analyzed all data across languages. The analysis helped answer Research Question 2.

Finally, the researchers sorted the data by the language studied to examine which online dictionaries learners of each FL reported using. Additionally, the researchers analyzed self-reported perceptions of online dictionaries for each language subgroup. The researchers then compared and contrasted the findings from each language to identify whether any differences existed among learners of other foreign languages in terms of perceptions of online dictionary use. The analysis in this step helped answer Research Question 3.

Results

Participant Backgrounds

At the end of the data collection period, a total of 317 surveys were completed. However, only 265 respondents identified the foreign language(s) they were learning during the survey period. Thus, 52 responses were considered incomplete and were discarded. The data reveal that 87.5% of respondents reported using online dictionaries. Although our survey sample is one of convenience, the large number suggests that online dictionaries are popular among FL learners enrolled in classes at the postsecondary level. Therefore, students' use and perception of them warrant further examination.

The complete surveys represent a total of 18 foreign languages taught in the United States. Thirty-three (12.5%) respondents reported learning two or more foreign languages simultaneously. Table 1 shows the detailed population of foreign language learners surveyed in this study.

Table 1

Foreign languages surveyed in the study (265 respondents)

Language

Number

Percentage

American Sign Language (ASL)

1

0.3%

Arabic

8

3.0%

Chinese

25

9.4%

Czech

1

0.3%

French

104

39.2%

German

25

9.4%

Hebrew

1

0.3%

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Italian Japanese Korean Latin Maori Polish Portuguese Russian Spanish Turkish

9

3.4%

26

9.8%

1

0.3%

1

0.3%

1

0.3%

1

0.3%

2

0.8%

4

1.5%

88

33.2%

1

0.3%

The respondents were enrolled in various types of language classes. Table 2 shows that the respondents evenly represented FL learners enrolled across all four levels of college-level foreign language programs in the United States with a four-year curriculum.

Table 2

Classes in which the respondents were enrolled (263 respondents)

Language Class 1st-year Language Class 2nd-year Language Class 3rd-year Language-based Class 3rd-year Content-based Class 4th-year Language-based Class 4th-year Content-based Class

Number 66 87 69 35 27 30

Percentage 25.1% 33.1% 26.2% 13.3% 10.3% 11.4%

Others (e.g., independent study, intensive language classes)

12

4.6%

The background information reported above indicates the FL respondents surveyed in this study represent a wide variety of perspectives among the general population of college-level FL learners in the United States. The specific findings for each research question are presented in detail in the following section.

Question 1: What online dictionaries do FL learners use?

A detailed list of online dictionaries reported by 211 language learners of Arabic, Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Russian, and Spanish is shown in Table 3. It shows that and Google, including the Google search engine and Google Translate, are the two most frequently mentioned online dictionaries and tools across all languages. However, learners of each language demonstrated a preference for somewhat different online dictionaries. For example, learners of Spanish

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