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Give Me Liberty! Chapter OutlinesCHAPTER 1A New WorldChapter Study Outline[Introduction: Columbian Exchange]The First AmericansThe Settling of the Americas"Indians" settled the New World between 15,000 and 60,000 years agoIndian Societies of the AmericasNorth and South American societies built roads, trade networks, and irrigation systems.Societies from Mexico and areas south were grander in scale and organization than those north of Mexico.Indians north of Mexico lacked literacy, metal tools, and scientific knowledge necessary for long-distance navigation.Mound Builders of the Mississippi River ValleyBuilt approximately 3,500 years ago along the Mississippi River in modern-day Louisiana, a community known today as Poverty Point was a trading center for the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys.Located near present-day St. Louis, the city known as Cahokia flourished with a population of 10,000-30,000 around the year 1200.Western IndiansHopi and Zuni ancestors settled around present-day Arizona and New Mexico and built large planned towns with multiple-family dwellings, and traded with peoples as far away as Mississippi and central Mexico.Indians of Eastern North AmericaIndian tribes living in the eastern part of North America sustained themselves with a diet of corn, squash, and beans and supplemented it by fishing and hunting.Tribes frequently warred with one another; however, there were also many loose alliances.Indians saw themselves as one group among many; the sheer diversity seen by the Europeans upon their arrival was remarkable.Native American ReligionReligious ceremonies were often directly related to farming and hunting.Those who were believed to hold special spiritual powers held positions of respect and authority.Land and PropertyThe idea of owning private property was foreign to Indians.Indians believed land was a common resource, not an economic commodity.Wealth mattered little in Indian societies, and generosity was far more important.Gender RelationsWomen could engage in premarital sex and choose to divorce their husbands, and most Indian societies were matrilineal.Since men were often away on hunts, women attended to the agricultural duties, as well as the household duties.European Views of the IndiansEuropeans felt that Indians lacked genuine religion.Europeans claimed that Indians did not "use" the land and thus had no claim to it.Europeans viewed Indian men as weak and Indian women as mistreated.Indian Freedom, European FreedomIndian FreedomEuropeans concluded that the notion of freedom was alien to Indian societies.European understanding of freedom was based on ideas of personal independence and the ownership of private property-ideas foreign to Indians.Christian LibertyEuropeans believed that to embrace Christ was to provide freedom from sin."Christian liberty" had no connection to later ideas of religious tolerance.Freedom and AuthorityEuropeans claimed that obedience to law was another definition of freedomUnder English law, women held very few rights and were submissive to their husbands.Liberty and LibertiesLiberty came from knowing one's place in a hierarchical society and fulfilling duties appropriate to one's rank.Numerous modern civil liberties (such as freedom of worship and of the press) did not exist.The Expansion of EuropeChinese and Portuguese NavigationChinese admiral Zheng He led seven naval expeditions into the Indian Ocean between 1405 and 1433, even exploring East Africa on the sixth voyage.The caravel, compass, and quadrant made travel along the African coast possible for the Portuguese in the early fifteenth century.The Portuguese established trading posts, "factories," along the western coast of Africa.Portugal began colonizing Atlantic islands and established plantations worked by slaves.Freedom and Slavery in AfricaSlavery was already one form of labor in Africa before the Europeans came.The arrival of the Portuguese accelerated the buying and selling of slaves within Africa.By the time Vasco da Gama sailed to India in 1498, Portugal had established a vast trading empire.The Voyages of ColumbusChristopher Columbus, an Italian, got financial support from King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain.In the same year, 1492, the king and queen completed the reconquista.ContactColumbus in the New WorldColumbus landed on Hispaniola in 1492 and colonization began the next year.Nicolas de Ovando established a permanent base in Hispaniola in 1502.Amerigo Vespucci sailed along the coast of South America between 1499 and 1502, and the New World came to be called America.Exploration and ConquestNews could now travel quickly, especially with the invention of Gutenberg's movable-type printing press in the 1430s.John Cabot had traveled to Newfoundland in 1497 and soon many Europeans were exploring the New World.Balboa trekked across Panama and was the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. Magellan led an expedition to sail around the world.Two Spanish conquistadores, Cortés and Pizarro, led devastating expeditions against the Aztec and Inca civilizations, respectively, in the early 1500s.The Demographic DisasterThe Columbian Exchange transferred not only plants and animals, but also diseases, such as smallpox and influenza.The native populations were significantly depleted through wars, enslavement, and disease.The Spanish EmpireGoverning Spanish AmericaSpain established a stable government modeled after Spanish home rule and absolutism.Power flowed from the king to the Council of the Indies to viceroys to local officials.The Catholic Church played a significant role in the administration of Spanish colonies.Colonists and Indians in Spanish AmericaGold and silver mining was the primary economy in Spanish America.Mines were worked by Indians.Many Spaniards came to the New World for easier social mobility.Indian inhabitants always outnumbered European colonists and their descendants in Spanish America.Spanish America evolved into a hybrid culture-part Indian, part Spanish, and, in places, part African.Mestizos are persons of mixed Indian and Spanish origin.Justifications for ConquestTo justify their claims to land that belonged to someone else, the Spanish relied on cultural superiority, missionary zeal, and violence.A missionary element existed from the church's long holy war against Islam, and was renewed with the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century.A primary aim of the Spaniards was to convert the Indians to the "true faith."Piety and ProfitThe souls to be saved could also be a labor force in the gold and silver mines.Bartolomé de Las Casas wrote about the injustices of Spanish rule toward the Indians.He believed that "the entire human race is one," but favored African slavery.Reforming the EmpireLas Casas's writings encouraged the 1542 New Laws, which forbade the enslavement of Indians.The Black Legend was an image, put forth in part by Las Casas, that Spain was a uniquely brutal and exploitive colonizer.Exploring North AmericaSpanish explorers migrated into what is now the United States in search of gold; first was Juan Ponce de León in Florida (1513).Large Spanish expeditions traveled through Florida, the Gulf of Mexico region, and the Southwest (1520s-1540s).These expeditions, particularly Hernando de Soto's, brutalized Indians and spread deadly diseases.Spain in Florida and the SouthwestFlorida, the first present-day U.S. area colonized by Spain, had forts as early as the 1560s to protect Spanish treasure fleets from pirates.As late as 1763, Spanish Florida had only 4,000 inhabitants of European descent.Juan de O?ate led settlers into present-day New Mexico (1598).O?ate destroyed Acoma, a centuries-old Indian city, in response to an attack.The Pueblo RevoltIn 1680, Pueblo Indians, led by Popé, rebelled against the Spanish colonists in present-day New Mexico for forcing the Indians to convert to Christianity.The French and Dutch EmpiresFrench ColonizationSamuel de Champlain founded Quebec in 1608, and others explored and claimed the entire Mississippi Valley for France.Relatively few French colonists arrived in New France. The white population in 1700 was only 19,000.New France and the IndiansWith few settlers, friendly relations with the Indians were essential for France.The French prided themselves on adopting a more humane policy toward the Indians than Spain, yet their contact still brought disease and their fur trading depleted the native animal population.The métis were children of Indian women and French men.The Dutch EmpireHenry Hudson sailed into New York Harbor and claimed the area for the Netherlands (1609).The Dutch West India Company settled colonists on Manhattan Island (1626).The Netherlands dominated international commerce in the early seventeenth century.Dutch FreedomThe Dutch prided themselves on their devotion to liberty; freedom of the press and a broad religious toleration were unique to the Dutch.Amsterdam was a refuge for many persecuted Protestants and Jews.New Netherland was a military post, not governed democratically, but the citizens possessed rights.Slaves had some rights, women enjoyed more independence than their counterparts in other colonies, and there was more religious toleration.Settling New NetherlandCheap livestock and free land after six years of labor were promised in an attempt to attract settlers.New Netherland and the IndiansThe Dutch came to trade, not to conquer, and were determined to treat the Indians more humanely, although conflict was not completely avoidedCHAPTER 2Beginnings Of English America, 1607-1660Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Jamestown]England and the New WorldUnifying the English NationEngland's stability in the sixteenth century was undermined by religious conflicts.England and IrelandEngland's methods to subdue Ireland in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries established patterns that would be repeated in America.England and North AmericaThe English crown issued charters for individuals such as Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh to colonize America at their own expense, but both failed.Motives for ColonizationAnti-Catholicism had become deeply ingrained in English popular culture.A Discourse Concerning Western Planting argued that settlement would strike a blow at England's most powerful Catholic enemy: Spain.National glory, profit, and a missionary zeal motivated the English crown to settle America.It was also argued that trade, not mineral wealth, would be the basis of England's empire.The Social CrisisA worsening economy and the enclosure movement led to an increase in the number of poor and to a social crisis.Unruly poor were encouraged to leave England for the New World.Masterless MenThe English increasingly viewed America as a land where a man could control his own labor and thus gain economic independence, particularly through the ownership of land.The Coming of the EnglishEnglish EmigrantsSustained immigration was vital for the settlement's survival.Between 1607 and 1700, a little over half a million persons left England.They settled in Ireland, the West Indies, and North America.The majority of settlers in North America were young, single men from the bottom rungs of English society.Indentured ServantsTwo-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants.Indentured servants did not enjoy any liberties while under contract.Land and LibertyLand was the basis of liberty.Englishmen and IndiansThe English were chiefly interested in displacing the Indians and settling on their land.Most colonial authorities acquired land by purchase.The seventeenth century was marked by recurrent warfare between colonists and Indians.Wars gave the English a heightened sense of superiority.The Transformation of Indian LifeEnglish goods were quickly integrated into Indian life.Over time, those European goods changed Indian farming, hunting, and cooking practices.Growing connections with Europeans stimulated warfare among Indian tribes.Settling the ChesapeakeThe Jamestown ColonySettlement and survival were questionable in the colony's early history because of high death rates, frequent changes in leadership, inadequate supplies from England, and placing gold before farming.By 1610, only 65 settlers remained alive.John Smith's tough leadership held the early colony together.New policies were adopted in 1618 so that the colony could survive.Headright systemA "charter of grants and liberties" provided an elected assembly (House of Burgesses), which first met in 1619.Powhatan and PocahontasPowhatan, the leader of thirty tribes near Jamestown, eagerly traded with the English.English-Indian relations were mostly peaceful early on.Pocahontas married John Rolfe in 1614, symbolizing Anglo-Indian harmony.The Uprising of 1622Once the English decided on a permanent colony instead of merely a trading post, conflict was inevitable.Opechancanough led an attack on Virginia's settlers in 1622.Through a treaty, the English forced Indians to recognize their subordination to the government at Jamestown and moved them onto reservations.The Virginia Company surrendered its charter to the crown in 1624.A Tobacco ColonyTobacco was Virginia's substitute for gold.The expansion of tobacco production led to an increased demand for field labor.Women and the FamilyVirginian society lacked a stable family life.Social conditions opened the door to roles women rarely assumed in England.The Maryland ExperimentMaryland was established in 1632 as a proprietary colony under Cecilius Calvert.The charter granted Calvert "full, free, and absolute power."Religion in MarylandCalvert envisioned Maryland as a refuge for persecuted Catholics.Most appointed officials initially were Catholic, but Protestants always outnumbered Catholics in the colony.Although it had a high death rate, Maryland offered servants greater opportunity for land ownership than Virginia.The New England WayThe Rise of PuritanismPuritanism emerged from the Protestant Reformation in England.Puritans believed that the Church of England retained too many elements of Catholicism.Puritans considered religious belief a complex and demanding matter, urging believers to seek the truth by reading the Bible and listening to sermons.Puritans followed the teachings of John Calvin.Moral LibertyMany Puritans immigrated to the New World in hopes of establishing a Bible Commonwealth that would eventually influence England.They came to America in search of liberty and the right to worship and govern themselves.Puritans were governed by a "moral" liberty, "a liberty to that only which is good," which was compatible with severe restraints on speech, religion, and personal behavior.The Pilgrims at PlymouthPilgrims sailed in 1620 to Cape Cod aboard the Mayflower.Before going ashore, the adult men signed the Mayflower Compact, the first written frame of government in what is now the United States.Local Indians provided much valuable help to the Pilgrims and the first Thanksgiving was celebrated in 1621.The Great MigrationThe Massachusetts Bay Company was charted in 1629 by London merchants wanting to further the Puritan cause and to turn a profit from trade with the Indians.New England settlement was very different from settlement in the Chesapeake colonies.New England had a more equal balance of men and women.New England enjoyed a healthier climate.New England had more families.The Puritan FamilyPuritans reproduced the family structure of England with men at the head of the household.Women were allowed full church membership and divorce was legal, but a woman was expected to obey her husband ernment and Society in MassachusettsMassachusetts was organized into self-governing towns.Each town had a Congregational Church and a school.To train an educated ministry, Harvard College was established in 1636.The freemen of Massachusetts elected their governor.Puritan democracy was for those within the circle of church members.Puritan LibertiesPuritans defined liberties by social rank, producing a rigid hierarchal society justified by God's will.The Body of Liberties affirmed the rights of free speech and assembly and equal protection for all.Although ministers were forbidden to hold office in Massachusetts, church and state were closely interconnected.New Englanders DividedRoger WilliamsA young Puritan minister, Williams preached that any citizen ought to be free to practice whatever form of religion he chose.Williams believed that it was essential to separate church and state.Rhode Island and ConnecticutBanished from Massachusetts in 1636, Williams established Rhode Island.Rhode Island was truly a beacon of religious freedom and democratic government.Other spin-offs from Massachusetts included New Haven and Hartford, which joined to become the colony of Connecticut in 1662.The Trials of Anne HutchinsonHutchinson was a well-educated, articulate woman who charged that nearly all the ministers in Massachusetts were guilty of faulty preaching.Hutchinson was placed on trial in 1637 for sedition.Authorities charged her with Antinomianism (putting one's own judgment or faith above human law and church teachings).On trial she said God spoke to her directly rather than through ministers or the Bible.She and her followers were banished.Puritans and IndiansColonial leaders had differing opinions about the English right to claim Indian land.To New England's leaders, the Indians represented both savagery and temptation.The Connecticut General Court set a penalty for anyone whochose to live with the Indians.The Puritans made no real attempt to convert the Indians in the first two decades.The Pequot WarAs the white population grew, conflict with the Indians became unavoidable, and the turning point came when a fur trader was killed by Pequots.Colonists warred against the Pequots in 1637, exterminating the tribe.The New England EconomyMost migrants came from the middle ranks of society.Fishing and timber were exported, but the economy centered on family farms.A Growing Commercial SocietyPer capita wealth was more equally distributed in New England than in the Chesapeake.A powerful merchant class rose up, assuming a growing role based on trade within the British empire.Some clashed with the church and left to establish a new town, Portsmouth, in New Hampshire.By 1650, less than half the population of Boston had become full church members.In 1662, the Half-Way Covenant answered with a compromise that allowed the grandchildren of the Great Migration generation to be baptized and be granted a kind of half-way membership in the church.Religion, Politics, and FreedomThe Rights of EnglishmenBy 1600, the idea that certain rights of Englishmen applied to all within the kingdom had developed alongside the traditional definition of liberties.This tradition rested on the Magna Carta, which was signed by King John in 1215.It identified a series of liberties granted to "all the free men of our realm."The Magna Carta over time came to embody the idea of English freedom:Habeas corpusThe right to face one's accuserTrial by juryThe English Civil WarThe English Civil War of the 1640s illuminated debates about liberty and what it meant to be a freeborn Englishman.England's Debate over FreedomJohn Milton called for freedom of speech and of the press.The Levellers called for an even greater expansion of freedom, moving away from a definition based on social class.The Diggers was another political group attempting to give freedom an economic underpinning through the common ownership of land.The Civil War and English AmericaMost New Englanders sided with Parliament in the Civil War.Ironically, Puritan leaders were uncomfortable with the religious toleration for Protestants gaining favor in England, as it was Parliament that granted Williams his charter for Rhode Island.A number of Hutchinson's followers became Quakers; four were hanged in Massachusetts.In Maryland, crisis erupted into civil war.In 1649, Maryland adopted an Act Concerning Religion, which institutionalized the principles of toleration that had prevailed from the colony's beginning.Cromwell and the EmpireOliver Cromwell, who ruled England from 1649 until his death in 1658, pursued an aggressive policy of colonial expansion, the promotion of Protestantism, and commercial empowerment in the British Isles and the Western Hemisphere.The next century was a time of crisis and consolidation.CHAPTER 3Creating Anglo-America, 1660-1750Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: King Philip's War]Global Competition and The Expansion of England's EmpireThe Mercantilist SystemEngland attempted to regulate its economy to ensure wealth and national merce, not territorial plunder, was the foundation of the English empire.The 1651 Navigation Acts required colonial products or "enumerated" goods to be transported in English ships and sold at English ports.The Conquest of New NetherlandThe restoration of the English monarchy came in 1660 with Charles II, and the government chartered new trading ventures such as the Royal African Company.In 1664, during an Anglo-Dutch war, New Netherland came under control of the English.The terms of Dutch surrender guaranteed some freedoms and liberties but reversed others, especially for blacks.The Duke of York governed New York, and by 1700 nearly 2 million acres of land were owned by only five New York families.New York and the IndiansThe English briefly held an alliance with the Five Nations known as the Covenant Chain, but by the end of the century the Five Nations adopted a policy of neutrality.The Charter of LibertiesDemanding liberties, the English of New York got an elected assembly, which drafted a Charter of Liberties and Privileges in 1683.The Founding of CarolinaCarolina was established as a barrier to Spanish expansion north of Florida.Carolina was an offshoot of Barbados and, as such, a slave colony from the start.From 1670 until 1720, Carolina engaged in a slave trade that sold captured local Indians to other mainland colonies and to the West Indies.The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina envisioned a feudal society. The colonial government did allow for religious toleration, an elected assembly, and a generous headright system.The economy grew slowly until planters discovered rice, which would make them the wealthiest elite in English North America.The Holy ExperimentPennsylvania was the last seventeenth-century colony to be established and was given to proprietor William Penn.A Quaker, Penn envisioned a colony of peaceful harmony between colonists and Indians and a haven for spiritual freedom.Quakers believed that liberty was a universal entitlement.Liberty extended to women, blacks, and Indians.Religious freedom was a fundamental principle.Quakers upheld a strict code of personal morality.Land in PennsylvaniaPenn established an appointed council to originate legislation and an assembly elected by male taxpayers and "freemen," which meant that a majority of the male population could vote.He owned all of the colony's land and sold it to settlers at low prices rather than granting it outright.Pennsylvania attracted immigrants from all over western Europe.Origins of American SlaveryThe spread of tobacco led settlers to turn to slavery, which offered many advantages over indentured servants.Englishmen and AfricansIn the seventeenth century, the concepts of race and racism had not fully developed.Africans were seen as alien in their color, religion, and social practices.Slavery in HistoryAlthough slavery has a long history, slavery in North America was markedly different.Slavery in the Americas was based on the plantation and the death rate was high in the seventeenth century.Slavery in the West IndiesBy 1600, huge sugar plantations worked by slaves from Africa were well-established in Brazil and in the West Indies.By 1600, disease had killed off the Indians, and white indentured servants were no longer willing to do the backbreaking work required on sugar plantations.Sugar was the first crop to be mass-marketed to consumers in Europe.Slavery and the LawThe line between slavery and freedom was more permeable in the seventeenth century than it would become later.Some free blacks were allowed to sue and testify in court.The Rise of Chesapeake SlaveryIt was not until the 1660s that the laws of Virginia and Maryland explicitly referred to slavery.A Virginia law of 1662 provided that in the case of a child born to one free parent and one slave parent, the status of the offspring followed that of the mother.In 1667 the Virginia House of Burgesses decreed that conversion to Christianity did not release a slave from bondage.Bacon's Rebellion: Land and Labor in VirginiaVirginia's shift from white indentured servants to African slaves as the main plantation labor force was accelerated by Bacon's Rebellion.Virginia's government ran a corrupt regime under Governor Berkeley.Good, free land was scarce for freed indentured servants.Nathaniel Bacon, an elite planter, called for the removal of all Indians, lower taxes, and an end to rule by "grandees." His campaign gained support from small farmers, indentured servants, landless men, and even some Africans.Bacon spoke of traditional English liberties.The rebellion's aftermath left Virginia's planter elite to consolidate their power and improve their image.A Slave SocietyBy the end of the seventeenth century, a number of factors made slave labor very attractive to English settlers; and slavery began to supplant indentured servitude between 1680 and 1700.By the early eighteenth century, Virginia had transformed from a society with slaves to a slave society.In 1705, the House of Burgesses enacted strict slave codes.From the start of American slavery, blacks ran away and desired freedom.Settlers were well aware that the desire for freedom could ignite the slaves to rebel.Colonies in CrisisThe Glorious RevolutionThe Glorious Revolution in 1688 established parliamentary supremacy and secured the Protestant succession to the throne.Rather than risk a Catholic succession through James II, a group of English aristocrats invited the Dutch Protestant William of Orange to assume the throne.The overthrow of James II entrenched the notion that liberty was the birthright of all Englishmen.Parliament issued a Bill of Rights (1689) guaranteeing individual rights such as trial by jury.Parliament adopted the Toleration Act (1690), which allowed Protestant Dissenters (but not Catholics) to worship freely, although only Anglicans could hold public office.The Glorious Revolution in AmericaIn 1675, England established the Lords of Trade to oversee colonial affairs, but the colonies were not interested in obeying London.To create wealth, between 1686 and 1685 James II created a "super-colony," the Dominion of New England.The new colony threatened liberties.News in America of the Glorious Revolution in England resulted in a reestablishment of former colonial governments.Lord Baltimore's charter for Maryland was revoked for mismanagement.Jacob Leisler, a Calvinist, took control of New York.Leisler was executed, and New York politics remained polarized for years.In New England, Plymouth was absorbed into Massachusetts, and the political structure of the Bible Commonwealth was transformed.Land ownership, not church membership, was required to vote.A governor was appointed in London rather than elected.The colony had to abide by the Toleration Act.The Salem Witch TrialsWitchcraft was widely believed in and punishable by execution.Most accused were women.In 1691, several girls suffered fits and nightmares, which were attributed to witchcraft.Three women, including a Caribbean slave named Tituba, were named as witches.Accusations snowballed; ultimately fourteen women and six men were executed before the governor halted all prosecutions.The Growth of Colonial AmericaA Diverse PopulationAs England's economy improved, large-scale migration was draining labor from the mother country.Efforts began to stop promotion of emigration.London believed colonial development bolstered the nation's power and wealth.50,000 convicts were sent to the Chesapeake to work in the tobacco fields.145,000 Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants came to North America.The German MigrationGermans, 110,000 in all, formed the largest group of newcomers from the European continent.Entire German families emigrated as "redemptioners."Religious DiversityIn eighteenth-century British America, ethnic groups tended to live and worship in relatively homogenous communities.Dissenting Protestants in most colonies gained the right to worship as they pleased in their own churches.Indian Life in TransitionIndian communities were well integrated into the British imperial system.Traders, British officials, and farmers all viewed Indians differently.The Walking Purchase of 1737 brought fraud to the Pennsylvania Indians.Regional DiversityThe backcountry was the most rapidly growing region in North America.Farmers in the older portions of the Middle Colonies enjoyed a standard of living unimaginable in Europe.Pennsylvania was known as "the best poor man's country."The Consumer RevolutionGreat Britain eclipsed the Dutch in the eighteenth century as the leader in trade.Eighteenth-century colonial society enjoyed a multitude of consumer goods.Colonial CitiesAlthough relatively small and few in number, port cities like Philadelphia were important.Cities served mainly as gathering places for agricultural goods and for imported items to be distributed to the countryside.The city was home to a large population of artisans.An Atlantic WorldTrade helped to create a web of interdependence among the European empires.Membership in the empire had many advantages for the colonists.Social Classes in the ColoniesThe Colonial EliteExpanding trade created the emergence of a powerful upper class of merchants.In the Chesapeake and Lower South, planters accumulated enormous wealth.America had no titled aristocracy or established social ranks.AnglicizationColonial elites began to think of themselves as more and more English.Desperate to follow an aristocratic lifestyle, wealthy Americans tried to model their lives on British etiquette and behavior.The tie that held the elite together was the belief that freedom from labor was the mark of the gentleman.Poverty in the ColoniesAlthough poverty was not as widespread in the colonies as it was in England, many colonists had to work as tenants or wage laborers because access to land diminished.Taking the colonies as a whole, half of the wealth at mid-century was concentrated in the hands of the richest 10 percent of the population.The better-off in society tended to view the poor as lazy and responsible for their own plight.The Middle RanksMany in the nonplantation South owned some land.By the eighteenth century, colonial farm families viewed land ownership almost as a right: the social precondition of freedom.Women and the Household EconomyThe family was the center of economic life, and all members contributed to the family's livelihood.In the eighteenth century, the division of labor along gender lines solidified.North America at Mid-CenturyAs compared to Europe, colonies were diverse, prosperous, and offered many liberties.CHAPTER 4Slavery, Freedom, And The Struggle For Empire, To 1763Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Olaudah Equiano]Slavery and EmpireAtlantic TradeA series of trade routes crisscrossed the Atlantic.Colonial merchants profited from the slave trade.Slavery became connected with the color black, and liberty with the color white.Africa and the Slave TradeWith the exception of the king of Benin, most African rulers took part in the slave trade.The slave trade was concentrated in western Africa, greatly disrupting its society and economy.The Middle PassageThe Middle Passage was the voyage across the Atlantic for slaves.Slaves were crammed aboard ships for maximum profit.Slave traders took the vast majority of slaves to Brazil and to the West Indies, where death rates were high.Less than 5 percent of African slaves went to what became the United States, but the slave population there increased steadily through natural reproduction.Chesapeake SlaveryThree distinct slave systems were well entrenched in Britain's mainland colonies:Tobacco-based plantation slavery in the ChesapeakeRice-based plantation slavery in South Carolina and GeorgiaNonplantation societies of New England and the Middle ColoniesSlavery transformed Chesapeake society into an elaborate hierarchy of degrees of freedom:Large plantersYeomen farmersIndentured servants and tenant farmersSlavesWith the consolidation of a slave society, planters enacted laws to protect their power over the slaves.The Rice KingdomSouth Carolinian and Georgian slavery rested on rice.Rice and indigo required large-scale cultivation (which was done by slaves).Under the task system, individual slaves did daily jobs, the completion of which allowed time for leisure or cultivation of their own crops.By 1770, the number of South Carolina slaves had reached 100,000-well over half the colony's population.The Georgia ExperimentGeorgia was established by a group of philanthropists led by James Oglethorpe in 1733.Oglethorpe had banned liquor and slaves, but the settlers demanded their right of self-government and repealed the bans by the early 1750s.Slavery in the NorthSince the economics of New England and the Middle Colonies were based on small farms, slavery was far less important.Given that slaves were few and posed no threat to the white majority, laws were less harsh than in the South.Slaves did represent a sizable percentage of urban laborers, particularly in New York and in Philadelphia.Slave Cultures and Slave ResistanceBecoming African-AmericanThe common link among Africans in America was not kinship, language, or even "race," but slavery itself.For most of the eighteenth century, the majority of American slaves were African by birth.African-American CulturesIn the Chesapeake, slaves learned English, participated in the Great Awakening, and were exposed to white culture.In South Carolina and Georgia, two very different black societies emerged:Communities on rice plantations retained significant African cultural elements (e.g., housing styles, child naming practices, language).Slaves in the cities of Charleston and Savannah assimilated more quickly into Euro-American culture.In the northern colonies, a distinctive African-American culture developed more slowly, and African-Americans enjoyed more access to the mainstream of life.Resistance to SlaveryA common thread among African-Americans was the desire for freedom.Many plantation slaves in South Carolina and Georgia ran away to Florida or to cities.The first eighteenth-century slave uprising occurred in New York City in 1712.The Stono Rebellion of 1739 in South Carolina led to the tightening of the slave code.A panic in 1741 swept New York City after a series of fires broke out that were rumored to have been part of a slave conspiracy to attack whites.An Empire of FreedomBritish PatriotismDespite the centrality of slavery to its empire, eighteenth-century Great Britain prided itself on being the world's most advanced and freest nation.Most Britons shared a common law, a common language, a common devotion to Protestantism, and a common enemy in France.Britons believed that wealth, religion, and freedom went together.The British ConstitutionCentral to this sense of British identity was the concept of liberty.Britons believed that no man was above the law, not even the king.The idea of liberty became increasingly identified with a general right to resist arbitrary government.Republican LibertyRepublicanism celebrated active participation in public life by economically independent citizens.Republicanism held virtue-meaning a willingness to subordinate self-interest to the public good-to be crucial in public life.Republicanism in Britain was associated with the Country Party, which criticized Britain's loss of virtue.Liberal FreedomLiberalism was strongly influenced by the philosopher John Locke.Lockean ideas included individual rights, the consent of the governed, and the right of rebellion against unjust or oppressive government.Locke's ideas excluded many from freedom's full benefits in the eighteenth century, but they opened the door for many to challenge the limitations on their own freedom later.Republicanism and liberalism eventually reinforced each other.The Public SphereThe Right to VoteIn Britain, ownership of property was a common qualifier for voting.Suffrage was much more common in the colonies than in Britain.Political CulturesConsiderable power was held by those with appointive, not elective, offices.Property qualifications for officeholding were far higher than for voting.Deference-the notion among ordinary people that wealth, education, and social prominence carried a right to public office-limited choices in elections.The Rise of the AssembliesElected assemblies became more assertive in colonial politics during the eighteenth century.The colonial elected assemblies exercised great influence over governors and other appointed officials.Leaders of the assemblies drew on the writings of the English Country Party.Politics in PublicThe American gentry were very active in the discussion of politics, particularly through clubs.The Colonial PressWidespread literacy and the proliferation of newspapers encouraged political discourse.Circulating libraries contributed to the dissemination of information.Freedom of Expression and Its LimitsFreedom of speech was a relatively new idea.Freedom of the press was generally viewed as dangerous.After 1695, the government could not censor print material, and colonial newspapers defended freedom of the press as a central component of liberty.The Trial of ZengerNewspaper publisher John Peter Zenger went on trial in 1735 for seditious libel, for criticizing New York's governor.He was found not guilty.The outcome promoted the idea that publishing the truth should always be permitted and demonstrated that free expression was becoming ingrained in the popular imagination.The American EnlightenmentAmericans sought to apply to political and social life the scientific method of careful investigation based on research and experiment.Belief in Deism (the notion that because God set up natural laws to govern the universe, following the act of creation, God did not intervene in the world) embodied the spirit of the American Enlightenment.The Great AwakeningReligious RevivalsThe Great Awakening was a series of local events united by a commitment to a more emotional and personal Christianity than that offered by existing churches.The Great Awakening was led by flamboyant preachers like Jonathan Edwards, whose Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God stressed the need for humans to seek divine grace.The Preaching of WhitefieldThe English minister George Whitefield is often credited with sparking the Great Awakening.The Awakening's ImpactThe Great Awakening enlarged the boundaries of liberty as Old Lights (traditionalists) and New Lights (revivalists) defended their right to worship.The Great Awakening inspired criticism of many aspects of colonial society.A few preachers explicitly condemned slavery.Imperial RivalriesSpanish North AmericaA vast territorial empire on paper, Spanish North America actually consisted of a few small and isolated urban clusters.Despite establishing religious missions and presidios, the Spanish population in Spain's North American empire remained relatively small and sparse.The Spanish in CaliforniaSpain ordered the colonization of California in response to a perceived Russian threat.Jun?pero Serra founded the first mission in San Diego in 1769.California was a mission frontier.The French EmpireThe French empire in the eighteenth century expanded in Canada.The French tended to view North America as a place of cruel exile for criminals and social outcasts.Battle for the ContinentThe Middle GroundIndians were constantly being pushed from their homes into a "middle ground" between European empires and Indian sovereignty.The government of Virginia gave an immense land grant in 1749 to the Ohio Company.The Seven Years' WarThe war began in 1754 as the British tried to dislodge the French from western Pennsylvania.The war went against the British until 1757, when William Pitt became British prime minister and turned the tide of battle.In 1759, a French army was defeated near Quebec.A World TransformedThe Peace of Paris in 1763 resulted in the expulsion of France from North America.The Seven Years' War put future financial strains on all the participants.Pontiac's RebellionWith the removal of the French, the balance-of-power diplomacy that had enabled groups like the Iroquois to maintain a significant degree of autonomy was eliminated.In 1763, Indians in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes launched a revolt against British rule.Neolin championed a pan-Indian identity.The Proclamation LineTo avoid further Indian conflicts, London issued the Proclamation of 1763, which banned white settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.The Proclamation enraged settlers and land speculators hoping to take advantage of the expulsion of the French.Pennsylvania and the IndiansThe war deepened the hostility of western Pennsylvanian farmers toward Indians and witnessed numerous indiscriminate assaults on Indian communities.After the Paxton Boys marched on Philadelphia, the governor ordered the expulsion of much of the Indian population from Pennsylvania.Colonial IdentitiesThe colonists emerged from the Seven Years' War with a strengthened pride in being members of the British empire.CHAPTER 5The American Revolution, 1763-1783Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Thomas Hutchinson]The Crisis BeginsConsolidating the EmpireDuring the Seven Years' War, Britain treated the colonies as their ally.After the Seven Years' War, London insisted that the colonists play a subordinate role to the mother country and help pay for the protection the British provided.Members of the British Parliament had virtual representation.The colonists argued London could not tax them because they were underrepresented in Parliament.Taxing the ColoniesThe Sugar Act of 1764 and a revenue act threatened the profits of colonial merchants.The Stamp Act of 1765 was a direct tax on all sorts of printed materials.The act was wide-reaching and offended virtually every free colonist.Opposition to the Stamp Act was the first great drama of the Revolutionary era and the first major split between the colonists and Great Britain over the meaning of freedom.Taxation and RepresentationAmerican leaders viewed the British empire as an association of equals in which free settlers overseas enjoyed the same rights as Britons at home.The Stamp Act Congress met in 1765 to endorse Virginia's House of Burgesses' resolutions.Patrick HenryLiberty and ResistanceNo word was more frequently invoked by critics of the Stamp Act than "liberty."Liberty TreeA Committee of Correspondence was created in Boston and other colonies to exchange ideas about resistance.The Sons of Liberty were organized to resist the Stamp Act and to enforce a boycott of British goods.London repealed the Stamp Act, but issued the Declaratory Act.The RegulatorsTwo groups in the Carolinas were known as Regulators in the 1760s.The South Carolina Regulators consisted of wealthy backcountry residents who protested their underrepresentation in the colonial assembly and the lack of local governments.The North Carolina Regulators mobilized small farmers upset with corrupt local government run by elites.The North Carolina militia defeated the North Carolina Regulators at the battle of Alamance (1771), which ended their protests.The Road to RevolutionThe Townshend CrisisThe 1767 Townshend Act imposed taxes on imported goods.By 1768, colonies were again boycotting British goods.Rather than rely on British goods, colonists relied on homespun clothing; use of American goods came to be seen as a symbol of American resistance.Urban artisans strongly supported the boycott.The Boston MassacreThe March 1770 conflict between Bostonians and British troops left five Bostonians, including a mixed-race sailor named Crispus Attucks, dead.The boycott ended after the Townshend duties were repealed, leaving only a tax on tea.Wilkes and LibertyThe treatment of John Wilkes and the rumors of Anglican bishops being sent to America convinced many settlers that England was succumbing to the same pattern of political corruption and decline of liberty that afflicted other countries.The Tea ActThe East India Company was in financial crisis, and the British government decided to market the company's Chinese tea in North America.The Tea Act was intended to aid the East India Company and to defray the costs of colonial government.December 16, 1773: colonists threw more than 300 chests of tea into the Boston Harbor.The Intolerable ActsLondon's response to the Bostonians' action was swift and harsh with the so-called Intolerable Acts.The Quebec Act granted religious toleration for Catholics in Canada.The Coming of IndependenceThe Continental CongressTo resist the Intolerable Acts, a Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia in 1774.The Continental AssociationThe Congress adopted the Continental Association, which called for an almost complete halt to trade with Great Britain and the West mittees of Safety were established to enforce the boycotts.The Committees of Safety enlarged the political nation.The Sweets of LibertyBy 1775, talk of liberty pervaded the colonies.As the crisis deepened, Americans increasingly based their claims not simply on the historical rights of Englishmen but on the more abstract language of natural rights and universal freedom.John LockeThomas JeffersonThe Outbreak of WarIn April 1775, war broke out at Lexington and Concord.The Battle of Bunker Hill was a British victory, but the colonists forced General Howe from Boston by March 1776.The Second Continental Congress raised an army and appointed George Washington its commander.Independence?That the goal of this war was independence was not clear by the end of 1775.Opinions varied in the colonies as to the question of independence.Paine's Common SenseThomas Paine published Common Sense in January 1776, which criticized monarchy and aristocracy.Paine deemed absurd a small island ruling a continent.Paine tied the economic hopes of the new nation to the idea of commercial freedom.Paine argued that America would become a haven for liberty, "an asylum for mankind."Paine dramatically expanded the public sphere where political discussion took place.He pioneered a new style of political writing, engaging a far greater audience than anyone before him.His persuasions led the Second Continental Congress to sever the colonies' ties with Great Britain.The Declaration of IndependenceThe Declaration of Independence declared the United States an independent nation.Jefferson's preamble gave the Declaration its enduring impact.The Declaration of Independence completed the shift from the rights of Englishmen to the rights of mankind as the object of American independence.The "pursuit of happiness" was unique.An Asylum for MankindThe idea of "American exceptionalism" was prevalent in the Revolution.The Global Declaration of IndependenceAlthough for most Americans winning international recognition for their independence trumped concern for global human rights, Thomas Jefferson hoped the Declaration would inspire others to claim liberty and self-government.Numerous anticolonial movements, such as Vietnam in 1945, have modeled their own declarations of independence on America's.The Declaration's principle that political authority rests on the will of "the people" has been influential around the world.Securing IndependenceThe Balance of PowerBritain had the advantage of a large, professional army and navy.Patriots had the advantages of fighting on their own soil and a passionate desire for freedom.Blacks in the RevolutionGeorge Washington accepted black recruits after Lord Dunmore's proclamation offered freedom to slaves who fought for the British.Five thousand African-Americans enlisted in state militias and the Continental army and navy.Some slaves gained freedom by serving in place of an owner.Siding with the British offered slaves far more opportunities for liberty.The First Years of the WarThe war initially went badly for Washington; many of his troops went home.Washington managed a successful surprise attack on Trenton and Princeton.The Battle of SaratogaThe Battle of Saratoga in October 1777 gave the patriots a victory and boost to morale.The victory convinced the French to aid the Americans in 1778.The War in the SouthThe focus of the war shifted to the South in 1778.British commanders were unable to consolidate their hold on the South.Victory at LastAmerican and French troops surrounded General Cornwallis at Yorktown, where he surrendered in October 1781.The Treaty of Paris was signed in September 1783.The American delegation was made up of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay.CHAPTER 6The Revolution WithinChapter Study Outline[Introduction: Abigail Adams]Democratizing FreedomThe Dream of EqualityThe Revolution unleashed public debates and political and social struggles that enlarged the scope of freedom and challenged inherited structures of power within America.The principle of hereditary aristocracy was rejected.The Declaration of Independence's assertion that "all men are created equal" announced a radical principle whose full implications could not be anticipated.American freedom became linked with equality, which challenged the fundamental inequality inherent in the colonial social order.Expanding the Political NationThe democratization of freedom was dramatic for free men.Artisans, small farmers, laborers, and the militia all emerged as self-conscious elements in politics.The Revolution in PennsylvaniaThe prewar elite of Pennsylvania opposed independence.This left a vacuum of political leadership filled by a new pro-independence grouping.Pennsylvania's 1776 constitution sought to institutionalize democracy in a number of ways, including:Establishing an annually elected, one-house legislatureAllowing tax-paying (not just property-owning) men to voteAbolishing the office of governorThe New ConstitutionsEach state wrote a new constitution and all agreed that their governments must be republics.One-house legislatures were adopted only by Pennsylvania, Georgia, and Vermont.John Adams's "balanced governments" included two-house legislatures.The Right to VoteThe property qualification for suffrage was hotly debated.The least democratization occurred in the southern states, where highly deferential political traditions enabled the landed gentry to retain their control of political affairs.By the 1780s, with the exceptions of Virginia, Maryland, and New York, a large majority of the adult white male population could meet voting requirements.Freedom and an individual's right to vote had become interchangeable.Toward Religious TolerationCatholic AmericansJoining forces with France and inviting Quebec to join in the struggle against Britain had weakened anti-Catholicism.Separating Church and StateMany believed that religion was necessary as a foundation of public morality, but were skeptical of religious doctrine.The drive to separate church and state brought together Deists with members of evangelical sects.The seven state constitutions that began with declarations of rights all included a commitment to "the free exercise of religion."Many states still limited religious freedoms (e.g., barring Jews from voting and holding office, except in New York; or publicly financing religious institutions, such as in Massachusetts).Catholics gained the right to worship without persecution throughout the states.Jefferson and Religious LibertyThomas Jefferson's Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom separated church and state.James Madison insisted that one reason for the complete separation of church and state was to reinforce the principle that the new nation offered "asylum to the persecuted and oppressed of every nation and religion."Thanks to religious freedom, the early republic witnessed an amazing proliferation of religious denominations.A Virtuous CitizenryLeaders wished to encourage virtue-the ability to sacrifice self-interest for the public good.Defining Economic FreedomToward Free LaborThe lack of freedom inherent in apprenticeship and servitude increasingly came to be seen as incompatible with republican citizenship.By 1800, indentured servitude had all but disappeared from the United States.The distinction between freedom and slavery sharpened.The Soul of a RepublicTo most free Americans, equality meant equal opportunity rather than equality of condition.Thomas Jefferson and others equated land and economic resources with freedom.The Politics of InflationSome Americans responded to wartime inflation by accusing merchants of hoarding goods and by seizing stocks of food to be sold at the traditional "just price."The Debate over Free TradeCongress urged states to adopt measures to fix wages and prices.Adam Smith's argument that the "invisible hand" of the free market directed economic life more effectively and fairly than governmental intervention offered intellectual justification for those who believed that the economy should be left to regulate itself.The Limits of LibertyColonial LoyalistsAn estimated 20 to 25 percent of Americans were Loyalists (those who retained their allegiance to the crown).Loyalists included:Wealthy men with close working relationships with BritainEthnic minorities fearful of losing to local majorities their freedom to enjoy cultural autonomyMany southern backcountry farmers and New York tenants who opposed wealthy planter patriots and landlord patriots, respectivelyThe Loyalists' PlightThe War for Independence was in some respects a civil war among Americans.War brought a deprivation of basic rights to many Americans.Many states required residents to take oaths of allegiance to the new nation.When the war ended, as many as 100,000 Loyalists were banished from the United States or emigrated voluntarily.The Indians' RevolutionAmerican independence meant the loss of freedom for Indians.Indians were divided in allegiance during the War of Independence.Both the British and Americans were guilty of savagery toward the Indians during the war.To many patriots, access to Indian land was one of the fruits of American victory.Liberty for whites meant loss of liberty for IndiansThe Treaty of Paris marked the culmination of a century in which the balance of power in eastern North America shifted away from the Indians and toward white Americans.Slavery and the RevolutionThe Language of Slavery and FreedomDuring the debates over British rule, "slavery" was primarily a political category.The irony that America cried for liberty while enslaving Africans was recognized by some (e.g., the British statesman Edmund Burke and the British writer Dr. Samuel Johnson).Obstacles to AbolitionSome patriots argued that slavery for blacks made freedom possible for whites.The Cause of General LibertyBy defining freedom as a universal entitlement rather than as a set of rights specific to a particular place or people, the Revolution inevitably raised questions about the status of slavery in the new nation.Samuel Sewall's The Selling of Joseph (1700) was the first antislavery tract in America.In 1773, Benjamin Rush warned that slavery was a "national crime" that would bring "national punishment."Petitions for FreedomSlaves in the North and in the South appropriated the language of liberty for their own purposes.Slaves presented "freedom petitions" in New England in the early 1770s.Many blacks were surprised that white America did not realize their rhetoric of revolution demanded emancipation.The poems of Phillis Wheatley, a slave in Boston, often spoke of freedom.British EmancipatorsNearly 100,000 slaves deserted their owners and fled to British lines.At the end of the war, over 15,000 blacks accompanied the British out of the country.Many ended up in Nova Scotia, England, and Sierra Leone, a West African settlement established by Britain for former U.S. slaves.Some were re-enslaved in the West Indies.Voluntary EmancipationsFor a brief moment, the revolutionary upheaval appeared to threaten the continued existence of slavery as some slaveholders, primarily in the Upper South, provided for the emancipation of their slaves.Abolition in the NorthBetween 1777 and 1804, every state north of Maryland took steps toward emancipation.Abolition in the North was a slow process and typically applied only to future children of current slave women.Free Black CommunitiesAfter the war, free black communities with their own churches, schools, and leaders came into existence.Despite the rhetoric of freedom, the war did not end slavery for blacks.Daughters of LibertyRevolutionary WomenMany women participated in the war in various capacities.Deborah Sampson, for example, dressed as a man and enlisted in the Continental army.Within American households, women participated in the political discussions unleashed by independence."Coverture" (which meant a husband held legal authority over his wife) remained intact in the new nation.In both law and social reality, women lacked the opportunity for autonomy (based on ownership of property or control of one's own person) and hence lacked the essential qualification of political participation.Republican MotherhoodWomen played a key role in the new republic by training future citizens.The idea of Republican motherhood reinforced the trend toward the idea of "companionate" marriage.The Arduous Struggle for LibertyThe Revolution changed the life of virtually every American.America became a beacon of hope to those chafing under Old World tyrannies.The idea that "the people" possessed rights was quickly internationalizedCHAPTER 7Founding A Nation, 1783-1789Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Ratification Celebrations]America under the ConfederationThe Articles of ConfederationThe first written constitution of the United StatesOne-house CongressNo presidentNo judiciaryThe only powers granted to the national government were those for declaring war, conducting foreign affairs, and making treaties.Congress, Settlers, and the WestCongress established national control over land to the west of the thirteen states and devised rules for its settlement.In the immediate aftermath of independence, Congress took the position that by aiding the British, Indians had forfeited the right to their lands.Congress faced conflicting pressures from settlers and land speculators regarding western development.Peace brought rapid settlement into frontier areas.Leaders feared unregulated flow of settlement across the Appalachian Mountains could provoke constant warfare with the Indians.The Land OrdinancesThe Ordinance of 1784 established stages of self-government for the West.The Ordinance of 1785 regulated land sales in the region north of the Ohio River and established the township system there.Like the British before them, American officials found it difficult to regulate the thirst for new land.The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established policy that admitted the area's population as equal members of the political system.The Confederation's WeaknessesThe war created an economic crisis that the Confederation government could not adequately address.With Congress unable to act, the states adopted their own economic policies.Shays's RebellionFacing seizure of their land, debt-ridden farmers closed the courts in western Massachusetts.They modeled their protests on those of the Revolutionary era, using liberty trees.Shays's Rebellion convinced many of the need for a stronger central government to protect property rights (a form of private liberty) from too much power in the hands of the people.Nationalists of the 1780sNation builders like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton called for increased national authority.The concerns voiced by critics of the Articles found a sympathetic hearing among men who had developed a national consciousness during the Revolution.At a meeting in Annapolis (September 1786), delegates called for a convention to amend the Articles of Confederation in order to avoid anarchy and monarchy.A New ConstitutionThe Structure of GovernmentProminent wealthy and well-educated men took part in the Constitutional Convention.Delegates quickly agreed the Constitution would create a legislature, an executive, and a national judiciary.The key to stable, effective republican government was finding a way to balance the competing claims of liberty and power.A compromise over the shape of Congress emerged from debates over the Virginia and New Jersey Plans.Virginia Plan (favored by more populous states): two-house legislature where state's population determined representation in both housesNew Jersey Plan (favored by smaller states): one-house legislature in which each state cast one voteCompromise: two-house Congress consisting of Senate (each state had two members) and House of Representatives (apportioned according to states' populations)The Limits of DemocracyThe Constitution left the determination of voter qualifications to the states.The new government was based on a limited democracy.Federal judges would be appointed by the president.The president would be elected by an electoral college, or, in the case of a tie in that body, by the House of Representatives.The Division and Separation of PowersThe Constitution embodies federalism and a system of checks and balances.Federalism refers to the relationship between the national government and the states.The separation of powers, or the system of checks and balances, refers to the way the Constitution seeks to prevent any branch of the national government from dominating the other two.The Debate over SlaverySlavery divided the delegates.The words "slave" and "slavery" did not appear in the Constitution, but it did provide for slavery.The South Carolinian delegates proved very influential in preserving slavery within the Constitution.Slavery in the ConstitutionThe Constitution prevented Congress from prohibiting the slave trade until 1808.The fugitive slave clause made clear that the condition of bondage remained attached to a person even if he or she escaped to a free area, and it required all states to help police the institution of slavery.The federal government could not interfere with slavery in the states.Slave states had more power due to the three-fifths clause.The Final DocumentDelegates signed the final draft on September 17, 1787.The Constitution created a new framework for American development.The Ratification Debate and the Origin of the Bill of RightsThe FederalistNine of the thirteen states had to ratify the document.The Federalist was published to generate support for ratification.Hamilton argued the Constitution had created "the perfect balance between liberty and power.""Extend the Sphere"Madison had a new vision of the relationship between government and society in Federalist no. 10 and no. 51.Madison argued that the large size of the United States was a source of stability, not weakness.Madison helped to popularize the liberal idea that men are generally motivated by self-interest and that the good of society arises from the clash of these private interests.The Anti-FederalistsAnti-Federalists, who opposed ratification, argued that the republic had to be small and warned that the Constitution would result in an oppressive government."Liberty" was the Anti-Federalists' watchword.They argued for a Bill of Rights.Federalists tended to be men of substantial property, urban dwellers seeking prosperity, and rural residents tied to the commercial marketplace.Anti-Federalists drew support from small farmers in more isolated rural areas (e.g., New York's Hudson Valley, western Massachusetts, the southern backcountry).Federalists dominated the press, which helped them carry the day.Madison won support for the Constitution by promising a bill of rights later.By mid-1788, the required nine states had ratified.Only Rhode Island and North Carolina voted against ratification, but they eventually joined the new government.The Bill of RightsMadison believed the Constitution would protect liberty without the addition of a bill of rights.Still, to satisfy the Constitution's critics, Madison introduced a bill of rights to the first Congress.Some rights, such as the prohibiting of excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishments, reflected English roots, while others, such as the recognition of religious freedom, were uniquely American.Among the most important rights were freedom of speech and of the press, vital building blocks of a democratic public sphere."We the People"National IdentityThe Constitution identifies three populations inhabiting the United States:Indians"Other persons," which meant slaves"People," who were the only ones entitled to American freedomIndians in the New NationIndian tribes had no representation in the new government.The treaty system was used with Indians, and Congress forbade the transfer of Indian land without federal approval.The U.S. victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers led to the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.Under this treaty, twelve Indian tribes ceded most of Ohio and Indiana to the United States.The treaty established the annuity system-yearly grants of federal money to Indian tribes that led to continuing U.S. government influence in tribal affairs.Some prominent Americans believed that Indians could assimilate into society.Assimilation meant transforming traditional Indian life.Blacks and the RepublicThe status of citizenship for free blacks was left to individual states.Crèvecoeur's Letters from an American Farmer described America as a melting pot of Europeans.Like Crèvecoeur, many white Americans excluded blacks from their conception of the American people.The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited naturalization (the process by which immigrants become citizens) to "free white persons."Jefferson, Slavery, and RaceJohn Locke and others maintained that reason was essential to having liberty.Many white Americans did not consider blacks to be rational beings.Jefferson's Notes on the State of Virginia claimed blacks lacked self-control, reason, and devotion to the larger community.Jefferson did not think any group was fixed permanently in a status of inferiority.Some prominent Virginians believed black Americans could not become part of the America nation.Principles of FreedomThe Revolution widened the divide between free Americans and those who remained in slavery."We the people" increasingly meant white Americans.CHAPTER 8Securing The Republic, 1790-1815Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: George Washington's Inauguration]Politics in an Age of PassionHamilton's ProgramAs secretary of the treasury, Alexander Hamilton's long-range goal was to make the United States a major commercial and military power.His program had five parts:Create creditworthiness by assuming state debtsCreate a new national debtCreate a bank of the United StatesTax producers of whiskeyImpose tariffs and provide government subsidies to industriesThe Emergence of OppositionOpposition to Hamilton's plan was voiced by James Madison and Thomas Jefferson.Hamilton's plan depended on a close relationship with Britain.Opponents believed the United States' future lay westward, not with Britain.The Jefferson-Hamilton BargainAt first, opposition to Hamilton's program arose almost entirely from the South.Hamilton argued the "general welfare" clause of the Constitution justified his program.Jefferson insisted on "strict construction" of the Constitution, which meant the federal government could only exercise powers specifically listed in that document.Jefferson agreed southerners would accept Hamilton's plan in exchange for placing the national capital on the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia.The Impact of the French RevolutionThe French Revolution became very radical by 1793, and France went to war with Britain.George Washington declared American neutrality.Jay's Treaty abandoned any American alliance with France by positioning the United States close to Britain.Political PartiesThe Federalist Party supported Washington and Hamilton's economic plan and close ties with Britain.Freedom rested on deference to authority.The Whiskey RebellionThe Whiskey Rebellion of 1794 proved to Federalists that democracy in the hands of ordinary citizens was dangerous.The Republican PartyRepublicans were more sympathetic to France and had more faith in democratic self-government.Political language became more and more heated.An Expanding Public SphereThe political debates of the 1790s expanded the public sphere.Newspapers and pamphlets were a primary vehicle for political debate.Supporters of the French Revolution and critics of the Washington administration formed nearly fifty Democratic-Republican Societies in 1793-1794.The societies argued that political liberty meant not simply voting at elections but also constant involvement in public affairs.The Rights of WomenThe expansion of the public sphere offered women an opportunity to take part in political discussions, read newspapers, and hear orations.Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of WomenJudith Sargent MurrayA common call was for greater educational opportunities.Although politics was a realm for men, the American Revolution had deepened the democratization of public life.The Adams PresidencyThe Election of 1796Adams won with seventy-one electoral votes and Jefferson became vice president with sixty-eight electoral votes.His presidency was beset by crises.Quasi-war with FranceFries's RebellionThe "Reign of Witches"The Alien and Sedition Acts limited civil liberties.The main target was the Republican press.The Virginia and Kentucky ResolutionsThe Sedition Act thrust freedom of expression to the center of discussions of American liberty.No other state endorsed the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions.The "Revolution of 1800"Jefferson defeated Adams in the 1800 presidential campaign.A constitutional crisis emerged with the election.Twelfth AmendmentHamilton-Burr duelAdams's acceptance of defeat established the vital precedent of a peaceful transfer of power from a defeated party to its successor.Slavery and PoliticsJefferson's election as president was aided by the three-fifths clause, which gave a disproportionate number of electoral votes to southern states.The First Congress received petitions calling for emancipation, which set off a long sectional debate in that body.In 1793, Congress adopted a law to enforce the Constitution's fugitive slave clause.The Haitian RevolutionEvents during the 1790s underscored how powerfully slavery defined and distorted American freedom.A successful slave uprising led by Toussaint L'Ouverture established Haiti as an independent nation in 1804.Gabriel's RebellionA slave rebellion was attempted in Virginia in 1800.The conspiracy was rooted in Richmond's black community.Gabriel spoke the language of liberty forged in the American Revolution and reinvigorated during the 1790s.Virginia's slave laws became stricter.Jefferson in PowerJefferson's inaugural address was conciliatory toward his opponents.However, he hoped to dismantle as much of the Federalist system as possible.Judicial ReviewJohn Marshall's Supreme Court established the Court's power to review laws of Congress and of the states (judicial review).Marbury v. Madison (1803) established the precedent of the Court's power of judicial review relative to federal laws.Fletcher v. Peck (1810) extended judicial review to state laws.The Louisiana PurchaseTo purchase Louisiana, Jefferson had to abandon his conviction that the federal government was limited to powers specifically mentioned in the Constitution.Jefferson's concern with the territory was over trade through New Orleans.Jefferson asserted that the additional territory would allow the republic to remain agrarian and therefore virtuous.Lewis and ClarkLewis and Clark's object was both scientific and commercial.Their journey from 1804 to 1806 brought invaluable information and paved the way for a transcontinental country.Incorporating LouisianaIn 1803, New Orleans was the only part of the Louisiana Purchase territory with a significant non-Indian population.Louisiana's slaves had enjoyed far more freedom under the rule of Spain than they would as part of the liberty-loving United States.The Barbary WarsJefferson hoped to avoid foreign entanglements.Barbary pirates from North Africa demanded bribes from American ships.Because Jefferson refused to increase payments to the pirates, the United States and Tripoli engaged in a naval conflict that ended with American victory in 1804.The EmbargoWar between France and Great Britain hurt American trade.The Embargo Act resulted in a crippled U.S. economy.Replaced with the Non-Intercourse ActMadison and Pressure for WarMacon's Bill no. 2 allowed trade to resume.The War Hawks called for war against Britain.Wished to annex CanadaThe "Second War for Independence"The Indian ResponseThe period from 1800 to 1812 was an "age of prophecy" among Indians as they sought to revitalize Indian life.Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa tried to revive a pan-Indian movement and unite against white Americans.William Henry Harrison destroyed Prophetstown at the Battle of Tippecanoe (1811).The War of 1812Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war.The government found it difficult to finance the war.Americans enjoyed few military successes.Andrew Jackson achieved the war's greatest victory at New Orleans in January 1815.Peace officially came with the Treaty of Ghent in December 1814, although news of it did not arrive until after the Battle of New Orleans.The War's AftermathThe war confirmed the ability of a Republican government to conduct a war without surrendering its institutions.The End of the Federalist PartyA casualty of the war was the Federalist Party.Hartford ConventionCHAPTER 9The Market Revolution, 1800-1840Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: The Marquis de Lafayette]A New EconomyRoads and SteamboatsImprovements in transportation lowered costs and linked farmers to markets.Improved water transportation most dramatically increased the speed and lowered the expense of commerce.The Erie CanalThe canal was completed in 1825 and made New York City a major trade port.The state-funded canal typified funding for internal improvements.Railroads and the TelegraphRailroads opened the frontier to settlement and linked markets.The telegraph introduced a communication revolution.The Rise of the WestImprovements in transportation and communication made possible the rise of the West as a powerful, self-conscious region of the new nation.People traveled in groups and cooperated with each other to clear land, build houses and barns, and establish communities.Squatters set up farms on unoccupied land.Many Americans settled without regard to national boundaries.FloridaThe Cotton KingdomThe market revolution and westward expansion heightened the nation's sectional divisions.The rise of cotton production came with Eli Whitney's cotton gin.The cotton gin revolutionized American slavery.Slave trading became a well-organized business.Slave cofflesHistorians estimate that around 1 million slaves were shifted from the older slave states to the Deep South between 1800 and 1860.Market SocietyCommercial FarmersThe Northwest became a region with an integrated economy of commercial farms and manufacturing cities.Farmers grew crops and raised livestock for sale.The East provided a source of credit and a market.John Deere's steel plow made possible the rapid subduing of the western prairies.The Growth of CitiesCities formed part of the western frontier.CincinnatiChicagoThe nature of work shifted from that of the skilled artisan to that of the factory worker.The Factory SystemSamuel Slater established America's first factory in 1790.It was based on an outwork system.The first large-scale American factory was constructed in 1814 at Waltham, Massachusetts.LowellThe American System of manufactures relied on the mass production of interchangeable parts that could be rapidly assembled into standardized, finished products.The "Mill Girls"Early New England textile mills largely relied on female labor.The Growth of ImmigrationEconomic expansion fueled a demand for labor, which was met, in part, by increased immigration from abroad.Ireland and GermanyMany settled in the northern states.Numerous factors inspired this massive flow of population across the Atlantic.European economic conditionsIntroduction of the ocean-going steamshipAmerican religious and political freedoms also attracted many Europeans fleeing from the failed revolutions of 1848.The Irish were refugees from disaster, fleeing the Irish potato famine.They filled many low-wage unskilled jobs in America.German immigrants included a considerably larger number of skilled craftsmen as compared to Irish immigrants.Many Germans established themselves in the West, including Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee or the "German Triangle."The Rise of NativismThe influx of Irish during the 1840s and 1850s led to violent anti-immigrant backlash in New York City and Philadelphia.Those who feared the impact of immigration on American political and social life were called "nativists." They blamed immigrants for:Urban crimePolitical corruptionAlcohol abusesUndercutting wagesThe Transformation of LawThe corporate form of business organization became central to the new market economy.Many Americans distrusted corporate charters as a form of government-granted special privilege.The Supreme Court ruled on many aspects of corporations and employer/employee rights.The Free IndividualThe West and FreedomAmerican freedom had long been linked to the availability of land in the West.Manifest DestinyIn national myth and ideology the West would long remain "the last home of the freeborn American."The West was vital for economic independence, the social condition of freedom.The TranscendentalistsRalph Waldo Emerson believed that freedom was an open-ended process of self-realization by which individuals could remake themselves and their own lives.Henry David Thoreau worried that the market revolution actually stifled individual judgment; genuine freedom lay within the individual.WaldenThe Second Great AwakeningThe Second Great Awakening added a religious underpinning to the celebration of personal self-improvement, self-reliance, and self-determination.The Reverend Charles Grandison Finney became a national celebrity for his preaching in upstate New York.The Second Great Awakening democratized American Christianity.Proliferation of ministersEvangelical denominations (e.g., Methodists and Baptists) grew tremendously.The Awakening's ImpactPromoted the doctrine of human free willRevivalist ministers seized the opportunities offered by the market revolution to spread their message.The Limits of ProsperityLiberty and ProsperityOpportunities for the "self-made man" abounded.The market revolution produced a new middle class.Race and OpportunityFree blacks were excluded from the new economic opportunities.Barred from schools and other public facilities, free blacks laboriously constructed their own institutional life.African Methodist Episcopal ChurchFree blacks were confined to the lowest ranks of the labor market.Free blacks were not allowed access to public land in the West.The Cult of DomesticityA new definition of femininity emerged based on values like love, friendship, and mutual obligation.Women were to find freedom in fulfilling their duties within their sphere.Women and WorkOnly low-paying jobs were available to women.Domestic servants, factory workers, and seamstressesNot working outside the home became a badge of respectability for women.Freedom was freedom from labor.Although middle-class women did not work outside the home, they did much work as wives and mothers.The Early Labor MovementSome felt the market revolution reduced their freedom.Economic swings widened the gap between classes.The first Workingman's Parties were established in the 1820s.By the 1830s, strikes had become commonplace.The "Liberty of Living"Wage workers evoked "liberty" when calling for improvements in the workplace.Some described wage labor as the very essence of slavery.Economic security formed an essential part of American freedom.CHAPTER 10Democracy In America, 1815-1840Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Andrew Jackson]The Triumph of DemocracyProperty and DemocracyBy 1860, all but one state had eliminated property requirements for voting.The Dorr WarRhode Island had property qualifications for voting in 1841.Because propertyless wage earners (e.g., factory workers) could not vote, the state's labor movement pushed for reform at the People's Convention (October 1841).This extralegal convention adopted a new state constitution that enfranchised all white men.Reformers inaugurated Thomas Dorr as governor.President Tyler sent in federal troops and the Dorr movement collapsed.Tocqueville on DemocracyBy 1840, more than 90 percent of adult white men were eligible to vote.Democratic political institutions came to define the nation's sense of its own identity.Tocqueville identified democracy as an essential attribute of American freedom.The Information RevolutionSteam power helped the proliferation of the penny press.Reduction in printing costs also resulted in alternative newspapers.The Limits of DemocracyThe "principle of universal suffrage" meant that "white males of age constituted the political nation."How could the word "universal" be reconciled with barring blacks and women from political participation?A Racial DemocracyDespite increased democracy in America, blacks were seen as a group apart.Blacks were often portrayed as stereotypes.Blacks were not allowed to vote in most states.In effect, race had replaced class as the boundary that separated those American men who were entitled to enjoy political freedom from those who were not.Nationalism and Its DiscontentsThe American SystemA new manufacturing sector emerged from the War of 1812, and many believed that it was a necessary complement to the agricultural sector for national growth.In 1815, President James Madison put forward a blueprint for government-promoted economic development that came to be known as the American System.New national bankTariffsFederal financing for better roads and canals ("internal improvements")President Madison became convinced that allowing the national government to exercise powers not mentioned in the Constitution would prove dangerous to individual liberty and southern interests.Banks and MoneyThe Second Bank of the United States was a profit-making corporation that served the government.Local banks promoted economic growth.The Bank of the United States was supposed to prevent the overissuance of money.The Panic of 1819The Bank of the United States participated in a speculative fever that swept the country after the War of 1812 ended.Early in 1819, as European demand for American farm products returned to normal levels, the economic bubble burst.The Panic of 1819 disrupted the political harmony of the previous years.Americans continued to distrust banks.The Supreme Court ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland that the Bank of the United States was constitutional.The Missouri ControversyJames Monroe's two terms as president were characterized by the absence of two-party competition ("The Era of Good Feelings").The absence of political party disputes was replaced by sectional disputes.Missouri petitioned for statehood in 1819.Debate arose over slavery.The Missouri Compromise was adopted by Congress in 1820.Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slave state and, to maintain sectional balance, Maine was admitted as a free state.Congress prohibited slavery north of the 36?° 30' latitude in remaining Louisiana Purchase territory.The Missouri debate highlighted that the westward expansion of slavery was a passionate topic that might prove to be hazardous to national unity.Nation, Section, and PartyThe United States and the Latin American Wars of IndependenceBetween 1810 and 1822, Spain's Latin American colonies rose in rebellion and established a series of independent nations.In 1822, the Monroe administration became the first government to extend diplomatic recognition to the new Latin American republics.In some ways, Latin American constitutions were more democratic than the U.S. Constitution.Allowed Indians and free blacks to voteThe Monroe DoctrineFearing that Spain would try to regain its colonies, Secretary of State John Quincy Adams drafted the Monroe Doctrine.No new European colonization of the New World.The United States would abstain from European wars.Europeans should not interfere with new Latin American republics.The Election of 1824Andrew Jackson was the only candidate in the 1824 election to have national appeal.None of the four candidates received a majority of the electoral votes.The election fell to the House of Representatives.Henry Clay supported John Quincy Adams.Clay's "corrupt bargain" gave Adams the White House.The Nationalism of John Quincy AdamsJohn Quincy Adams enjoyed one of the most distinguished prepresidential careers of any American president.Adams had a clear vision of national greatness.Supported the American systemWished to enhance American influence in the Western Hemisphere"Liberty Is Power"Adams held a view of federal power far more expansive than most of his contemporaries.Stated that "liberty is power"His plans alarmed many.Martin Van Buren and the Democratic PartyAdams's political rivals emphasized:Individual libertyStates' rightsLimited governmentMartin Van Buren viewed political party competition as a necessary and positive influence to achieve national unity.The Election of 1828By 1828, Van Buren had established the political apparatus of the Democratic Party.Andrew Jackson campaigned against John Quincy Adams in 1828.A far higher percentage of the eligible electorate voted in 1828 than before, and Jackson won a resounding victory.The Age of JacksonThe Party SystemPolitics had become a spectacle.Party machines emerged.Spoils systemNational conventions chose candidates.Democrats and WhigsDemocrats and Whigs differed on issues that emerged from the market revolution.Democrats favored no government intervention in the economy.Whigs supported government promotion of economic development through the American System.Public and Private FreedomThe party battles of the Jacksonian era reflected the clash between public and private definitions of American freedom and their relationship to governmental power.Democrats supported a weak federal government, championing individual and states' rights.Reduced expendituresReduced tariffsAbolished the national bankDemocrats opposed attempts to impose a unified moral vision on society.Whigs believed that a strong federal government was necessary to promote liberty.Whigs argued that government should promote morality to foster the welfare of the people.South Carolina and NullificationJackson's first term was dominated by a battle to uphold the supremacy of federal over state law.Tariff of 1828South Carolina led the charge for a weakened federal government in part from fear that a strong federal government might act against slavery.Calhoun's Political TheoryJohn C. Calhoun emerged as the leading theorist of nullification.Exposition and ProtestBecause states created the Constitution, each one could prevent the enforcement within its borders of federal laws that exceeded powers specifically spelled out in the Constitution.Daniel Webster argued that the people, not the states, created the Constitution.The Nullification CrisisJackson considered nullification an act of disunion.When South Carolina nullified the tariff in 1832, Jackson responded with the Force Bill.A compromise tariff (1833) resolved the crisis.Calhoun left the Democratic Party for the Whigs.Indian RemovalThe expansion of cotton and slavery led to forced relocation of Indians.Indian Removal Act of 1830Five Civilized TribesThe law marked a repudiation of the Jeffersonian idea that civilized Indians could be assimilated into the American population.The Supreme Court and the IndiansThe Cherokees went to court to protect their rights.Cherokee Nation v. GeorgiaWorcester v. GeorgiaJohn Ross led Cherokee resistance.Trail of TearsThe Seminoles fought a war against removal (1835-1842).The Bank War and AfterBiddle's BankThe Bank of the United States symbolized the hopes and fears inspired by the market revolution.Jackson distrusted bankers as "nonproducers."The Bank, under its president Nicholas Biddle, wielded great power.Using language resonating with popular values, Jackson vetoed a bill to renew the Bank's charter.Pet Banks, the Economy, and the Panic of 1837Jackson authorized the removal of federal funds from the vaults of the national bank and their deposit in state or "pet" banks.Partly because the Bank of the United States had lost the ability to regulate the currency effectively, prices rose dramatically while real wages declined.By 1836, the American government and the Bank of England required gold or silver for payments.With cotton exports declining, the United States suffered a panic in 1837 and a depression until 1843.Van Buren in OfficeMartin Van Buren approved the Independent Treasury to deal with the crisis.The Election of 1840The Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison in 1840.Harrison was promoted as the "log cabin" candidate.His running mate was John Tyler.Selling candidates in campaigns was as important as the platform for which they stood.Harrison died a month after taking office.Tyler vetoed measures to enact the American SystemCHAPTER 11The Peculiar InstitutionChapter Study Outline[Introduction: Frederick Douglass]Slave childhoodLeader of abolitionist movement, publishing his autobiography that condemned slavery and racismThe Old SouthCotton Is KingCotton replaced sugar as the world's major crop produced by slave labor in the nineteenth century.The strength of American slavery rested on cotton.Cotton industryThree-fourths of the world's cotton supply came from the southern United States.Cotton supplied textile mills in the North and in Great Britain.As early as 1803, cotton represented America's most important export.The Second Middle PassageAlthough the African slave trade was prohibited, the sale and trade of slaves within the United States flourished.The main business districts of southern cities contained the offices of slave traders, and auctions took place at public slave markets.Slavery and the NationThe North was not immune to slavery.Northern merchants and manufacturers participated in the slave economy and shared in its profits.Slavery shaped the lives of all Americans.The Southern EconomySouthern economic growth was different from northern.There were few large cities in the South.The cities were mainly centers for gathering and shipping cotton.New Orleans was the only city of significant size in the South.The region produced less than 10 percent of the nation's manufactured goods.Plain Folk of the Old SouthThree-fourths of white southerners did not own slaves.Most white southerners lived on self-sufficient farms.Most whites supported slavery.A few, like Andrew Johnson and Joseph Brown, spoke out against the planter elite.Most white southerners supported the planter elite and slavery because of shared bonds of regional loyalty, racism, and kinship ties.The Planter ClassIn 1850, the majority of slaveholding families owned five or fewer slaves.Fewer than 2,000 families owned 100 slaves or more.Ownership of slaves provided the route to wealth, status, and influence.Slavery was a profit-making system.Men watched the world market for cotton, invested in infrastructure, and managed their plantations.Plantation mistresses cared for sick slaves, oversaw the domestic servants, and supervised the plantation when the master was away.Southern slave owners spent much of their money on material goods.The Paternalist EthosSouthern slaveowners were committed to a hierarchical, agrarian society.Paternalism was ingrained in slave society and enabled slaveowners to think of themselves as kind, responsible masters even as they bought and sold their human property.The Proslavery ArgumentBy the 1830s, fewer southerners believed that slavery was a necessary evil.The proslavery argument rested on a number of pillars, including a commitment to white supremacy, biblical sanction of slavery, and the historical precedent that slavery was essential to human progress.Another proslavery argument held that slavery guaranteed equality for whites.Abolition in the AmericasAbolition in the Americas influenced debates over slavery in the United States.Proslavery advocates used postemancipation decline in sugar and in other cash crops as evidence of British abolitionism's failure.Abolitionists argued that the former slaves' rising living standards (and similar improvements) showed that emancipation had succeeded.By mid-century, New World slavery remained only in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Brazil, and the United States.Slavery and LibertyWhite southerners declared themselves the true heirs of the American Revolution.Proslavery arguments begin to repudiate the ideas in the Declaration of Independence that equality and freedom were universal entitlements.John C. Calhoun believed that the language in the Declaration of Independence was dangerous.George Fitzhugh, a Virginia writer, argued that "universal liberty" was the exception, not the rule.By 1830, southerners defended slavery in terms of liberty and freedom; without slavery, freedom was not possible.Life under SlaverySlaves and the LawSlaves were considered property and had few legal rights.Slaves were not allowed to:Testify against a white personb.Carry a firearmLeave the plantation without permissionLearn how to read or writeGather in a group without a white person presentAlthough, some of these laws were not always vigorously enforced.Masters also controlled whether slaves married and how they spent their free time.Trial of Celia: Celia killed her master while resisting a sexual assault.Celia was charged with murder and sentenced to die, but she was pregnant and her execution was delayed until she gave birth, so as not to deny the current master his property right.Conditions of Slave LifeAmerican slaves as compared to their counterparts in the West Indies and in Brazil enjoyed better diets, lower infant mortality, and longer life expectancies.Reasons for the above include the paternalistic ethos of the South, the lack of malaria and yellow fever in the South, and the high costs of slaves.Free Blacks in the Old SouthBy 1860, there were nearly half a million free blacks in the United States and most of them lived in the South.Free blacks were not all that free.Free blacks were allowed by law to own property and marry and could not be bought or sold.Free blacks could not testify in court or serve on a jury.The majority of free blacks who lived in the Lower South resided in cities like New Orleans and Charleston, whereas those living in the Upper South generally lived in rural areas, working for wages as farm laborers.Slave LaborLabor occupied most of a slave's daily existence.There were many types of jobs a slave might perform.Many slaves working in the fields also labored in large gangs.On large plantations, they worked in gangs under the direction of the overseer, a man who was generally considered cruel by the slaves.Slavery in the CitiesMost city slaves were servants, cooks, and other domestics.Some city slaves were skilled artisans and occasionally lived on their own.Maintaining OrderThe system of maintaining order rested on force.There were many tools a master had to maintain order, including whipping, exploiting divisions among slaves, incentives, and the threat of sale.Slave CultureThe Slave FamilyDespite the threat of sale and the fact that marriage between slaves was illegal, many slaves did marry and create families.Slaves frequently named children after other family members to retain family continuity.The slave community had a significantly higher number of female-headed households as compared to the white community.The Threat of SaleSlave traders paid little attention to preserving family ties.Gender Roles among SlavesTraditional gender roles were not followed in the fields; but during their own time, slaves did fall into traditional gender roles.Slave ReligionBlack Christianity was distinctive and offered solace to the slaves.Almost every plantation had its own black preacher.Slaves worshipped in biracial churches.Free blacks established their own churches.Masters viewed Christianity as another means of social control and required slaves to attend services conducted by white ministers.Many biblical stories offered hope and solace to slaves.The Desire for LibertySlave culture rested on a sense of the injustice of bondage and the desire for freedom.Slave folklore glorified the weak over the strong, and their spirituals emphasized eventual liberation.Resistance to SlaveryForms of ResistanceThe most common form of resistance was silent sabotage-the breaking of tools, feigning illness, doing poor work.Less common, but more serious forms of resistance included poisoning the master, arson, and armed assaults.The slaves who ran away were more threatening to the stability of the slave system.Of the estimated 1,000 slaves a year to escape, most escaped from the Upper South.In the Deep South, fugitive slaves often escaped to the southern cities, to blend in with the free black population.The Underground Railroad was a loose organization of abolitionists who helped slaves to escape.Harriet Tubman was an escaped slave who made twenty trips to Maryland, leading slaves to freedom.The AmistadIn 1839, a group of slaves collectively seized their freedom while on board the Amistad.The U.S. Supreme Court accepted John Quincy Adams's argument that the slaves had been illegally seized in Africa and should be freed.Slave Revolts1811 witnessed an uprising on sugar plantations in Louisiana, which saw slaves marching toward New Orleans before the militia captured them.In 1822, Denmark Vesey was charged with conspiracy in South Carolina.Vesey was a religious man who believed the Bible condemned slavery and who saw the hypocrisy of the Declaration of Independence.The conspiracy was uncovered before Vesey could act.Nat Turner's RebellionIn 1831, Nat Turner and his followers marched through Virginia, attacking white farm families.Eighty slaves had joined Turner and sixty whites had been killed (mostly women and children) before the militia put down the rebellion.Turner was captured and executed.Turner's was the last large-scale rebellion in the South.The Virginia legislature debated plans for gradual emancipation of the state's slaves, but voted not to take that step.Instead, Virginia tightened its grip on slavery through new laws further limiting slaves' rights.1831 marked a turning point for the Old South as white southerners closed ranks and defended slavery more strongly than ever.CHAPTER 12An Age Of Reform, 1820-1840Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Abby Kelley]The Reform ImpulseUtopian CommunitiesAbout 100 reform communities were established in the decades before the Civil War.Nearly all the communities set out to reorganize society on a cooperative basis, hoping both to restore social harmony to a world of excessive individualism and also to narrow the widening gap between rich and poor.Socialism and communism entered the language.The ShakersThe Shakers were the most successful of the religious communities and had a significant impact on the outside world.Shakers believed men and women were spiritually equal.They abandoned private property and traditional family life.The Mormons' TrekThe Mormons were founded in the 1820s by Joseph Smith.The absolute authority Smith exercised over his followers, the refusal of the Mormons to separate church and state, and their practice of polygamy alarmed many neighbors.Mormons faced persecution in New York, Ohio, Missouri, and Illinois; Smith was murdered.Smith's successor, Brigham Young, led his followers to the Great Salt Lake.OneidaThe founder of Oneida, John Noyes, and his followers practiced "complex marriage."Oneida was an extremely dictatorial environment.Worldly CommunitiesThe most important secular communitarian was Robert Owen.Owen established New Harmony, where he hoped to create a "new moral world"At New Harmony, Owen championed women's rights and education.Religion and ReformSome reform movements drew their inspiration from the religious revivalism of the Second Great Awakening.The revivals popularized the outlook known as perfectionism, which saw both individuals and society at large as capable of indefinite improvement.Under the impact of the revivals, older reform efforts moved in a new, radical direction.Prohibition, pacifism, and abolitionTo members of the North's emerging middle-class culture, reform became a badge of respectability.The American Temperance Society directed its efforts at both the drunkards and the occasional drinker.Critics of ReformMany Americans saw the reform impulse as an attack on their own freedom.Catholics rallied against the temperance movement.Reformers and FreedomThe vision of freedom expressed by the reform movements was liberating and controlling at the same time.Many religious groups in the East formed reform groups promoting religious virtue.The Invention of the AsylumAmericans embarked on a program of institution building.JailsPoorhousesAsylumsOrphanagesThese institutions were inspired by the conviction that those who passed through their doors could eventually be released to become productive, self-disciplined citizens.The Common SchoolA tax-supported state public school system was widely adopted.Horace Mann was the era's leading educational reformer.Mann hoped that universal public education could restore equality to a fractured society.Avenue for social advancementCommon schools provided career opportunities for women but widened the divide between North and South.The Crusade against SlaveryColonizationThe American Colonization Society (ACS), founded in 1816, promoted the gradual abolition of slavery and the settlement of black Americans in Africa.The ACS founded Liberia as its colony in West Africa.Many prominent political leaders supported the ACS.Like Indian removal, colonization rested on the premise that America is fundamentally a white society.Most African-Americans adamantly opposed the idea of colonization.In 1817, free blacks assembled in Philadelphia for the first national black convention and condemned colonization.They insisted that blacks were Americans, entitled to the same rights enjoyed by whites.Militant AbolitionismA new generation of reformers demanded immediate abolition.David Walker's An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World was a passionate indictment of slavery and racial prejudice.The appearance in 1831 of The Liberator, William Lloyd Garrison's weekly journal published in Boston, gave the new breed of abolitionism a permanent voice.Some of Garrison's ideas appeared too radical, but his call for immediate abolition was echoed by many.Garrison rejected colonization.Spreading the Abolitionist MessageAbolitionists recognized the democratic potential in the production of printed material.Theodore Weld helped to create the abolitionists' mass constituency by using the methods of religious revivals.Weld and a group of trained speakers spread the message of slavery as a sin.Slavery and Moral SuasionNearly all abolitionists, despite their militant language, rejected violence as a means of ending slavery.Many abolitionists were pacifists, and they attempted to convince the slaveholder through "moral suasion" of his sinful ways.A New Vision of AmericaThe antislavery movement sought to reinvigorate the idea of freedom as a truly universal entitlement.They insisted that blacks were fellow countrymen, not foreigners or a permanently inferior caste.Abolitionists disagreed over the usefulness of the Constitution.Abolitionists consciously identified their movement with the revolutionary heritage.The Liberty BellBlack and White AbolitionismBlack AbolitionistsFrom its inception, blacks played a leading role in the antislavery movement.Frederick DouglassStowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin gave the abolitionist message a powerful human appeal as it was modeled on the autobiography of fugitive slave Josiah Henson.By the 1840s, black abolitionists sought an independent role within the movement, regularly holding their own conventionsAt every opportunity, black abolitionists rejected the nation's pretensions as a land of liberty.Black abolitionists articulated the ideal of color-blind citizenship.Frederick Douglass famously questioned the meaning of the Fourth of July.Gentlemen of Property and StandingAbolitionism aroused violent hostility from northerners who feared that the movement threatened to disrupt the Union, interfere with profits wrested from slave labor, and overturn white supremacy.Editor Elijah Lovejoy was killed by a mob while defending his press.Mob attacks and attempts to limit abolitionists' freedom of speech convinced many northerners that slavery was incompatible with the democratic liberties of white Americans.The Origins of FeminismThe Rise of the Public WomanWomen were instrumental in the abolition movement.The public sphere was open to women in ways government and party politics were not.Women and Free SpeechWomen lectured in public about abolition.Grimké sistersThe Grimké sisters argued against the idea that taking part in assemblies, demonstrations, and lectures was unfeminine.Letters on the Equality of the Sexes (1838)Equal pay for equal workWomen's RightsElizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848.Raised the issue of woman suffrageThe Declaration of Sentiments condemned the entire structure of inequality.Feminism and FreedomLacking broad backing at home, early feminists found allies abroad.Women deserved the range of individual choices and the possibility of self-realization that constituted the essence of freedom.Margaret Fuller sought to apply to women the transcendentalist idea that freedom meant a quest for personal development.Women and WorkThe participants at Seneca Falls rejected the identification of the home as the women's "sphere."The "bloomer" costumeThe Slavery of SexThe concept of the "slavery of sex" empowered the women's movement to develop an all-encompassing critique of male authority and their own subordination.Marriage and slavery became powerful rhetorical tools for feminists."Social Freedom"The demand that women should enjoy the rights to regulate their own sexual activity and procreation and to be protected by the state against violence at the hands of their husbands challenged the notion that claims for justice, freedom, and individual rights should stop at the household's door.The issue of women's private freedom revealed underlying differences within the movement for women's rights.The Abolitionist SchismWhen organized abolitionism split into two wings in 1840, the immediate cause was a dispute over the proper role of women in antislavery work.American Anti-Slavery Society (favored women in leadership positions)American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (opposed women in leadership positions)The Liberty Party was established in hopes of making abolitionism a political movement.CHAPTER 13A House Divided, 1840-1861Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Statue of Freedom]Fruits of Manifest DestinyContinental ExpansionIn the 1840s, slavery moved to the center stage of American politics because of territorial expansion.The Mexican Frontier: New Mexico and CaliforniaMexico won its independence from Spain in 1821.The northern frontier of Mexico was California, New Mexico, and Texas.California's non-Indian population in 1821 was vastly outnumbered by Indians.The Texas RevoltThe first part of Mexico to be settled by significant numbers of Americans was Texas.Moses AustinAlarmed that its grip on the area was weakening, the Mexican government in 1830 annulled existing land contracts and barred future emigration from the United States.Stephen Austin led the call from American settlers demanding greater autonomy within Mexico.General Antonio López de Santa Anna sent an army in 1835 to impose central authority.Rebels formed a provisional government that soon called for Texan independence.The AlamoSam HoustonTexas desired annexation by the United States, but neither Jackson nor Van Buren took action because of political concerns regarding adding another slave state.The Election of 1844The issue of Texas annexation was linked to slavery and affected the nominations of presidential candidates.Clay and Van Buren agreed to keep Texas out of the presidential campaign.James Polk, a Tennessee slaveholder and friend of Jackson, received the Democratic nomination instead of Van Buren.Supported Texas annexationSupported "reoccupation" of all of OregonThe Road to WarPolk had four clearly defined goals:Reduce the tariffReestablish the Independent Treasury systemSettle the Oregon disputeBring California into the UnionPolk initiated war with Mexico to get California.The War and Its CriticsAlthough the majority of Americans supported the war, a vocal minority feared the only aim of the war was to acquire new land for the expansion of slavery.Henry David Thoreau wrote "On Civil Disobedience."Abraham Lincoln questioned Polk's right to declare bat in MexicoCombat took place on three fronts.California and the "bear flag republic"General Stephen Kearney and Santa FeWinfield Scott and central MexicoTreaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1848Race and Manifest DestinyA region that for centuries had been united was suddenly split in two, dividing families and severing trade routes."Male citizens" were guaranteed American rights.Indians were described as "savage tribes."Territorial expansion gave a new stridency to ideas about racial superiority.Mexico had abolished slavery and declared persons of Spanish, Indian, and African origin equal before the law.The Texas constitution adopted after independence not only included protections for slavery but denied civil rights to Indians and persons of African origin.Gold-Rush CaliforniaCalifornia's gold-rush population was incredibly diverse.The explosive population growth and fierce competition for gold worsened conflicts among California's many racial and ethnic groups.The boundaries of freedom in California were tightly drawn.Indians, Asians, and blacks were all prohibited basic rights.Thousands of Indian children, declared orphans, were bought and sold as slaves.Opening JapanThe U.S. navy's commodore Matthew Perry sailed warships into Tokyo Harbor and demanded that Japan negotiate a trade treaty with the United States (1853-1854).Japan opened two ports to U.S. merchant ships in 1854.The United States was interested in Japan primarily as a refueling stop on the way to China.A Dose of ArsenicThe Wilmot ProvisoIn 1846, Congressman David Wilmot of Pennsylvania proposed a resolution prohibiting slavery from all territory acquired from Mexico.In 1848, opponents of slavery's expansion organized the Free Soil Party.The party nominated Martin Van Buren for president.The Free Soil AppealThe free soil position had a popular appeal in the North because it would limit southern power in the federal government.The Free Soil platform of 1848 called for barring slavery from western territories and for the federal government providing homesteads to settlers without cost.Many southerners considered singling out slavery as the one form of property barred from the West to be an affront to them and their way of life.The admission of new free states would overturn the delicate political balance between the sections and make the South a permanent minority.Crisis and Compromise1848 was a year of revolution in Europe, only to be suppressed by counterrevolution.With the slavery issue appearing more and more ominous, established party leaders moved to resolve differences between the sections.The Compromise of 1850 included:Admission of California as a free stateAbolition of the slave trade (not slavery itself) in the District of ColumbiaStronger Fugitive Slave lawIn the Mexican Cession territories, local white inhabitants would determine the status of slavery.The Great DebatePowerful leaders spoke for and against the Compromise:Daniel Webster (for the Compromise)John C. Calhoun (against the Compromise)William Seward (against the Compromise)President Taylor, Compromise opponent, died in office, and the new president, Millard Fillmore, secured the adoption of the Compromise.The Fugitive Slave IssueThe Fugitive Slave Act allowed special federal commissioners to determine the fate of alleged fugitives without benefit of a jury trial or even testimony by the accused individual.In a series of dramatic confrontations, fugitives, aided by abolitionist allies, violently resisted capture.The fugitive slave law also led several thousand northern blacks to flee to safety in Canada.Douglas and Popular SovereigntyFranklin Pierce won the 1852 presidential election.Stephen Douglas introduced a bill to establish territorial governments for Nebraska and Kansas so that a transcontinental railroad could be constructed.Slavery would be settled by popular sovereignty (territorial voters, not Congress, would decide).The Kansas-Nebraska ActUnder the Missouri Compromise, slavery had been prohibited in the Kansas-Nebraska area.The Appeal of the Independent Democrats was issued by antislavery congressmen opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska bill because it would potentially open the area to slavery.The Kansas-Nebraska Act became law.Democrats were no longer unified as many northern Democrats opposed the bill.The Whig Party collapsed.The South became solidly Democratic.The Republican Party emerged to prevent the further expansion of slavery.The Rise of the Republican PartyThe Northern EconomyThe rise of the Republican Party reflected underlying economic and social changes.Railroad networkBy 1860, the North had become a complex, integrated economy.Two great areas of industrial production had arisen:Northeastern seaboardGreat Lakes regionThe Rise and Fall of the Know-NothingsIn 1854 the American, or Know-Nothing, Party emerged as a political party appealing to anti-Catholic and, in the North, antislavery sentiments.The Free Labor IdeologyRepublicans managed to convince most northerners (antislavery Democrats, Whigs, Free Soilers, and Know-Nothings) that the "slave power" posed a more immediate threat to their liberties.This appeal rested on the idea of free labor.Free labor could not compete with slave labor, and so slavery's expansion had to be halted to ensure freedom for the white laborer.Republicans as a whole were not abolitionists."Bleeding Kansas" and the Election of 1856Bleeding Kansas seemed to discredit Douglas's policy of leaving the decision of slavery up to the local population-thus, aiding the Republicans.Civil war within KansasCharles SumnerThe election of 1856 demonstrated that parties had reoriented themselves along sectional lines.The Emergence of LincolnThe Dred Scott DecisionAfter having lived in free territories, the slave Dred Scott sued for his freedom.The Supreme Court justices addressed three questions:Could a black person be a citizen and therefore sue in federal court?Did residence in a free state make Scott free?Did Congress possess the power to prohibit slavery in a territory?Speaking for the majority, Chief Justice Roger A. Taney declared that only white persons could be citizens of the United States.Taney ruled that Congress possessed no power under the Constitution to bar slavery from a territory, so Scott was still a slave.The decision in effect declared unconstitutional the Republican platform of restricting slavery's expansion.President Buchana wanted to admit Kansas as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution; Stephen Douglas attempted to block the attempt.Lincoln and SlaveryIn seeking reelection, Douglas faced an unexpectedly strong challenge from Abraham Lincoln.Lincoln's speeches combined the moral fervor of the abolitionists with the respect for order and the Constitution of more conservative northerners.The Lincoln-Douglas CampaignLincoln campaigned against Douglas for Illinois's senate seat.The Lincoln-Douglas debates remain classics of American political oratory.To Lincoln, freedom meant opposition to slavery.Douglas argued that the essence of freedom lay in local self-government and individual self-determination.Douglas asserted at the Freeport debate that popular sovereignty was compatible with the Dred Scott decision.Lincoln shared many of the racial prejudices of his day.Douglas was reelected by a narrow margin.John Brown at Harpers FerryAn armed assault by the abolitionist John Brown on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, further heightened sectional tensions.Placed on trial for treason to the state of Virginia, Brown's execution turned him into a martyr to much of the North.The Rise of Southern NationalismMore and more southerners were speaking openly of southward expansion.Ostend ManifestoWilliam Walker and filibusteringBy the late 1850s, southern leaders were bending every effort to strengthen the bonds of slavery.The Election of 1860The Democratic Party was split with its nomination of Douglas in 1860 and the southern Democrats' nomination of John Breckinridge.Republicans nominated Lincoln over William Seward.Lincoln appealed to many voters.The Republican party platform:Denied the validity of the Dred Scott decisionOpposed slavery's expansionAdded economic initiativesIn effect, two presidential campaigns took place in 1860.The most striking thing about the election returns was their sectional character.Without a single vote in ten southern states, Lincoln was elected the nation's sixteenth president.The Impending CrisisThe Secession MovementRather than accept permanent minority status in a nation governed by their opponents, Deep South political leaders boldly struck for their region's independence.In the months that followed Lincoln's election, seven states, stretching from South Carolina to Texas, seceded from the Union.The Secession CrisisPresident Buchanan denied that a state could secede, but also insisted that the federal government had no right to use force against it.The Crittenden plan for sectional compromise was rejected by Lincoln because it allowed for the expansion of slavery.The Confederate States of America was formed before Lincoln's inauguration by the seven states that had seceded.Jefferson Davis as PresidentAnd the War CameLincoln also issued a veiled warning: "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war."After the Confederates began the Civil War by firing on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, Lincoln called for 75,000 troops to suppress the insurrection.Four Upper South states (Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia) seceded and joined the Confederacy rather than aid Lincoln in suppressing the rebellion.CHAPTER 14A New Birth Of Freedom: The Civil War, 1861-1865Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Marcus Spiegel]The First Modern WarThe Two CombatantsThe Union had many advantages (e.g., manufacturing, railroad mileage, and financial resources), but it would need to conquer an area larger than western Europe to win.Confederate soldiers were highly motivated fighters.On both sides, the outbreak of war stirred powerful feelings of patriotism.The Technology of WarRailroads were vital to the war effort.The introduction of the rifle changed the nature of combat.Modern warfare included POW camps and disease.The Public and the WarBoth sides were assisted by a vast propaganda effort to mobilize public opinion.The war was brought to the people via newspapers and photographs.Mobilizing ResourcesThe outbreak of the war found both sides unprepared.Feeding and supplying armies was a challenge for both sides.Military StrategiesThe Confederacy adopted a defensive strategy.Lincoln realized that his armies had to defeat the Confederacy's armies and dismantle slavery.The War BeginsIn the East, most of the war's fighting took place in a narrow corridor between Washington and Richmond.The first Battle of Bull Run, a Confederate victory, shattered any illusions that war was romantic.After the First Bull Run, George McClellan assumed command of the Union army of the Potomac.The War in the East, 1862General Lee blunted McClellan's attacks in Virginia and forced him to withdraw to the vicinity of Washington.Successful on the defensive, Lee now launched an invasion of the North.McClellan's Army of the Potomac stopped Lee at the Battle of Antietam (Maryland), the single bloodiest day in U.S. history (September 17, 1862).The War in the WestUlysses S. Grant was the architect of early success in the West.In February 1862, Grant won the Union's first significant victory when he captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee.Grant withstood a surprise Confederate attack at the Battle of Shiloh (Tennessee).The Coming of EmancipationSlavery and the WarIn numbers, scale, and the economic power of the institution of slavery, American emancipation dwarfed that of any other country.At the outset of the war, Lincoln invoked time-honored northern values to mobilize public support.Lincoln initially insisted that slavery was irrelevant to the conflict.Early in the war, Congress adopted a resolution proposed by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, which affirmed that the Union had no intention of interfering with slavery.The policy of ignoring slavery unraveled and by the end of 1861 the military began treating escaped blacks as contraband of war (property of military value subject to confiscation).Blacks saw the outbreak of fighting as heralding the long-awaited end of bondage.Steps toward EmancipationSince slavery stood at the foundation of the southern economy, antislavery northerners insisted that emancipation was necessary to weaken the South's ability to sustain the war.Throughout 1861 and 1862, Lincoln struggled to retain control of the emancipation issue.Union General John C. Frémont issued a proclamation freeing slaves in Missouri (August 1861).Fearing the negative impact on loyal border states, Lincoln rescinded Frémont's order.Lincoln proposed gradual emancipation and colonization for border-state slaves.Lincoln's DecisionSometime during the summer of 1862, Lincoln concluded that emancipation had become a political and military necessity.Upon Secretary of State William Seward's advice, he delayed announcing emancipation until a Union victory.On September 22, 1862, five days after Antietam, Lincoln issued the Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation.The initial northern reaction was not encouraging, with important Democratic wins in the fall elections.The Emancipation ProclamationLincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, which declared slaves in Confederate-held territory to be free.Despite its limitations, the proclamation set off scenes of jubilation among free blacks and abolitionists in the North and "contrabands" and slaves in the South.The Emancipation Proclamation not only altered the nature of the Civil War and the course of American history, but represented a turning point in Lincoln's own thinking.Enlisting Black TroopsOf the proclamation's provisions, few were more radical in their implications than the enrollment of blacks into military service.By the end of the war, over 180,000 black men had served in the Union army, and 24,000 in the navy.Most black soldiers were emancipated slaves who joined the army in the South.The Black SoldierFor black soldiers, military service proved to be a liberating experience.At least 130 former soldiers served in political office after the Civil War.Within the army, black soldiers did not receive equal treatment to white soldiers.Black soldiers played a crucial role not only in winning the Civil War but also in defining the war's consequences.The Second American RevolutionLiberty, Union, and NationThe Union's triumph consolidated the northern understanding of freedom as the national norm.To Lincoln, the American nation embodied a set of universal ideas, centered on political democracy and human liberty.The Gettysburg Address identified the nation's mission with the principle that "all men are created equal."The war forged a new national self-consciousness, reflected in the increasing use of the word "nation"-a unified political entity-in place of the older "Union" of separate states.The War and American ReligionNorthern Protestantism combined Christianity and patriotism in a civic religion that saw the war as transforming the United States into a true land of freedom.Lincoln shrewdly used religious symbolism to generate public support.Religion helped Americans to cope with unprecedented mass death.New government action to deal with deathSystems for recording deaths and other casualtiesNational military cemeteriesLiberty in WartimeLincoln consolidated executive power and twice suspended the writ of habeas corpus throughout the entire Union for those accused of "disloyal activities."After the war, the Court made it clear that the Constitution was not suspended in wartime (Ex parte Milligan, 1866).The North's TransformationThe North experienced the war as a time of ernment and the EconomyCongress adopted policies that promoted economic growth and permanently altered the nation's financial system.The Homestead ActThe Land-Grant College ActCongress passed land grants for railroads.The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869.The War and Native AmericansThe withdrawal of troops from the West increased conflict between Indians and white settlers.The Sioux attack in Minnesota.The Union campaign against Navajo led to the tribe's Long Walk, or removal to a reservation.Some slave-owning tribes, such as the Cherokee, sided with the Confederacy.A New Financial SystemThe need to pay for the war produced dramatic changes in U.S. financial policy:Increased tariffNew taxes on goodsFirst income taxWartime economic policies greatly benefited northern manufacturers, railroad men, and financiers.Taken together, the Union's economic policies vastly increased the power and size of the federal government.Women and the WarWomen stepped into the workforce as nurses, factory workers, and government clerks.Hundreds of thousands of northern women took part in humanitarian organizations.Northern women were brought into the public sphere and the war work offered them a taste of independence.Clara Barton, president of the American National Red Cross, became an advocate of woman suffrage and a strong proponent of the humane treatment of battlefield casualties.The Divided NorthRepublicans labeled those opposed to the war "Copperheads."The war heightened existing social tensions and created new ones.Draft riotsThe Confederate NationLeadership and GovernmentJefferson Davis proved unable to communicate the war's meaning effectively to ordinary men and women.Under Davis, the Confederate nation became far more centralized than the Old South had been.Confederate government controlled railroadsConfederate government built factoriesKing Cotton diplomacy sought to pressure Europeans to side with the Confederacy, but this failed.The Inner Civil WarSocial change and internal turmoil engulfed much of the Confederacy.The draft encouraged class divisions among whites.Economic ProblemsThe South's economy, unlike the North's, was in crisis during the war.By the war's end, over 100,000 southern men had deserted.Women and the ConfederacyEven more than in the North, the war placed unprecedented burdens on southern white women.The growing disaffection of southern white women contributed to the decline in home-front morale and encouraged desertion from the army.Black Soldiers for the ConfederacyA shortage of manpower led the Confederate Congress in March 1865 to authorize the arming of slaves, but the war ended before black soldiers were actually recruited.Turning PointsGettysburg and VicksburgLee advanced onto northern soil in Pennsylvania, but was held back by Union forces under the command of General George Meade at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1863).Pickett's ChargeGeneral Grant secured a Union victory at Vicksburg, Mississippi (July 1863)1864In 1864, Grant began a war of attrition against Lee's army in Virginia.At the end of six weeks of fighting, Grant's casualties stood at 60,000-almost the size of Lee's entire army-while Lee had lost 30,000 men.General William T. Sherman entered Atlanta, seizing Georgia's main railroad center.Some Radical Republicans nominated John C. Frémont on a platform calling for a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery, federal protection of the freedpeople's rights, and confiscation of the land of leading Confederates.The Democratic candidate for president was General George B. McClellan.Lincoln won, aided by Frémont's withdrawal and Sherman's capture of Atlanta.Rehearsals for Reconstruction and the End of the WarThe Sea Island ExperimentThe Union occupied the Sea Islands (on the coast of South Carolina) in November 1861.Women took the lead as teachers in educating the freed slaves of the islands.Charlotte Forten and Laura TowneBy 1865, black families were working for wages, acquiring education, and enjoying more humane conditions than under slavery.Wartime Reconstruction in the WestAfter the capture of Vicksburg, the Union army established regulations for plantation labor.Freedpeople signed labor contracts and were paid wages.Neither side was satisfied with the new labor system.At Davis Bend, the emancipated slaves saw the land divided among themselves.The Politics of Wartime ReconstructionIn 1863, Lincoln announced his Ten-Percent Plan of Reconstruction.Free blacks in New Orleans complained about the Ten-Percent Plan and found sympathy from Radical Republicans.The Wade-Davis Bill was offered as an alternative plan.Required a majority of a state's voters to pledge loyaltyLincoln pocket-vetoed the plan.Victory at LastSherman marched from Atlanta to the sea in November-December 1864.The Thirteenth Amendment was approved on January 31, 1865.On April 3, 1865, Grant took Richmond.Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9.Lincoln was fatally shot on April 14 and died the next morning.The War and the WorldGrant's post-presidential world tour illustrates how non-Americans saw the war.England's Duke of Wellington hailed Grant as a military genius.English workers saw war as having saved the leading experiment in democracy and vindicated free labor principles.German Chancellor Bismarck saw nation-building as war's central achievement.The War in American HistoryThe Civil War laid the foundation for modern America.Both sides lost something they had gone to war to defend.The Confederacy lost slavery.The war hastened the transformation of Lincoln's America of free labor, small shops, and independent farmers into an industrial giant.CHAPTER 15"What Is Freedom?": Reconstruction, 1865–1877Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Sherman Land]The Meaning of FreedomBlacks and the Meaning of FreedomAfrican-Americans’ understanding of freedom was shaped by their experience as slaves and observation of the free society around them.Blacks relished the opportunity to demonstrate their liberation from the regulations (significant and trivial) associated with slavery.Families in FreedomThe family was central to the postemancipation black community.Freedom subtly altered relationships within the family.Emancipation increased the power of black men within the family.Black women withdrew from work as field laborers and house servants to the domestic sphere.Church and SchoolBlacks abandoned white-controlled religious institutions to create churches of their own.Blacks of all ages flocked to the schools established by northern missionary societies, the Freedmen’s Bureau, and groups of ex-slaves.Political FreedomThe right to vote inevitably became central to the former slaves’ desire for empowerment and equality.To demonstrate their patriotism, blacks throughout the South organized Fourth of July celebrations.Land, Labor, and FreedomFormer slaves’ ideas of freedom were directly related to land ownership.Many former slaves insisted that through their unpaid labor, they had acquired a right to the land.Masters without SlavesThe South’s defeat was complete and demoralizing.Planter families faced profound changes.Most planters defined black freedom in the narrowest manner.The Free Labor VisionThe victorious Republican North tried to implement its own vision of freedom.Free laborThe Freedmen’s Bureau was to establish a working free labor system.The Freedmen’s BureauThe task of the Bureau—establishing schools, providing aid to the poor and aged, settling disputes, etc.—was daunting, especially since it had fewer than 1,000 agents.The Bureau’s achievements in some areas, notably education and health care, were striking.The Failure of Land ReformPresident Andrew Johnson ordered nearly all land in federal hands returned to its former owners.Because no land distribution took place, the vast majority of rural freedpeople remained poor and without property during Reconstruction.Sharecropping came to dominate the cotton South and much of the tobacco belt.Sharecropping initially arose as a compromise between blacks’ desire for land and planters’ desire for labor discipline.The White FarmerThe aftermath of the war hurt small white farmers.Crop-lien system (use of crop as collateral for loans from merchants for supplies)White farmers increased cotton cultivation, cotton prices plummeted, and they found themselves unable to pay back loans.Both black and white farmers found themselves caught in the sharecropping and crop-lien systems.Southern cities experienced remarkable growth after the Civil War.Rise of a new middle classAftermaths of SlaveryThe Reconstruction-era debates over transitioning from slavery to freedom had parallels in other Western Hemisphere countries where emancipation occurred in the nineteenth century.Only in the United States did former slaves gain political rights quickly.The Making of Radical ReconstructionAndrew JohnsonJohnson identified himself as the champion of the “honest yeomen” and a foe of large planters.Johnson lacked Lincoln’s political skills and keen sense of public opinion.Johnson believed that African-Americans had no role to play in Reconstruction.The Failure of Presidential ReconstructionJohnson’s plan for Reconstruction offered pardons to the white southern elite.Johnson’s plan allowed the new state governments a free hand in managing local affairs.The Black CodesSouthern governments began passing new laws that restricted the freedom of blacks.These new laws violated free labor principles and called forth a vigorous response from the Republican North.The Radical RepublicansRadical Republicans called for the dissolution of Johnson’s state governments, the establishment of new governments that did not have “rebels” in power, and the guarantee of the right to vote for black men.The Radicals fully embraced the expanded powers of the federal government born of the Civil War.Charles SummerThaddeus StevensThaddeus Stevens’s most cherished aim was to confiscate the land of disloyal planters and divide it among former slaves and northern migrants to the South.His plan was too radical for most others in Congress.The Origins of Civil RightsMost Republicans were moderates, not radicals.Senator Lyman Trumbull of Illinois proposed two bills to modify Johnson’s policy:Extend the life of the Freedmen’s BureauCivil Rights Bill (equality before the law was central; it sought to overturn the Black Codes)Johnson vetoed both bills.Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill over his veto and later extended the life of the Freedmen’s Bureau.The Fourteenth AmendmentIt placed in the Constitution the principle of citizenship for all persons born in the United States and empowered the federal government to protect the rights of all Americans.It did not grant blacks the right to vote.The Reconstruction ActJohnson campaigned against the Fourteenth Amendment in the 1866 midterm elections.In March 1867, over Johnson’s veto, Congress adopted the Reconstruction Act, which:Divided the South into five military districtsCalled for creation of new southern state governments, with black men given the voteThe Reconstruction Act thus began Radical Reconstruction, which lasted until 1877.Impeachment and the Election of GrantTo demonstrate his dislike for the Tenure of Office Act, Johnson removed the secretary of war from office in 1868.Johnson was impeached and the Senate fell one vote short from removing him from office.The Fifteenth AmendmentUlysses S. Grant won the 1868 presidential election.The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870.It prohibited federal and state governments from denying any citizen the right to vote because of race.Did not extend suffrage to womenThe “Great Constitutional Revolution”The laws and amendments of Reconstruction reflected the intersection of two products of the Civil War era—a newly empowered national state and the idea of a national citizenry enjoying equality before the law.Before the Civil War, American citizenship had been closely linked to race.The new amendments also transformed the relationship between the federal government and the states.The Rights of WomenThe destruction of slavery led feminists to search for ways to make the promise of free labor real for women.Some feminists (Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony) opposed the Fifteenth Amendment because it did not enfranchise women.The divisions among feminists led to the creation of two hostile women’s rights organizations that would not reunite until the 1890s.Despite their limitations, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and the Reconstruction Act of 1867 marked a radical departure in American and world history.Radical Reconstruction in the South“The Tocsin of Freedom”Among the former slaves, the passage of the Reconstruction Act inspired an outburst of political organization.Blacks used direct action to remedy long-standing grievances.The Union League aided blacks in the public sphere.By 1870, the Union had been restored and southern states had Republican majorities.The Black OfficeholderTwo thousand African-Americans occupied public offices during Reconstruction.Fourteen elected to U.S. House of RepresentativesTwo elected to U.S. SenateCarpetbaggers and ScalawagsCarpetbaggers were northern-born white Republicans who made their homes in the South after the war, with many holding political office.Scalawags were southern-born white Republicans.Some were wealthy (e.g., James Alcorn, a Mississippi planter)Most had been up-country non-slaveholders before the Civil War and some had been Unionists during the war.Southern Republicans in PowerSouthern Republican governments established the South’s first state-supported public schools.The new governments also pioneered civil rights legislation.Republican governments took steps to strengthen the position of rural laborers and to promote the South’s economic recovery.The Quest for ProsperityDuring Reconstruction, every state helped to finance railroad construction.Investment opportunities in the West lured more northern investors than southern investors, and economic development remained weak in the South.The Overthrow of ReconstructionReconstruction’s OpponentsCorruption did exist during Reconstruction, but it was not confined to a race, region, or party.Opponents could not accept the idea of former slaves voting, holding office, and enjoying equality before the law.“A Reign of Terror”Secret societies sprang up in the South with the aim of preventing blacks from voting and destroying the organization of the Republican Party.The Ku Klux Klan was organized in 1866.It launched what one victim called a “reign of terror” against Republican leaders, black and white.Example: Colfax, Louisiana, massacre (1873)Congress and President Grant, with the passage of three Enforcement Acts in 1870 and 1871, put an end to the Ku Klux Klan by 1872.The Liberal RepublicansThe North’s commitment to Reconstruction waned during the 1870s.Some Republicans, alienated from Grant by corruption in his administration, formed the Liberal Republican Party.Horace GreeleyThe North’s RetreatThe Liberal attack on Reconstruction contributed to a resurgence of racism in the North.The 1873 depression also distracted the North from Reconstruction.The Supreme Court whittled away at Congress’s guarantees of black rights.Slaughterhouse Cases?(1873)United States v. Cruikshank?(1876)The Triumph of the RedeemersRedeemers claimed to have “redeemed” the white South from corruption, misgovernment, and northern and black control.The Disputed Election and Bargain of 1877The election between Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) and Samuel Tilden (Democrat) was very close, with disputed electoral votes from Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina.Congress set up a special Electoral Commission to determine the winner of the disputed votes.Behind the scenes, Hayes made a bargain to allow southern white Democrats to control the South if his election was accepted.The compromise led to Hayes’s election and the Democrats’ having a free hand in the South.The End of ReconstructionReconstruction ended in 1877.It would be nearly a century before the nation again tried to bring equal rights to the descendants of slavesCHAPTER 16America's Gilded Age, 1870-1890Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: The Statue of Liberty]The Second Industrial RevolutionThe Industrial EconomyBy 1913, the United States produced one-third of the world's industrial output.The 1880 census showed for the first time that a majority of the workforce engaged in nonfarming jobs.The growth of cities was vital for financing industrialization.Great Lakes regionPittsburghChicagoRailroads and the National MarketThe railroad made possible what is sometimes called the second industrial revolution.The growing population formed an ever-expanding market for the mass production, mass distribution, and mass marketing of goods.The Spirit of InnovationScientific breakthroughs and technological innovation spurred growth.Thomas EdisonCompetition and ConsolidationThe economy suffered prolonged downturns between 1873 and 1897.Businesses engaged in ruthless competition.To avoid cutthroat competition, more and more corporations battled to control entire industries.Between 1897 and 1904, 4,000 firms vanished into larger corporations.The Rise of Andrew CarnegieThe railroad pioneered modern techniques of business organization.By the 1890s, Carnegie dominated the steel industry.Vertical integrationCarnegie's life reflected his desire to succeed and his desire to give back to society.The Triumph of John D. RockefellerJohn D. Rockefeller dominated the oil industry.Industrial leaders were considered either "captains of industry" or "robber barons."Workers' Freedom in an Industrial AgeFor a minority of workers, the rapidly expanding industrial system created new forms of freedom.For most workers, economic insecurity remained a basic fact of life.Between 1880 and 1900, an average of 35,000 workers perished each year in factory and mine accidents, the highest rate in the industrial world.Class divisions became more and more visible.Many of the wealthiest Americans consciously pursued an aristocratic lifestyle.Thorstein Veblen on conspicuous consumptionThe working class lived in desperate conditions.The Transformation of the WestA Diverse RegionThe political and economic incorporation of the American West was part of a global process.The federal government acquired Indian land by war and treaties, administered land sales, and distributed land to farmers, railroads, and mining companies.Farming in the Trans-Mississippi WestMore land came into cultivation during the thirty years after the Civil War than during the previous two-and-a-half centuries of American history.Farming was difficult and much of the burden fell to women.As crop production increased, prices fell and small farmers throughout the world suffered severe difficulties during the last quarter of the nineteenth century.The future of western farming ultimately lay with giant agricultural enterprises, as seen in California.The Cowboy and the Corporate WestCowboys became symbols of a life of freedom on the open range.By the mid-1880s, farmers enclosed more of the open range and moved cattle operations close to rail connections.Many western industries fell under the sway of companies that mobilized eastern and European investment in order to introduce advanced technology.The Subjugation of the Plains IndiansThe incorporation of the West into the national economy spelled the doom of the Plains Indians and their world.As settlers encroached on Indian lands, bloody conflict between the army and Plains tribes began in the 1850s and continued for decades.Numbering 30 million in 1800, buffalo were nearly extinct due to hunting and army campaigns by 1890."Let Me Be a Free Man"The Nez Percé were chased over 1,700 miles before surrendering in 1877.Chief Joseph spoke of freedom before a distinguished audience in 1879.Defending their land, Sioux and Cheyenne warriors attacked Custer at Little Big Horn.Indian resistance only temporarily delayed the onward march of white soldiers, settlers, and prospectors.Remaking Indian LifeIn 1871, Congress eliminated the treaty system that dated back to the Revolutionary era.Forced assimilationThe Dawes Act and Wounded KneeThe crucial step in attacking tribalism came in 1887, with the passage of the Dawes Act.The policy proved to be a disaster for the Indians.Some Indians sought solace in the Ghost Dance, a religious revitalization campaign reminiscent of the pan-Indian movements.On December 29, 1890, soldiers opened fire on Ghost Dancers encamped on Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, killing between 150 and 200 Indians, mostly women and children.Settler Societies and Global WestsThe conquest of the American West was part of a global process.Countries like Argentina, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, as well as the United States, are often called "settler societies," because immigrants from overseas quickly outnumbered and displaced the original inhabitants.Politics in a Gilded AgeThe Corruption of PoliticsAmericans during the Gilded Age saw their nation as an island of political democracy in a world still dominated by undemocratic governments.Political corruption was rife.Urban politics fell under the sway of corrupt political machines.Boss TweedCorruption was at the national level too.Crédit MobilierThe Politics of Dead CenterEvery Republican candidate for president from 1868 to 1900 had fought in the Union army.Union soldiers' pensionsDemocrats dominated the southern and Catholic votes.The parties were closely divided and national elections very close.Gilded Age presidents made little effort to mobilize public opinion or to exert executive leadership.In some ways, American democracy in the Gilded Age seemed remarkably ernment and the EconomyThe nation's political structure proved ill-equipped to deal with the problems created by the economy's rapid growth.Tariff policy debatedReturn to gold standard in 1879Republican economic policies strongly favored the interests of eastern industrialists and bankers.Reform LegislationThe Civil Service Act of 1883 created a merit system for federal employees.Congress established the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) in 1887.The Sherman Antitrust Act, passed in 1890, banned practices that restrained free trade.Political Conflict in the StatesState governments expanded their responsibilities to the public.Third parties enjoyed significant (if short-lived) success in local elections.The Greenback-Labor PartyFarmers responded to railroad policies by organizing the Grange.Some states passed eight-hour-day laws.Freedom in the Gilded AgeThe Social ProblemAs the United States matured into an industrial economy, Americans struggled to make sense of the new social order.Many Americans sensed that something had gone wrong in the nation's social development.Many Americans viewed the concentration of wealth as inevitable, natural, and justified by progress.Social Darwinism in AmericaCharles Darwin put forth the theory of evolution, whereby plant and animal species best suited to their environment took the place of those less able to adapt.Social Darwinism argued that evolution was as natural a process in human society as it was in nature and that government must not interfere.Failure to advance in society was widely thought to indicate a lack of character.The Social Darwinist William G. Sumner believed that freedom required frank acceptance of inequality.Liberty of Contract and the CourtsLabor contracts reconciled freedom and authority in the workplace.The courts viewed state regulation of business as an insult to free labor.The courts generally sided with business enterprises that complained of a loss of economic freedom.Lochner v. New York voided a state law establishing ten hours per day or sixty per week as the maximum hours of work for bakers, citing that it infringed on individual freedom.Labor and the Republic"The Overwhelming Labor Question"The 1877 Great Railroad Strike demonstrated that there was an overwhelming labor question.The Knights of Labor and the "Conditions to Essential Liberty"The Knights of Labor organized all workers to improve social conditions.Labor raised the question of whether meaningful freedom could exist in a situation of extreme economic inequality.Middle-Class ReformersAlarmed by fear of class warfare and the growing power of concentrated capital, social thinkers offered numerous plans for change.Henry George's solution was the single tax.Lawrence Gronlund's Cooperative Commonwealth (1884) was the first book to popularize socialist ideas for an American audience.Freedom, Edward Bellamy insisted, was a social condition resting on interdependence, not on autonomy.Bellamy held out the hope of retaining the material abundance made possible by industrial capitalism while eliminating inequality.A Social GospelWalter Rauschenbusch insisted that freedom and spiritual self-development required an equalization of wealth and power and that unbridled competition mocked the Christian ideal of brotherhood.Social Gospel adherents established mission and relief programs in urban areas.The Haymarket AffairOn May 1, 1886, some 350,000 workers in cities across the country demonstrated for an eight-hour day.A riot ensued after a bomb killed a policeman on May 4.Employers took the opportunity to paint the labor movement as a dangerous and un-American force prone to violence and controlled by foreign-born radicals.Seven of the eight men accused of plotting the Haymarket bombing were foreign-born.Labor and PoliticsHenry George ran for mayor of New York in 1886 on a labor ticket.The events of 1886 suggested that labor might be on the verge of establishing itself as a permanent political forceCHAPTER 17Freedom's Boundaries, At Home And Abroad, 1890-1900Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Homestead Strike]The Populist ChallengeThe Farmers' RevoltFarmers faced increasing economic insecurity.Farmers sought to improve their condition through the Farmers Alliance.The People's PartyThe People's, or Populist, Party emerged from the Farmers Alliance in the 1890s.Spoke for all the producing classesThe Populists embarked on a remarkable effort of community organization and education.Populists embraced modern technologies-the railroad, telegraph, and the national market-and pushed the federal government to regulate them in the public interest.The Populist PlatformThe Populist platform of 1892 remains a classic document of American reform.The Populist CoalitionThe Populists made remarkable efforts to unite black and white small farmers on a common political and economic program.While many blacks refused to abandon the party of Lincoln, others were attracted by the Populist program.The Populist movement also engaged the energies of thousands of reform-minded women with farm and labor backgrounds.Mary Elizabeth Lease1892 presidential candidate James Weaver won over 1 million votes.The Government and LaborThe severe depression that began in 1893 led to increased conflict between capital and labor.Coxey's ArmyThe Pullman Strike of 1894 saw the labor leader Eugene Debs jailed.Populism and LaborPopulists made determined efforts to appeal to industrial workers but ultimately failed to get labor's support.Working-class voters in 1894 shifted en masse to the Republicans rather than to the Populists.Bryan and Free SilverIn 1896, Democrats and Populists joined to support William Jennings Bryan for the presidency.Called for free silverCondemned the gold standardChampioned a government helping ordinary AmericansThe Campaign of 1896Republicans nominated the Ohio governor William McKinley.The election of 1896 is sometimes called the first modern presidential campaign.Mark HannaMcKinley's victory shattered the political stalemate that had persisted since 1876 and created one of the most enduring political majorities in American history.? The Segregated SouthThe Redeemers in PowerUpon achieving power, the Redeemers moved to undo Reconstruction as much as possible.Public school systems hardest hitNew laws authorized the arrest of virtually any person without employment and greatly increased the penalties for petty crimes.The Failure of the New South DreamThe region as a whole sank deeper and deeper into poverty.Black Life in the SouthAs the most disadvantaged rural southerners, black farmers suffered the most from the region's condition.Blacks owned less land in 1900 than they had at the end of Reconstruction.Cities supported the growth of a black middle class.Most unions excluded blacks.The Kansas ExodusAfrican-Americans migrated to Kansas seeking political equality, freedom from violence, access to education, and economic opportunity.Most African-Americans had little alternative but to stay in the region.Most northern employers refused to offer jobs to blacks.The Decline of Black PoliticsPolitical opportunities became more and more restricted.The banner of political leadership passed to black women activists.The National Association of Colored WomenThe Elimination of Black VotingBetween 1890 and 1906, every southern state enacted laws or constitutional provisions meant to eliminate the black vote.Numerous poor and illiterate whites also lost the right to vote.The elimination of black and many white voters could not have been accomplished without the approval of the North.The Law of SegregationIn 1896, in the landmark decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court gave its approval to state laws requiring separate facilities for blacks and whites.John Marshall Harlan was the lone dissenter on the Court.States reacted to the Plessy decision by passing laws mandating racial segregation in every aspect of southern life.The Rise of LynchingThose blacks who sought to challenge the system or who refused to accept the demeaning behavior that was a daily feature of southern life faced violence.Many white southerners considered preserving the purity of white womanhood a justification of extralegal vengeance.Sam HoseThe Politics of MemoryThe Civil War came to be remembered as a tragic family quarrel of "brother against brother," among white Americans, in which slavery played a minor role.Redrawing the BoundariesThe New Immigration and the New NativismThree and a half million immigrants, mostly from southern and eastern Europe, arrived in the 1890s.Viewed as inferior by native-born AmericansVarious suggestions were made by nativists to eliminate the immigrants' ability to vote.Chinese Exclusion and Chinese RightsThe Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 barred Chinese from the United States.Chinese demands for equal rights forced the Supreme Court to define the reach of the Fourteenth Amendment.Tape v. Hurley (1885)United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898)Fong Yue Ting (1893) authorized the federal government to expel Chinese aliens without due process of law.The Emergence of Booker T. WashingtonProminent black leaders took to emphasizing economic self-help and individual advancement into the middle class as an alternative to political agitation.Washington emphasized vocational education over political equality.He urged blacks not to try to combat segregation.The Rise of the AFLThe rise of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) reflected a shift away from a broadly reformist past to more limited goals.Samuel Gompers pioneered "business unionism."During the 1890s, the labor movement became less and less inclusive.The Woman's EraChanges in the women's movement reflected the same combination of expanding activities and narrowing boundaries.Through a network of women's clubs, temperance associations, and social reform organizations, women exerted a growing influence on public affairs.Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)The center of gravity of feminism shifted toward an outlook more in keeping with prevailing racial and ethnic norms.Becoming a World PowerThe New ImperialismAfter 1870, European powers, along with Japan, scrambled to dominate Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, justifying their imperialism as bringing "civilization" to the supposedly backward peoples of the non-European world.American ExpansionismTerritorial expansion had been a part of American life since well before independence. But the 1890s marked a significant turning point in America's relationship with the rest of the world.Most Americans who looked overseas were interested in expanded trade, not territorial possessions.The Lure of EmpireReligious missionaries spread the nation's influence overseas during the late nineteenth century.A small group of late-nineteenth-century thinkers actively promoted American expansionism.Alfred T. MahanHawaii was long sought after by Americans, and was annexed by the United States in 1898.The depression that began in 1893 heightened the belief that a more aggressive foreign policy was necessary to stimulate American exports.New, mass-circulation newspapers promoted nationalistic sentiments ("yellow press").The "Splendid Little War"Cuba had fought for independence since 1868.The United States went to war with Spain to win Cuba's liberty and freedom.Teller AmendmentAdmiral George Dewey defeated a Spanish fleet at Manila Bay.Roosevelt at San Juan HillTheodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders took San Juan Hill in Cuba.An American EmpireIn the treaty with Spain ending the war, the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific island of Guam.Platt Amendment for CubaAmerica's interest in its new possessions had more to do with trade than with gaining wealth from natural resources or from large-scale American settlement.In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay announced the Open Door policy with China.The Philippine WarMany believed that American participation in the destruction of Spanish rule would lead to social reform and political self-government.Emilio Aguinaldo led a fight against American colonialism.The McKinley administration justified U.S. intervention because of the obligation to its "little brown brothers."Citizens or Subjects?American rule also brought with it American racial attitudes."White man's burden"America's triumphant entry into the ranks of imperial powers sparked an intense debate over the relationship between political democracy, race, and American citizenship.The Foraker Act of 1900 declared Puerto Rico an "insular territory," different from previous territories in the West.In the twentieth century, the territories acquired in 1898 would follow different paths.Hawaii achieved statehood in 1959.Philippines got independence in 1946.Puerto Rico is the "world's oldest colony" as a commonwealth.Drawing the Global Color LineAmerican racial attitudes had a global impact in the Age of Empire.Chinese exclusion in the United States influenced anti-Chinese laws adopted in Canada.American segregation and disenfranchisement became models for Australia and South Africa as they formed new governments."Republic or Empire?"The Anti-Imperialist League argued that empire was incompatible with democracy.But without any sense of contradiction, proponents of an imperial foreign policy also adopted the language of freedom.CHAPTER 18The Progressive Era, 1900-1916Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Triangle Shirtwaist Company Fire]An Urban Age and a Consumer SocietyFarms and CitiesFor the last time in American history, farms and cities grew together.It was the city that became the focus of Progressive politics and of a new mass consumer society.New York was the largest city.The MuckrakersA new generation of journalists writing for mass-circulation national magazines exposed the ills of industrial and urban life.Lincoln SteffensMajor novelists of the era took a similar unsparing approach to social ills.Upton SinclairImmigration as a Global ProcessBetween 1901 and 1914, 13 million immigrants came to the United States, many through Ellis Island.Asian and Mexican immigrants entered the United States in fewer numbers.Asians entered through Angel Island.The Immigrant Quest for FreedomLike their nineteenth-century predecessors, the new immigrants arrived imagining the United States as a land of freedom.Some immigrants were "birds of passage," who planned on returning to their homeland.The new immigrants clustered in close-knit ethnic neighborhoods.Consumer FreedomThe advent of large department stores in central cities, chain stores in urban neighborhoods, and retail mail-order houses for farmers and small-town residents made available to consumers throughout the country the vast array of goods now pouring from the nation's factories.Leisure activities also took on the characteristics of mass consumption."Nickelodeon" motion-picture theatersThe Working WomanTraditional gender roles were changing dramatically as more women were working for wages.Married women were working more.The working woman became a symbol of female emancipation.Battles emerged within immigrant families of all nationalities between parents and their self-consciously "free" children, especially daughters.The Rise of FordismHenry Ford revolutionized manufacturing with the moving assembly line.Ford paid his employees five dollars a day so that they could afford to buy his car.The Promise of AbundanceEconomic abundance would eventually come to define the American way of life, in which personal fulfillment was to be found through acquiring material goods.Earning a "living wage" came to be viewed as a natural and absolute right of citizenship.Father John A. RyanMass consumption came to occupy a central place in descriptions of American society and its future.Varieties of ProgressivismIndustrial FreedomFrederick W. Taylor pioneered scientific management.Eroded freedom of the skilled workersMany believed that unions embodied an essential principle of freedom-the right of people to govern themselves.The Socialist Presence and Eugene DebsThe Socialist Party called for immediate reforms.Socialism flourished in diverse communities throughout the country.New YorkMilwaukeeEugene Debs was socialism's loudest voice.He ran for president in 1912 on the Socialist ticket.AFL and IWWThe AFL sought to forge closer ties with forward-looking corporate leaders who were willing to deal with unions as a way to stabilize employee relations.A group of unionists who rejected the AFL's exclusionary policies formed the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW).The New Immigrants on StrikeImmigrant strikes demonstrated that while ethnic divisions among workers impeded labor solidarity, ethnic cohesiveness could also be a basis of unity.The Lawrence strike demonstrated that workers sought not only higher wages but the opportunity to enjoy the finer things in life.Labor and Civil LibertiesThe courts rejected the claims of labor.Labor unions fought for the right to assemble and speak freely.The New FeminismFeminists' forthright attack on traditional rules of sexual behavior added a new dimension to the discussion of personal freedom.Issues of intimate personal relations previously confined to private discussion blazed forth in popular magazines and public debates.The Birth-Control MovementEmma Goldman lectured on sexual freedom and access to birth control.Margaret Sanger placed the issue of birth control at the heart of the new feminism.Native American ProgressivismThe Society of American Indians was founded in 1911 as a reform organization independent of white control.Carlos Montezuma became an outspoken critic, demanding that all Indians be granted full citizenship.The Politics of ProgressivismEffective FreedomProgressivism was an international movement as cities throughout the world experienced similar social strains from rapid industrialization and urban growth.Drawing on the reform programs of the Gilded Age and the example of European legislation, Progressives sought to reinvigorate the idea of an activist, socially conscious government.Progressives could reject the traditional assumption that powerful government posed a threat to freedom because their understanding of freedom was itself in flux.John DeweyState and Local ReformsState and local governments enacted most of the era's reform measures.The Gilded Age mayors such as Hazen Pingree pioneered urban Progressivism.The most influential Progressive administration at the state level was that of Robert M. La Follette, who made Wisconsin a "laboratory for democracy."Progressive DemocracyProgressives hoped to reinvigorate democracy by restoring political power to the citizenry and civic harmony to a divided society.But the Progressive era also witnessed numerous restrictions on democratic participation.Voting was seen more as a privilege for a few.Jane Addams and Hull HouseOrganized women reformers spoke for the more democratic side of Progressivism.In doing so, they placed on the political agenda new understandings of female freedom.Jane Addams founded Hull House in Chicago.The new woman was college educated, middle class, and devoted to providing social services.Settlement houses produced many female reformers.The Campaign for Woman SuffrageThe campaign for woman suffrage became a mass movement.By 1900, over half the states allowed women to vote in local elections dealing with school issues.Maternalist ReformIronically, the desire to exalt women's role within the home did much to inspire the reinvigoration of the suffrage movement.Muller v. Oregon (1908) upheld the constitutionality of an Oregon law setting maximum working hours for women.Louis BrandeisBrandeis argued that the right to government assistance derived from citizenship itself.The Progressive PresidentsTheodore RooseveltRoosevelt's Square Deal attempted to confront the problems caused by economic consolidation by distinguishing between "good" and "bad" corporations.Roosevelt used the Sherman Antitrust Act to dissolve the Northern Securities Company.He pushed to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) and for more regulation of the food and drug industry.The Conservation MovementRoosevelt also moved to preserve parts of the natural environment from economic exploitation.John Muir and the Sierra ClubTaft in OfficeTaft pursued antitrust policy even more aggressively than Roosevelt.He supported the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution.Progressive Republicans broke from Taft after the Ballinger-Pinchot affair.The Election of 1912The election was a four-way contest between Taft, Roosevelt, the Democrat Woodrow Wilson, and the Socialist Eugene V. Debs.It became a national debate on the relationship between political and economic freedom in the age of big business.New Freedom and New NationalismWilson insisted that democracy must be reinvigorated by restoring market competition and freeing government from domination by big business.Roosevelt called for heavy taxes on personal and corporate fortunes and federal regulation of industries including railroads, mining, and oil.The Progressive Party platform offered numerous proposals to promote social justice.Wilson's First TermWilson proved himself a strong executive leader.With Democrats in control of Congress, Wilson moved aggressively to implement his version of Progressivism.Underwood TariffClayton ActThe Expanding Role of GovernmentFederal Reserve systemFederal Trade CommissionCHAPTER 19Safe For Democracy: The United States And World War I, 1916-1920Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: American "Liberal Internationalism"]An Era of Intervention"I Took the Canal Zone"Roosevelt was more active in international diplomacy than most of his predecessors.Roosevelt pursued a policy of intervention in Central America.PanamaThe Roosevelt CorollaryThe United States had the right to exercise "an international police power" in the Western Hemisphere.Dominican RepublicTaft emphasized economic investment and loans from American banks, rather than direct military intervention.Dollar DiplomacyMoral ImperialismWilson promised a new foreign policy that would respect Latin America's independence.Wilson's moral imperialism produced more military interventions in Latin America than any president before or since.Wilson and MexicoThe Mexican Revolution began in 1911.When civil war broke out in Mexico, Wilson ordered American troops to land at Vera Cruz.Mexicans greeted the marines as invaders rather than as liberators.America and the Great WarWar broke out in Europe in 1914.The war dealt a severe blow to the optimism and self-confidence of Western civilization.Neutrality and PreparednessAs war engulfed Europe, Americans found themselves sharply divided.Wilson proclaimed American neutrality, but American commerce and shipping were soon swept into conflict.LusitaniaBy the end of 1915, Wilson embarked on a policy of "preparedness."The Road to WarWilson won the reelection in 1916 on the slogan "He kept us out of war."Germany resumed submarine warfare.The Zimmerman Telegram was intercepted in 1917.The Fourteen PointsRussia pulled out of the war after the Lenin Revolution in 1917.Wilson issued the Fourteen Points in January 1918.They established the agenda for the peace conference that followed the war.When American troops finally arrived in Europe, they turned the tide of battle.The War at HomeThe Progressives' WarSome Progressives viewed the war as the possibility of reforming American society along scientific lines, instilling a sense of national unity and self-sacrifice, and expanding social justice.The Wartime StateThe war created a national state with unprecedented powers and a sharply increased presence in Americans' everyday lives.Selective Service ActWar Industries BoardWar Labor BoardThe Propaganda WarThe Wilson administration decided that patriotism was too important to leave to the private sector.The Committee on Public Information (CPI) was created.The CPI couched its appeal in the Progressive language of social cooperation and expanded democracy.Freedom took on new significance.The Coming of Woman SuffrageAmerica's entry into the war threatened to tear the suffrage movement apart.Jeannette Rankin opposed warThe National Woman's Party was militantly fighting for suffrage.Alice PaulThe combined efforts of women during the war won them suffrage.Nineteenth AmendmentProhibitionThe campaign to ban intoxicating liquor had a variety of supporters and gained momentum.Like the suffrage movement, prohibitionists came to see national legislation as their best strategy.Eighteenth AmendmentLiberty in WartimeDespite the administration's idealistic language of democracy and freedom, the war inaugurated the most intense repression of civil liberties the nation has ever known.The Espionage ActThe Espionage Act of 1917 prohibited not only spying and interfering with the draft but also "false statements" that might impede military success.Eugene V. Debs was convicted in 1918 under the Espionage Act for delivering an antiwar speech.Debs ran for president while still in prison in 1920.Coercive PatriotismPatriotism now meant support for the government, the war, and the American economic system.The American Protective League (APL) helped the Justice Department identify radicals and critics of the war.Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)Who Is an American?The "Race Problem"The "race problem" had become a major subject of public concern.Eugenics, which studied the alleged mental characteristics of different races, gave anti-immigrant sentiment an air of professional expertise.Americanization meant the creation of a more homogenous national culture.Israel Zangwill's The Melting PotA minority of Progressives questioned Americanization efforts and insisted on respect for immigrant subcultures.Randolph BourneThe Anti-German CrusadeGerman-Americans bore the brunt of forced Americanization.The use of German and expressions of German culture became targets of prowar organizations.Toward Immigration RestrictionThe war strengthened the conviction that certain kinds of undesirable persons ought to be excluded altogether.IQ test introduced in 1916Groups Apart: Mexicans and Asian-AmericansThe war led to further growth of the Southwest's Mexican population.The policies toward Asian-Americans were even more restrictive than those against Mexicans.Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907The Color LineThe freedoms of the Progressive era did not apply to blacks.Progressive intellectuals, social scientists, labor reformers, and suffrage advocates displayed a remarkable indifference to the black condition.Roosevelt, Wilson, and RaceRoosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dine with him at the White House.Wilson's administration imposed racial segregation in federal departments in Washington, D.C.Birth of a NationW. E. B. Du Bois and the Revival of Black ProtestDu Bois tried to reconcile the contradiction between what he called "American freedom for whites and the continuing subjection of Negroes."The Souls of Black Folk (1903)In some ways, Du Bois was a typical Progressive who believed that investigation, exposure, and education would lead to solutions for social problems.The Niagara movement sought to reinvigorate the abolitionist tradition.Du Bois was a cofounder of the NAACP.Bailey v. Alabama (1911)Closing RanksMost black leaders saw American participation in the war as an opportunity to make real the promise of freedom.During World War I, "closing ranks" did not bring significant gains.The Great MigrationThe war opened thousands of industrial jobs to black laborers for the first time, inspiring a large-scale migration from the South to the North.Half a million blacks migrated north.Many motives sustained the Great Migration.Racial Violence, North and SouthDozens of blacks were killed during a 1917 riot in East St. Louis, Missouri.Violence was not confined to the North.The Rise of GarveyismMarcus Garvey launched a separatist movement.Freedom for Garveyites meant national self-determination.1919A Worldwide UpsurgeUpheaval in AmericaIn the United States, 1919 also witnessed unprecedented turmoil.In 1919, more than 4 million workers engaged in strikes-the greatest wave of labor unrest in American history.The wartime rhetoric of economic democracy and freedom helped to inspire the era's greatest labor uprising.Striking for union recognition, higher wages, and an eight-hour daySteel magnates launched a concerted counterattack.Propoganda campaign associated the strikers with the IWWThe Red ScareThis was a short-lived but intense period of political intolerance inspired by the postwar strike wave and the social tensions and fears generated by the Russian Revolution.In November 1919 and January 1920, Attorney General Palmer dispatched federal agents to raid the offices of radical and labor organizations throughout the country.Wilson at VersaillesThe Versailles Treaty did accomplish some of Wilson's goals.The Versailles Treaty was a harsh document that all but guaranteed future conflict in Europe.The Wilsonian MomentWilson's idea that government must rest on the consent of the governed and his belief in "equality of nations" reverberated across the globe, especially among oppressed minorities and colonial peoples seeking independence.Wilson's language of self-determination raised false hopes for many peoples.The British and French had no intention of applying the principle of self-determination to their own empires.Ottoman empire and the League of Nations "mandates"The Seeds of Wars to ComeGerman resentment over the terms of the peace treaty helped to fuel the rise of Adolf Hitler.A new anti-Western nationalism and anticolonial nationalism emerged in non-European nations.The Treaty DebateWilson viewed the new League of Nations as the war's finest legacy.Opponents viewed the league as a threat designed to deprive the country of its freedom of action.On its own terms, the war to make the world safe for democracy failed.CHAPTER 20From Business Culture To Great Depression: The Twenties, 1920-1932Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: The Sacco-Vanzetti Case]The Business of AmericaA Decade of ProsperityThe business of America was business.The automobile industry stimulated the expansion of steel, rubber and oil production, road construction, and other sectors of the economy.American multinational corporations extended their reach throughout the world.American companies produced 85 percent of the world's cars and 40 percent of its manufactured goods.A New SocietyConsumer goods of all kinds proliferated, marketed by salespeople and advertisers who promoted them as ways of satisfying Americans' psychological desires and everyday needs.Americans spent more and more of their income on leisure activities like vacations, movies, and sporting events.The Limits of ProsperityThe fruits of increased production were very unequally distributed.By 1929, an estimated 40 percent of the population still lived in poverty.The Farmer's Plight1 Farmers did not share in the prosperity of the decade.California received many displaced farmers.The Image of BusinessBusinesspeople like Henry Ford and engineers like Herbert Hoover were cultural heroes.Numerous firms established public relations departments.The Decline of LaborBusiness appropriated the rhetoric of Americanism and industrial freedom as weapons against labor unions.Welfare capitalismPropaganda campaigns linked unionism and socialism as examples of the sinister influence of foreigners on American life.During the 1920s, labor lost over 2 million members.The Equal Rights AmendmentThe achievement of suffrage in 1920 eliminated the bond of unity between various activists.Alice Paul's National Woman's Party proposed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA).Women's FreedomFemale liberation resurfaced as a lifestyle, the stuff of advertising and mass entertainment.The flapperFemale freedom became a marketing tool.New freedom for women only lasted while she was single.Business and GovernmentIn 1929, the sociologists Robert and Helen Lynd published Middletown.The Republican EraGovernment policies reflected the pro-business ethos of the 1920s.Lower taxesHigher tariffsAnti-unionismThe Supreme Court remained strongly conservative.Repudiated Muller v. Oregon.Corruption in GovernmentThe Harding administration quickly became one of the most corrupt in American history.Harding surrounded himself with cronies who used their offices for private gain.Teapot Dome scandalThe Election of 1924Coolidge exemplified Yankee honesty.Robert La Follette ran on a Progressive platform in 1924.Economic DiplomacyForeign affairs also reflected the close working relationship between business and government.Washington Naval Arms ConferenceThe government continued to dispatch soldiers when a change in government in the Caribbean threatened American economic interests.Somoza and NicaraguaThe Birth of Civil LibertiesWartime repression continued into the 1920s.In 1922, the film industry adopted the Hays Code.A "Clear and Present Danger"The ACLU was established in 1920.In its initial decisions, the Supreme Court gave the concept of civil liberties a series of devastating blows.The Court and Civil LibertiesOliver Wendell Holmes and Louis Brandeis began to speak up for freedom of speech.The new regard for free speech went beyond political expression.The Culture WarsThe Fundamentalist RevoltMany evangelical Protestants felt threatened by the decline of traditional values and the increased visibility of Catholicism and Judaism because of immigration.Convinced that the literal truth of the Bible formed the basis of Christian belief, fundamentalists launched a campaign to rid Protestant denominations of modernism.Billy SundayFundamentalists supported Prohibition, while others viewed it as a violation of individual freedom.The Scopes TrialJohn Scopes was arrested for teaching evolution in school.The Scopes trial reflected the enduring tension between two American definitions of freedom.The renowned labor lawyer Clarence Darrow defended Scopes.Darrow examined William J. Bryan as an expert on the Bible.Fundamentalists retreated for many years from battles over public education, preferring to build their own schools and colleges.The Second KlanFew features of urban life seemed more alien to small-town, native-born Protestants than immigrant populations and cultures.The Klan was reborn in Atlanta in 1915 after the lynching of Leo Frank, a Jewish factory manager accused of killing a teenage girl.By the mid-1920s the Klan spread to the North and West.Closing the Golden DoorSome new laws redrew the boundary of citizenship to include groups previously outside of it.Efforts to restrict immigration made gains when large employers dropped their traditional opposition.In 1924, Congress permanently limited immigration for Europeans and banned it for Asians.To satisfy the demands of large farmers in California who relied heavily on seasonal Mexican labor, the law established no limits on immigration from the Western Hemisphere.The law did establish a new category of "illegal alien" and a new mechanism for enforcement, the Border Patrol.Race and the LawJames J. Davis commented that immigration policy must now rest on a biological definition of the ideal population.The 1924 immigration law also reflected the Progressive desire to improve the quality of democratic citizenship and to employ scientific methods to set public policy.Promoting ToleranceThe most potent defense of a pluralist vision of American society came from the new immigrants themselves.Immigrant groups asserted the validity of cultural diversity and identified toleration of difference as the essence of American freedom.In landmark decisions, the Supreme Court struck down laws that tried to enforce Americanization.The Emergence of HarlemThe 1920s also witnessed an upsurge of self-consciousness among black Americans, especially in the North's urban ghettos.New York's Harlem gained an international reputation as the "capital" of black America.The 1920s became famous for "slumming."The Harlem RenaissanceIn art, the term "New Negro" meant the rejection of established stereotypes and a search for black values to put in their place.Claude McKayThe Great DepressionThe Election of 1928Hoover seemed to exemplify what was widely called the new era of American capitalism.Hoover's opponent in 1928 was Alfred E. Smith of New York.Smith's Catholicism became the focus of the race.The Coming of the DepressionOn October 29, 1929 (Black Tuesday), the stock market crashed.The stock market crash did not, by itself, cause the Depression.The global financial system was ill-equipped to deal with the crash.Americans and the DepressionThe Depression transformed American life.The image of big business, carefully cultivated during the 1920s, collapsed as congressional investigations revealed massive irregularities among bankers and stockbrokers.Resignation and ProtestTwenty thousand unemployed World War I veterans descended on Washington in the spring of 1932 to demand early payment of a bonus due in 1945.Hoover's ResponseBusinessmen strongly opposed federal aid to the unemployed.Hoover remained committed to "associational action."The Worsening Economic OutlookSome administration remedies made the economic situation worse.In 1932, Hoover created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.Freedom in the Modern WorldIn 1927, the definition of freedom celebrated the unimpeded reign of economic enterprise yet tolerated the surveillance of private life and individual conscience.By 1932, the seeds had already been planted for a new conception of freedomCHAPTER 21The New Deal, 1932-1940Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: The Columbia River Project]The First New DealFDR and the Election of 1932FDR promised a "new deal" for the American people, but his campaign was vague in explaining how he was going to achieve it.The Coming of the New DealRoosevelt saw his New Deal as an alternative to socialism on the left, to Nazism on the right, and to the inaction of upholders of unregulated capitalism.For advice, FDR relied heavily on a group of intellectuals and social workers who took up key positions in his administration.Secretary of Labor Frances PerkinsHarry HopkinsSecretary of the Interior Harold IckesJustice Louis BrandeisThe view of these individuals prevailed during what came to be called the First New Deal.The Banking CrisisRoosevelt declared a bank holiday, temporarily halting all bank operations, and called Congress into special session.Emergency Banking ActFurther measures also transformed the American financial system.Glass-Steagall ActFederal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)The NRAAn unprecedented flurry of legislation during the first three months of Roosevelt's administration was a period known as the Hundred Days.The centerpiece of Roosevelt's plan for combating the Depression was the National Industrial Recovery Act (NRA).The NRA reflected how even in its early days, the New Deal reshaped understandings of liberty.Section 7aHugh S. Johnson set standards for production, prices, and wages in the textile, steel, mining, and auto ernment JobsThe Hundred Days also brought the government into providing relief to those in need.Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)Civilian Conservation Core (CCC)Public-Works ProjectsThe Public Works Administration (PWA) was created to build roads, schools, hospitals, and other public facilities.The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was created to build dams.The New Deal and AgricultureThe Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) authorized the federal government to try to raise farm prices by setting production quotas for major crops and paying farmers not to plant more.The AAA succeeded in significantly raising farm prices and incomes for large farmers.The policy generally hurt small farms and tenant farmers.The 1930s also witnessed severe drought creating the Dust Bowl.The New Deal and HousingThe Depression devastated the American housing industry.Hoover's administration established a federally sponsored bank to issue home loans.FDR moved energetically to protect homeowners from foreclosure and to stimulate new construction.Home Owners Loan CorporationFederal Housing Administration (FHA)There were other important measures of Roosevelt's first two years in office:Twenty-first AmendmentFederal Communications Commission (FCC)Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)The Court and the New DealIn 1935, the Supreme Court began to invalidate key New Deal Laws:National Recover AdministrationThe Agricultural Adjustment ActThe Grassroots RevoltLabor's Great UpheavalA cadre of militant labor leaders provided leadership to the labor upsurge.Workers' demands during the 1930s went beyond better wages.All their goals required union recognition.Roosevelt's election as president did much to rekindle hope among labor.1934 saw an explosion of strikes.The Rise of the CIOThe labor upheaval posed a challenge to the American Federation of Labor (AFL).John Lewis led a walkout of the AFL that produced a new labor organization, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).The United Auto Workers (UAW) led a sit-down strike in 1936.Steel workers tried to follow suit.Union membership reached 9 million by 1940.Labor and PoliticsThe labor upsurge altered the balance of economic power and propelled to the forefront of politics labor's goal of a fairer, freer, more equal America.CIO leaders explained the Depression as the result of an imbalance of wealth and income.Voices of ProtestOther popular movements of the mid-1930s also placed the question of economic justice on the political agenda.Upton Sinclair and the End Poverty in California movement (EPIC)Huey Long and Share Our WealthCharles CoughlinDr. Francis TownsendThe Second New DealRoosevelt in 1935 launched the Second New Deal with an emphasis on economic security.The Rural Electrification Agency (REA) provided electricity to rural areas.The WPA and the Wagner ActUnder Harry Hopkins's direction, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) changed the physical face of the United States.Perhaps the most famous WPA projects were in the arts.The Wagner Act brought democracy into the American workplace.The American Welfare State: Social SecurityThe centerpiece of the Second New Deal was the Social Security Act of 1935.The Social Security Act launched the American version of the welfare state.Social Security represented a dramatic departure from the traditional functions of government.A Reckoning with LibertyRoosevelt was a master of political communication and used his fireside chats to great effect.FDR gave the term "liberalism" its modern meaning.As the 1930s progressed, proponents of the New Deal invoked the language of liberty with greater and greater passion.The Election of 1936Fighting for the possession of "the ideal of freedom" emerged as the central issue of the presidential campaign of 1936.Republicans chose Kansas governor Alfred Landon, a former Theodore Roosevelt Progressive.Roosevelt won a landslide reelection.New Deal coalitionThe Court FightFDR proposed to change the face of the Supreme Court for political reasons.The Court's new willingness to accept the New Deal marked a permanent change in judicial policy.The End of the Second New DealThe Fair Labor Standards bill banned goods produced by child labor from interstate commerce, set forty cents as the minimum hourly wage, and required overtime pay for hours of work exceeding forty per week.The year 1937 witnessed a sharp downturn of the economy.The Limits of ChangeThe New Deal and American WomenEleanor Roosevelt transformed the role of first lady.However, organized feminism, already in disarray during the 1920s, disappeared as a political force.Most New Deal programs did not exclude women from benefits, but the ideal of the male-headed household powerfully shaped social policy.The Southern VetoThe power of the Solid South helped to mold the New Deal welfare state into an entitlement for white Americans.The Social Security law excluded agricultural and domestic workers, the largest categories of black employment.Political left and black organizations lobbied for changes in Social Security.The Stigma of WelfareBlacks became more dependant on welfare because they were excluded from eligibility for other programs.The Indian New DealUnder Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier, the administration launched an Indian New Deal.It marked the most radical shift in Indian policy in the nation's history.The New Deal and Mexican-AmericansFor Mexican-Americans, the Depression was a wrenching experience.Last Hired, First FiredAfrican-Americans were hit hardest by the Depression.FDR appointed a number of blacks to important federal positions.Mary McLeod BethuneThe 1930s witnessed a historic shift in black voting patterns.Federal DiscriminationFederal housing policy revealed the limits of New Deal freedom.Federal employment practices also discriminated on the basis of race.Not until the Great Society of the 1960s would those left out of New Deal programs win inclusion in the American welfare state.A New Conception of AmericaThe Heyday of American CommunismIn the mid-1930s, the left enjoyed a shaping influence on the nation's politics and culture.The CIO and Communist Party became focal points for a broad social and intellectual impulse that helped to redraw the boundaries of American freedom.The Popular FrontRedefining the PeopleThe Popular Front vision for American society was that the American way of life meant unionism and social citizenship, not the unbridled pursuit of wealth.Artists and writers captured the common man.Challenging the Color LinePopular Front culture moved well beyond New Deal liberalism in condemning racism as incompatible with true Americanism.The Communist-dominated International Labor Defense mobilized popular support for black defendants victimized by racism in the criminal justice system.Scottsboro caseThe CIO welcomed black members.Labor and Civil LibertiesAnother central element of Popular Front public culture was its mobilization for civil liberties, especially the right of labor to organize.Labor militancy helped to produce an important shift in the understanding of civil liberties.In 1939, Attorney General Frank Murphy established a Civil Liberties Unit in the Department of Justice.Civil liberties replaced property rights of business as the judicial foundation of freedom.The House of Representatives established an Un-American Activities Committee in 1938 to investigate disloyalty.The End of the New DealFDR was losing support from southern Democrats.Roosevelt concluded that the enactment of future New Deal measures required a liberalization of the southern Democratic Party.A period of political stalemate followed the congressional election of 1938.The New Deal in American HistoryGiven the scope of the economic calamity it tried to counter, the New Deal seems in many ways quite limited.Yet even as the New Deal receded, its substantial accomplishments remained.One thing the New Deal failed to do was generate prosperityCHAPTER 22Fighting For The Four Freedoms: World War II, 1941-1945Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms Paintings]Fighting World War IIGood NeighborsFDR embarked on a number of departures in foreign policy.Soviet UnionLatin AmericaThe Road to WarJapan had expanded its reach in Manchuria and China by the mid-1930s.Germany embarked on a campaign to control the entire continent.Benito MussoliniGeneral Francisco FrancoAlthough Roosevelt was alarmed, he was tied to the policy of appeasement.IsolationismAmerican businesspeople did not wish to give up profitable overseas markets in Germany and Japan.Many Americans were reluctant to get involved in international affairs because of the legacy of World War I.Congress favored isolationism, as seen with various Neutrality Acts.War in EuropeGermany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939.Blitzkrieg appeared unstoppable.For nearly two years, Britain stood virtually alone in fighting Germany.Battle of BritainToward InterventionIn 1940, breaking with a tradition that dated back to George Washington, Roosevelt announced his candidacy for a third term as president.Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act in 1941 and froze Japanese assets.Pearl HarborOn December 7, 1941, Japanese planes, launched from aircraft carriers, bombed the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.FDR asked for a declaration of war against Japan.The War in the PacificThe first few months of American involvement witnessed an unbroken string of military disasters.The tide turned with the battles at Coral Sea and Midway in May and June 1942.The War in EuropeD-Day established the much needed second front in western Europe.The crucial fighting in Europe took place on the eastern front between Germany and the Soviet Union.Stalingrad marked the turning point.The war claimed millions of lives.HolocaustThe Home FrontMobilizing for WarWorld War II transformed the role of the national government.The government built housing for war workers and forced civilian industries to retool for war production.Business and the WarAmericans produced an astonishing amount of wartime goods and utilized science and technology.The West Coast emerged as a focus of military-industrial production.Nearly 2 million Americans moved to California for jobs in defense-related industries.The South remained very poor when the war ended.Labor in WartimeOrganized labor entered a three-sided arrangement with government and business that allowed union membership to soar to unprecedented levels.Unions became firmly established in many sectors of the economy during World War II.Fighting for the Four FreedomsTo Roosevelt, the Four Freedoms expressed deeply held American values worthy of being spread worldwide.Roosevelt initially meant the phrase to refer to the elimination of barriers to international trade.It came to mean protecting the standard of living from falling after the war.The Fifth FreedomThe war witnessed a burst of messages marketing advertisers' definition of freedom.Free enterpriseWomen at WarWomen in 1944 made up over one-third of the civilian labor force.New opportunities opened up for married women and mothers.Women's work during the war was viewed by men and the government as temporary.The advertisers' "world of tomorrow" rested on a vision of family-centered prosperity.Visions of Postwar FreedomToward an American CenturyHenry Luce insisted that the United States embrace a leadership role in his 1941 book The American Century.Henry Wallace offered a less imperialistic alternative.Luce and Wallace both spoke about a new conception of America's role in the world."The Way of Life of Free Men"The National Resources Planning Board offered a blueprint for a peacetime economy based on:Full employmentAn expanded welfare stateA widely shared American standard of livingFDR called for an Economic Bill of Rights in 1944.The Servicemen's Readjustment Act, or GI Bill of Rights, was one of the most far-reaching pieces of social legislation in American history.The Road to SerfdomHayek's The Road to Serfdom (1944)Offered a new intellectual justification for opponents of active government.Helped lay the foundation for the rise of modern conservatism.The American DilemmaPatriotic AssimilationWorld War II created a vast melting pot, especially for European immigrants and their children.By the war's end, racism and nativism had been stripped of intellectual respectability.Ruth BenedictThe Bracero ProgramThe war had a far more ambiguous meaning for nonwhites than for whites.The bracero program allowed tens of thousands of contract laborers to cross into the United States to take up jobs as domestic and agricultural workers."Zoot suit" riotsMexican-Americans brought complaints of discrimination before the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC).Indians during the WarAmerican Indians served in the army.The Iroquois issued a declaration of war against the Axis powers."Code talkers."Asian-Americans in WartimeAsian-Americans' war experience was filled with paradox.Chinese exclusion was abolished.The American government viewed every person of Japanese ethnicity as a potential spy.Japanese-American InternmentThe military persuaded FDR to issue Executive Order 9066.Internment revealed how easily war can undermine basic freedoms.Hardly anyone spoke out against internment.The courts refused to intervene.Korematsu v. United States (1944)The government marketed war bonds to the internees and drafted them into the army.Blacks and the WarThe wartime message of freedom portended a major transformation in the status of blacks.The war spurred a movement of the black population from the rural South to the cities of the North and West.Detroit race riotBlacks and Military ServiceDuring the war, over 1 million blacks served in the armed forces.Black soldiers sometimes had to give up their seats on railroad cars to accommodate Nazi prisoners of war.Birth of the Civil Rights MovementThe war years witnessed the birth of the modern civil rights movement.In July 1941, the black labor leader A. Philip Randolph called for a March on Washington.Executive Order 8802 and FEPCThe Double-VThe "double-V" meant that victory over Germany and Japan must be accompanied by victory over segregation at home.The War and RaceDuring the war, a broad political coalition centered on the left, but reaching well beyond it called for an end to racial inequality in America.CIO unions made significant efforts to organize black workers and to win them access to skilled positions.The new lack of militancy created a crisis for moderate white southerners.The South reacted to preserve white supremacy.An American DilemmaAn American Dilemma (1944) was a sprawling account of the country's racial past, present, and future.Gunnar MyrdalMyrdal noted the conflict between American values and American racial polices.America had to outlaw discrimination.Black InternationalismIn the first decades of the twentieth century, a black international consciousness was reinvigorated.W. E. B. Du Bois, Paul Robeson, and others developed an outlook that linked the plight of black Americans with that of people of color worldwide.World War II stimulated among African-Americans a greater awareness of the links between racism in the United States and colonialism abroad.The End of the War"The Most Terrible Weapon"One of the most momentous decisions ever confronted by an American president-whether to use the bomb on Japan-fell to Harry Truman.The atomic bomb was a practical realization of the theory of relativity.The Manhattan Project developed an atomic bomb.The Dawn of the Atomic AgeOn August 6, 1945, an American plane dropped an atomic bomb that detonated over Hiroshima, Japan.Because of the enormous cost in civilian lives, the use of the bomb remains controversial.The Nature of WarThe dropping of the atomic bombs was the logical culmination of the way World War II had been fought: never before had civilian populations been so targeted in a war.Planning the Postwar WorldEven as the war raged, a series of meetings between Allied leaders formulated plans for the postwar world.TehranYaltaPotsdamYalta and Bretton WoodsThe Bretton Woods meeting established a new international economic system.The United NationsThe Dumbarton Oaks meeting established the structure of the United Nations.General AssemblySecurity CouncilPeace, but not HarmonyWorld War II produced a radical redistribution of world power.It remained to be seen how seriously the victorious Allies took their wartime rhetoric of freedom.Mahatma GandhiCHAPTER 23The United States And The Cold War, 1945-1953Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: The Freedom Train]Origins of the Cold WarThe Two PowersThe United States emerged from World War II as by far the world's greatest power.The only power that in any way could rival the United States was the Soviet Union.The Roots of ContainmentIt seems all but inevitable that the two major powers to emerge from the war would come into conflict.The Long Telegram advised the Truman administration that the Soviets could not be dealt with as a normal government.ContainmentIron Curtain speechThe Truman DoctrineTruman soon determined to put the policy of containment into effect.To rally popular backing for Greece and Turkey, Truman rolled out the heaviest weapon in his rhetorical arsenal-the defense of freedom.The Truman Doctrine created the language through which most Americans came to understand the postwar world.The Marshall PlanGeorge Marshall pledged the United States to contribute billions of dollars to finance the economic recovery of Europe.The Marshall Plan offered a positive vision to go along with containment.The Marshall Plan proved to be one of the most successful foreign aid programs in history.The Reconstruction of JapanUnder the guidance of General Douglas MacArthur, the "supreme commander" in Japan until 1948, that country adopted a new, democratic constitution.The United States also oversaw the economic reconstruction of Japan.The Berlin Blockade and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)In 1948, the Soviets cut off road and rail traffic from the American, British, and French zones of occupied Germany to Berlin.An eleven-month Allied airlift followed.In 1949, the Soviet Union tested its first atomic bomb.NATO pledged mutual defense against any future Soviet attack.Warsaw PactThe Growing Communist ChallengeCommunists won the civil war in China in 1949.In the wake of these events, the National Security Council approved a call for a permanent military buildup to enable the United States to pursue a global crusade against communism.NSC-68The Korean WarIn June 1950, the North Korean army invaded the south, hoping to reunify the country under communist control.American troops did the bulk of the fighting on this first battlefield of the Cold War.General Douglas MacArthurCold War CriticsCasting the Cold War in terms of a worldwide battle between freedom and slavery had unfortunate consequences.Walter Lippmann objected to turning foreign policy into an "ideological crusade."Imperialism and DecolonizationMany movements for colonial independence borrowed the language of the American Declaration of Independence in demanding the right to self-government.The Cold War and the Idea of FreedomAmong other things, the Cold War was an ideological struggle, a battle, in a popular phrase of the 1950s, for the "hearts and minds" of people throughout the world.One of the more unusual Cold War battlefields involved American history and culture.The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) emerged as unlikely patrons of the arts.Freedom and TotalitarianismAlong with freedom, the Cold War's other great mobilizing concept was totalitarianism.Just as the conflict over slavery redefined American freedom in the nineteenth century, and the confrontation with the Nazis shaped understandings of freedom during World War II, the Cold War reshaped them once again.The Rise of Human RightsThe idea that rights exist applicable to all members of the human family originated during the eighteenth century in the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions.In 1948, the UN General Assembly approved the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.Ambiguities of Human RightsDebates over the Universal Declaration of Human Rights revealed the tensions inherent in the idea of human rights.After the Cold War ended, the idea of human rights would play an increasingly prominent role in world affairs.The Truman PresidencyThe Fair DealTruman's first domestic task was to preside over the transition from a wartime to a peacetime economy.He moved to revive the stalled momentum of the New Deal.The Postwar Strike WaveThe AFL and CIO launched Operation Dixie, a campaign to bring unionization to the South.Nearly 5 million workers went on strike.The Republican ResurgenceRepublicans swept to control both houses of Congress in 1946.Congress turned aside Truman's Fair Deal program.Taft-Hartley ActPostwar Civil RightsImmediately after the war, the status of black Americans enjoyed a prominence in national affairs unmatched since Reconstruction.The Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947 added Jackie Robinson to their team.To Secure These RightsA Commission on Civil Rights appointed by the president issued To Secure These Rights.It called on the federal government to abolish segregation and discrimination.In 1948, Truman presented an ambitious civil rights program to Congress.Truman desegregated the armed forces.The Democratic platform of 1948 was the most progressive in the party's history.The Dixiecrat and Wallace RevoltsDixiecrats formed the States' Rights party.Strom ThurmondA group of left-wing critics of Truman's foreign policy formed the Progressive Party.Henry WallaceTruman's main opponent was the Republican Thomas A. Dewey.Truman's success represented one of the greatest upsets in American political history.The Anticommunist CrusadeThe Cold War encouraged a culture of secrecy and dishonesty.At precisely the moment when the United States celebrated freedom as the foundation of American life, the right to dissent came under attack.Loyalty and DisloyaltyThose who could be linked to communism were considered enemies of freedom.HUAC hearings against Hollywood began in 1947.The Spy TrialsHUAC investigated Alger Hiss.The Rosenburgs were convicted of spying and executed in 1953.McCarthy and McCarthyismSenator Joseph McCarthy announced in 1950 that he had a list of 205 communists working for the State Department.McCarthy's downfall came with the nationally televised Army-McCarthy hearings in 1954.An Atmosphere of FearAnticommunism was as much a local as a national phenomenon.Local anticommunist groups forced public libraries to remove "un-American" books from their shelves.The Uses of AnticommunismAnticommunism had many faces and purposes.Anticommunism also served as a weapon wielded by individuals and groups in battles unrelated to defending the United States against subversion.Anticommunist PoliticsThe McCarran Internal Security Bill of 1950The McCarran-Walter Act of 1952Organized labor rid itself of its left-wing officials and emerged as a major supporter of the foreign policy of the Cold War.Cold War Civil RightsThe civil rights movement also underwent a transformation.The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) purged communists from local branches.The Cold War caused a shift in thinking and tactics among civil rights groups.Dean Acheson's speech on aiding "free peoples"was addressed to the Delta Council; it was was filled with unintended irony, as the Delta's citizens were denied the very liberties of which he spoke.After 1948, little came of the Truman administration's civil rights flurry, but time would reveal that the waning of the civil rights impulse was only temporaryCHAPTER 24An Affluent Society, 1953-1960Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: The Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debates]The Golden AgeAfter the war, the American economy enjoyed remarkable growth.Numerous innovations came into widespread use during these years, transforming Americans' daily lives.A Changing EconomyThe Cold War fueled industrial production and promoted a redistribution of the nation's population and economic resources.Since the 1950s, the American economy has shifted away from manufacturing.The center of gravity of American farming shifted decisively to the West (especially to California).A Suburban NationThe main engines of economic growth during the 1950s were residential construction and spending on consumer goods.The dream of home ownership came within reach of the majority of Americans.LevittownThe Growth of the WestCalifornia became the most prominent symbol of the postwar suburban boom.Western cities were decentralized clusters of single-family homes and businesses united by a web of highways.The TV WorldTelevision replaced newspapers as the most common source of information about public events and provided Americans of all regions and backgrounds with a common cultural avoided controversy and projected a bland image of middle-class life.Television also became the most effective advertising medium ever invented.Women at Work and at HomeAfter a sharp postwar drop in female employment, the number of women at work soon began to rise, yet the nature and aims of women's work had changed.Women were expected to get married, have kids, and stay at home.Baby boomFeminism seemed to have disappeared from American life.A Segregated LandscapeThe suburbs remained segregated communities.During the postwar suburban boom, federal agencies continued to insure mortgages that barred resale of houses to nonwhites, thereby financing housing segregation.Under programs of "urban renewal," cities demolished poor neighborhoods in city centers that occupied potentially valuable real estate.The Divided SocietySuburbanization hardened the racial lines of division in American life.Between 1950 and 1970, about 7 million white Americans left cities for the suburbs.The process of racial exclusion became self-reinforcing.Suburban home ownership long remained a white entitlement.Selling Free EnterpriseMore than political democracy or freedom of speech, an economic system resting on private ownership united the nations of the Free World.The selling of free enterprise became a major industry.The Libertarian Conservatives and New ConservativesTo libertarian conservatives, freedom meant individual autonomy, limited government, and unregulated capitalism.These ideas had great appeal in the rapidly growing South and West.The new conservatism became increasingly prominent in the 1950s.The new conservatives insisted that toleration of difference offered no substitute for the search for absolute truth.They understood freedom as first and foremost a moral condition.Two powerful enemies became focal points for the conservative revival:The Soviet Union abroadThe federal government at homeThe Eisenhower EraIke and NixonGeneral Dwight D. Eisenhower ran for president in 1952.Richard Nixon ran as his vice president.Nixon gained a reputation for opportunism and dishonesty.The 1952 CampaignThis period illustrated the importance of TV in politics.Eisenhower's popularity and promises to end the Korean conflict brought him victory in 1952.During the 1950s, voters at home and abroad seemed to find reassurance in selecting familiar, elderly leaders to govern them.Modern RepublicanismWealthy businessmen dominated Eisenhower's cabinet.Eisenhower refused to roll back the New Deal.Modern Republicanism aimed to sever the Republican Party's identification in the minds of many Americans with Herbert Hoover, the Great Depression, and indifference to the economic conditions of ordinary citizens.Core New Deal programs ernment spending was used to promote productivity and boost employment.The Social ContractThe 1950s witnessed an easing of the labor conflict of the two previous decades.AFL and CIO merged in 1955.Social contractUnionized workers shared fully in the prosperity of the 1950s.Massive RetaliationIke took office at a time when the Cold War had entered an extremely dangerous phase.Massive retaliation declared that any Soviet attack on an American ally would be countered by a nuclear assault on the Soviet Union itself.Ike and the RussiansEisenhower came to believe that the Soviets were reasonable and could be dealt with in conventional diplomatic terms.Khrushchev's call for peaceful coexistence with the United States raised the possibility of an easing of the Cold War.In 1958, the two superpowers agreed to a voluntary halt on the testing of nuclear weapons.The Emergence of the Third WorldThe post-World War II era witnessed the crumbling of European empires.Decolonization presented the United States with a complex set of choices.The Cold War became the determining factor in American relations with the Third World.GuatemalaIranOrigins of the Vietnam WarAnticommunism led the United States into deeper involvement in Vietnam.A peace conference in Geneva divided Vietnam temporarily at the 17th parallel.Events in Iran and Vietnam, considered great successes at the time by American policymakers, cast a long shadow over American foreign relations.Mass Society and Its CriticsSome intellectuals wondered whether the celebration of affluence and the either/or mentality of the Cold War obscured the extent to which the United States itself fell short of the ideal of freedom.Wright MillsOne strand of social analysis in the 1950s contended that Americans did not enjoy genuine freedom.David Riesman's The Lonely Crowd (1950)Rebels without a CauseThe emergence of a popular culture geared to the emerging youth market suggested that significant generational tensions lay beneath the bland surface of 1950s life.Cultural life during the 1950s seemed far more daring than politics.Rock and rollThe Beats were a small group of poets and writers who railed against mainstream culture.Rejecting the work ethic, the "desperate materialism" of the suburban middle class, and the militarization of American life by the Cold War, the Beats celebrated impulsive action, immediate pleasure, and sexual experimentation.The Freedom MovementOrigins of the MovementThe United States in the 1950s was still a segregated and unequal society.Few white Americans felt any urgency about confronting racial inequality.The Legal Assault on SegregationIt fell to the courts to confront the problem of racial segregation.The League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC)Earl WarrenFor years, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), under the leadership of attorney Thurgood Marshall, had pressed legal challenges to the "separate but Equal" doctrine laid down by the Court in 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson.The Brown CaseMarshall brought the NAACP's support to local cases that had arisen when black parents challenged unfair school policies.Marshall argued that segregation did lifelong damage to black children.Earl Warren managed to create unanimity in a divided court, some of whose members disliked segregation but feared that a decision to outlaw it would spark widespread violence.The Montgomery Bus BoycottBrown ensured that when the movement resumed after waning in the early 1950s, it would have the backing of the federal courts.Rosa ParksBus boycottThe Daybreak of FreedomThe Montgomery Bus Boycott marked a turning point in postwar American history.It vaulted Martin Luther King Jr. as the movement's national symbol.From the beginning, the language of freedom pervaded the black movement.The Leadership of KingIn King's soaring oratory, the protesters' understandings of freedom fused into a coherent whole.Echoing Christian themes derived from his training in the black church, King's speeches resonated deeply in both black communities and in the broader culture.Massive ResistanceIn 1956, King formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).In 1956, many southern congressmen and senators signed a Southern Manifesto.Eisenhower and Civil RightsThe federal government tried to remain aloof from the black struggle.President Eisenhower failed to provide moral leadership.In 1957, Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas used the National Guard to prevent the court-ordered integration of Little Rock's Central High School.Since the start of the Cold War, American leaders had worried about the impact of segregation on the country's international reputation.The global reaction to the Brown decision was overwhelmingly positive.The Election of 1960Kennedy and NixonThe presidential campaign of 1960 turned out to be one of the closest in American history.John F. Kennedy was a Catholic and the youngest presidential candidate in history.Both Kennedy and Nixon were ardent Cold Warriors.Missile gapTelevision debateThe End of the 1950sEisenhower's Farewell Address warned against the drumbeat of calls for a new military buildup.Military-industrial complexCHAPTER 25The Sixties, 1960-1968Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Greensboro Sit-in]The Freedom MovementThe Rising Tide of ProtestThe Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) organized the Freedom Rides in 1961.As protests escalated, so did the resistance of local authorities.James MeredithBirminghamThe high point of protest came in the spring of 1963.Martin Luther King Jr. led a demonstration in Birmingham, Alabama."Letter from Birmingham Jail"King made the bold decision to send black school children into the streets of Birmingham.Bull Connor unleashed his forces against the children.The events in Birmingham forced white Americans to decide whether they had more in common with fellow citizens demanding their basic rights or violent segregationists.Medgar EversThe March on WashingtonThe March on Washington was organized by a coalition of civil rights, labor, and church organizationsThe March on Washington reflected an unprecedented degree of black-white cooperation in support of racial and economic justice, while revealing some of the movement's limitations and the tensions within it.The Kennedy YearsKennedy and the WorldKennedy's agenda envisioned new initiatives aimed at countering communist influence in the world.Peace CorpsSpace programKennedy failed at ousting Castro from power in Cuba.The Missile CrisisThe most dangerous crisis of the Kennedy administration came in October 1962, when American spy planes discovered that the Soviet Union was installing missiles in Cuba capable of reaching the United States with nuclear weapons.In 1963, Kennedy moved to reduce Cold War tensions.Limited Test-Ban TreatyKennedy and Civil RightsKennedy failed to protect civil rights workers from violence, insisting that law enforcement was a local matter.The events in Birmingham in 1963 forced Kennedy to take more action.Kennedy was shot on November 22, 1963, in Dallas.Lyndon Johnson's PresidencyThe Civil Rights Act of 1964Immediately after becoming president, Lyndon Johnson identified himself with the black movement more passionately than any previous president.In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act.Freedom SummerThe 1964 law did not address a major concern of the civil rights movement-the right to vote in the South.Freedom Summer was a voter registration drive in Mississippi.Schwerner, Goodman, and ChaneyFreedom Summer led directly to the campaign by the MississippiFreedom Democratic Party (MFDP).Fannie Lou HammerThe 1964 ElectionLyndon B. Johnson's opponent was Barry Goldwater, who was portrayed as pro-nuclear war and anti-civil rights.He was stigmatized by the Democrats as an extremist who would repeal Social Security and risk nuclear war.The Conservative SixtiesWith the founding in 1960 of Young Americans for Freedom (YAF), conservative students emerged as a force in politics.Sharon StatementThe Voting Rights ActIn 1965, King led a group in a march from Selma to Montgomery.The federal government took action when there was violence against nonviolent demonstrators.1965 Voting Rights ActTwenty-fourth AmendmentImmigration ReformThe belief that racism should no longer serve as a basis of public policy spilled over into other realms.Taken together, the civil rights revolution and immigration reform marked the triumph of a pluralist conception of Americanism.The Great SocietyJohnson outlined the most sweeping proposal for government action to promote the general welfare since the New Deal.Unlike the New Deal, however, the Great Society was a response to prosperity, not depression.The War on PovertyThe centerpiece of the Great Society was the crusade to eradicate poverty.Michael Harrington's The Other America (1962)In the 1960s, the administration attributed poverty to an absence of skills and a lack of proper attitudes and work habits.The War on Poverty concentrated on equipping the poor with skills and rebuilding their spirits and motivation.Freedom and EqualityJohnson's Great Society may not have achieved equality as a fact, but it represented a remarkable reaffirmation of the idea of social citizenship.Coupled with the decade's high rate of economic growth, the War on Poverty succeeded in reducing the incidence of poverty from 22 percent to 13 percent of American families during the 1960s.The Changing Black MovementThe Ghetto UprisingsThe 1965 Watts uprising left 35 dead, 900 injured, and $30 million in property damage.By the summer of 1967, violence had become so widespread that some feared racial civil war.Kerner ReportWith black unemployment twice that of whites and average black family income little more than half the white norm, the movement looked for ways to "make freedom real" for black Americans.Bill of Rights for the DisadvantagedIn 1966, King launched the Chicago Freedom Movement, with demands quite different from its predecessors in the South.The movement failed.Malcolm XMalcolm X had insisted that blacks must control the political and economic resources of their communities and rely on their own efforts rather than working with whites.After a trip to Mecca, Malcolm X began to speak of the possibility of interracial cooperation for radical change in the United States.The Rise of Black PowerBlack Power immediately became a rallying cry for those bitter over: the federal government's failure to stop violence against civil rights workers, white attempts to determine movement strategy, and the civil rights movement's failure to have any impact on the economic problems of black ghettos.The idea of Black Power reflected the radicalization of young civil rights activists and sparked an explosion of racial self-assertion.Inspired by the idea of black self-determination, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and CORE repudiated their previous interracialism, and new militant groups sprang into existence.Black Panther PartyVietnam and the New LeftOld and New LeftsWhat made the New Left new was its rejection of the intellectual and political categories that had shaped radicalism for most of the twentieth century.The New Left's greatest inspiration was the black freedom movement.The Fading ConsensusThe years 1962 and 1963 witnessed the appearance of several pathbreaking books that challenged one or another aspect of the 1950s consensus.The Fire Next Time-black revolutionSilent Spring-environmental costs of urban growthThe Other America-persistence of poverty amid plentyThe Death and Life of Great American Cities-urban renewal criticismThe Port Huron Statement offered a new vision of social change.Freedom meant participatory democracy.In 1964, events at the University of California at Berkeley revealed the possibility of a far broader mobilization of students in the name of participatory democracy.America and VietnamFear that the public would not forgive them for losing Vietnam made it impossible for Presidents Kennedy and Johnson to remove the United States from an increasingly untenable situation.Lyndon Johnson's WarCongress passed the Gulf of Tonkin resolution in 1964, authorizing the president to take "all necessary measures to repel armed attack" in Vietnam.Although Johnson campaigned in 1964 against sending U.S. troops to Vietnam, troops arrived in 1965.By 1968, the number of U.S. troops in Vietnam exceeded half a million and the conduct of the war had become more and more brutal.The Antiwar MovementAs casualties mounted and U.S. bombs poured down on North and South Vietnam, the Cold War foreign policy consensus began to unravel.Opposition to the war became the organizing theme that united all kinds of doubts and discontents.The burden of fighting fell on the working class and the poor.SDS began antiwar demonstrations in 1965.The CountercultureAs the Sixties progressed, young Americans' understanding of freedom increasingly expanded to include cultural freedom as well.Liberation was a massive redefinition of freedom as a rejection of all authority.The counterculture in some ways represented not rebellion but the fulfillment of the consumer marketplace.Personal Liberation and the Free IndividualTo young dissenters, personal liberation represented a spirit of creative experimentation, a search for a way of life in which friendship and pleasure eclipsed the single-minded pursuit of wealth.The counterculture emphasized the ideal of community.The countercultures' notion of liberation centered on the free individual.Sexual freedomThe New Movements and the Rights RevolutionThe Feminine MystiqueThe public reawakening of feminist consciousness came with the publication in 1963 of Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique.The immediate result of the Feminine Mystique was to focus attention on yet another gap between American rhetoric and American reality.The law slowly began to address feminist concerns.1966 saw the formation of the National Organization for Women (NOW), with Friedan as president.Women's LiberationMany women in the civil rights movement concluded that the treatment of women in society was not much better than society's treatment of blacks.The same complaints arose in SDS.By 1967, women throughout the country were establishing consciousness-raising groups to discuss the sources of their discontent.The new feminism burst onto the national scene at the Miss America beauty pageant of 1968.Bra burnersPersonal FreedomWomen believed that "the personal is political," thus permanently changing Americans' definition of freedom.Radical feminists' first public campaign demanded the repeal of state laws that underscored women's lack of self-determination by banning abortions or leaving it up to physicians to decide whether a pregnancy should be terminated.Gay LiberationGay men and lesbians had long been stigmatized as sinful or mentally disordered.The sixties transformed the gay movement.Stonewall barLatino ActivismThe movement emphasized pride in both the Mexican past and the new Chicano culture that had arisen in the United States.Cesar ChavezRed PowerTruman and Eisenhower had sought a policy known as "termination," meant to integrate Native Americans into the American mainstream; but it was abandoned by Kennedy.Indian activists demanded not simply economic aid but greater self-determination.American Indian MovementIndians of All NationsRed Power movementSilent SpringThe new environmentalism was more activist and youth-oriented and spoke the language of empowering citizens to participate in decisions that affected their lives.Rachel Carson's Silent Spring (1962) spurred the movement.Environmentalism attracted the broadest bipartisan support of any of the new social movements, despite vigorous opposition from business groups that considered its proposals a violation of property rights.April 22, 1970: Earth DayClosely related to environmentalism was the consumer movement, spearheaded by the lawyer Ralph Nader.The Rights RevolutionUnder the guidance of Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Court vastly expanded the rights enjoyed by all Americans.In 1957, the Court moved to rein in the anticommunist crusade.The Court continued to guard civil liberties in the 1950s and 1960s.In the 1960s, the Court continued to push toward racial equality.Loving v. Virginia (1967)The Court simultaneously pushed forward the process of imposing on the states the obligation to respect the liberties outlined in the Bill of Rights.Miranda v. Arizona (1966)Baker v. Carr (1962)The Right to PrivacyThe Warren Court outlined entirely new rights in response to the rapidly changing contours of American society.Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)Roe v. Wade (1973)1968A Year of TurmoilThe sixties reached their climax in 1968, a year when momentous events succeeded each other with such rapidity that the foundations of society seemed to be dissolving.Tet offensiveLyndon Johnson withdrew from the 1968 election.Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated.Robert Kennedy was assassinated.Chicago Democratic National ConventionThe Global 19681968 was a year of worldwide upheaval.Massive antiwar demonstrations took place.Nixon's ComebackThe year's events opened the door for a conservative reaction.Richard Nixon campaigned as the champion of the silent majority.The Legacy of the SixtiesThe 1960s produced new rights and new understandings of freedom.CHAPTER 26The Triumph Of Conservatism, 1969-1988Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: Theodore White]President NixonNixon's Domestic PoliciesHaving won the presidency by a very narrow margin, Nixon moved toward the political center on many issues.The Nixon administration created a host of new federal agencies.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)Nixon and WelfarePerhaps Nixon's most startling initiative was his proposal for a Family Assistance Plan.The plan would have replaced Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) with a guaranteed annual income, but it failed in Congress.Nixon and RaceTo consolidate support in the white South, Nixon nominated to the Supreme Court conservative southern jurists with records of support for segregation.Both were rejected by the Senate.The Nixon administration also pursued affirmative action programs to upgrade minority employment.Philadelphia PlanTrade unions of skilled workers strongly opposed the Philadelphia Plan.The Burger CourtWarren Burger was expected to lead the justices in a conservative direction but surprised many of his supporters.In Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971), busing was used as a tool to achieve integration.BostonMany whites came to view affirmative action programs as a form of reverse discrimination.In Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978), the Court ruled that fixed quotas were unconstitutional but that race could be used as one factor among many in college admission decisions.The Continuing Sexual RevolutionTo the alarm of conservatives, during the 1970s, the sexual revolution passed from the counterculture into the social mainstream.The number of divorces in 1975 exceeded the number of first-time marriages.Women made inroads into areas from which they had long been excluded in the 1970s.Title IXEqual Credit Opportunity ActMore employment opportunitiesThe gay and lesbian movement expanded greatly during the 1970s and became a major concern of the right.Nixon and DétenteConservatives viewed Nixon's foreign policy as dangerously soft on communism.Nixon and Henry Kissinger continued their predecessors' policy of attempting to undermine governments deemed dangerous to American strategic or economic interests.Chile.In his relations with the major communist powers, however, Nixon fundamentally altered Cold War policies.Nixon visited China in 1972.Nixon then went to Moscow, signing the treaties associated with the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT).DétenteVietnam and WatergateNixon and VietnamVietnamizationAntiwar protests climaxed in 1970.Kent State and Jackson State UniversitiesSocial changes within the troopsPublic support for the war was rapidly waning.My Lai MassacreWar Powers Act of 1973The End of the Vietnam WarThe Paris peace agreement made possible the final withdrawal of American troops in 1973.Vietnam was a military, political, and social disaster.WatergateNixon was obsessed with secrecy and viewed critics as a threat to national security.Pentagon Papers led to the plumbers.The Watergate break-in was covered up by the White House.Nixon's tapesNixon's FallIn August 1974, the House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend that Nixon be impeached for conspiracy to obstruct justice.Nixon resigned.Nixon's presidency remains a classic example of the abuse of political power.Frank Church led investigations against the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).Church Committee revelations seriously undermined Americans' confidence in their own government.Liberals, who had despised Nixon throughout his career, celebrated his downfall.The End of the Golden AgeThe Decline of ManufacturingDuring the 1970s, the long period of postwar economic expansion and consumer prosperity came to an end and was succeeded by slow growth and high inflation.In 1971, for the first time in the twentieth century, the United States experienced a merchandise trade deficit.Nixon took the United States off the gold standard.StagflationThe United States experienced two oil shocks in the 1970s.By 1973 the United States imported one-third of its oil."Stagflation": stagnant economic growth and high inflation.Misery indexThe Beleaguered Social CompactFaced with declining profits and rising overseas competition, corporations eliminated well-paid manufacturing jobs.The effects on industrial cities were devastating.The growth of cities in the Sunbelt was dramatic.In some manufacturing centers, political and economic leaders welcomed the opportunity to remake their cities as finance, information, and entertainment hubs.Always a junior partner in the Democratic coalition, the labor movement found itself forced onto the defensive.Ford as PresidentAmong his first acts as president, Ford pardoned Nixon.In domestic policy, Ford's presidency lacked significant accomplishment.WINThe Helsinki Accords were signed in 1975.The Carter AdministrationCarter ran for president as an outsider, making a virtue of the fact that he had never held federal office.Carter had more in common with Progressives of the early twentieth century than with more recent liberals.Carter and the Economic CrisisCarter viewed inflation, not unemployment, as the country's main economic problem.Carter also believed that expanded use of nuclear energy could help reduce dependence on imported oil.Three Mile IslandThe Emergence of Human Rights PoliticsUnder Carter, promoting human rights became a centerpiece of American foreign policy for the first time.Human rights organizations like the International League for Human Rights shaped Carter's thinking.Carter cut off aid to the brutal military dictatorship governing Argentina.Carter's emphasis on pursuing peaceful solutions to international problems and his willingness to think outside the Cold War framework yielded important results.Camp David AccordsPanama CanalBoth conservative Cold Warriors and foreign policy "realists" severely criticized Carter's emphasis on human rights.The Iran Crisis and AfghanistanThe Iranian revolution marked a shift in opposition movements in the Middle East from socialism and Arab nationalism to religious fundamentalism.The president announced the Carter Doctrine in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.The Rising Tide of ConservatismThe Religious RightThe rise of religious fundamentalism during the 1970s expanded conservatism's popular base.Evangelical Christians had become more and more alienated from a culture that seemed to them to trivialize religion and promote immorality.Jerry Falwell and the Moral MajorityThe Battle over the Equal Rights AmendmentThe ERA aroused unexpected protest from those who claimed it would discredit the role of wife and homemaker.To its supporters, the amendment offered a guarantee of women's freedom in the public sphere.To its foes, freedom for women still resided in the divinely appointed roles of wife and mother.The Abortion ControversyAnti-abortion advocates believe that life begins at conception and abortion is nothing less than murder.Woman's rights advocates believe that a woman's right to control her body includes the right to a safe, legal abortion.The abortion issue draws a bitter, sometimes violent line through American politics.The Tax RevoltEconomic anxieties also created a growing constituency for conservative economics.The tax revolt inspired a critique of government.Economic decline also broadened the constituency receptive to demands for lower taxes.Proposition 13The Sagebrush Rebellion in Nevada argued that certain decision-making power should be given over to the states.The Election of 1980Reagan appealed skillfully to the white backlash.Emphasized states' rightsRiding a wave of dissatisfaction with the country's condition, Reagan swept into the White House.The Reagan RevolutionReagan and American FreedomAn excellent public speaker, his optimism and affability appealed to large numbers of Americans.Reagan made conservatism seem progressive.Freedom became the watchword of the Reagan Revolution.Reagan reshaped the nation's agenda and political language more effectively than any other president since Franklin D. Roosevelt.ReaganomicsReagan's tax cuts marked a sharp retreat from the principle of progressivity.Supply-side economics assumed that cutting taxes would inspire Americans at all income levels to work harder, since they would keep more of the money they earned.Reagan and LaborReagan's firing of air traffic controllers inspired many private employers to launch anti-union offensives."Reaganomics," as critics dubbed the administration's policies, initially produced the most severe recession since the 1930s.The Problem of InequalityReagan's policies, rising stock prices, and deindustrialization resulted in a considerable rise in economic inequality.When the national unemployment rate reached 8.9 percent at the end of 1981, the figure for blacks exceeded 20 percent.The Second Gilded AgeIn retrospect, the 1980s, like the 1890s, would be widely remembered as a decade of misplaced values.Taxpayers footed the bill for some of the consequences.Savings and Loan scandalDuring Reagan's presidency, the national debt tripled to $2.7 trillion.Conservatives and ReaganReagan left intact core elements of the welfare state and did little to advance the social agenda of the Christian Right.Reagan and the Cold WarIn foreign policy, Reagan denounced the Soviet Union as an "evil empire," and sponsored the largest military buildup in American history.He proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative, a space-based system to intercept and destroy enemy missiles.Reagan came into office determined to overturn the "Vietnam syndrome."The Iran-Contra AffairReagan denied knowledge of the illegal proceedings, but the Iran-Contra affair undermined confidence that he controlled his own administration.Reagan and GorbachevIn his second term, Reagan softened his anticommunist rhetoric and established good relations with Soviet premier Mikhail Gorbachev.Glasnost and perestroikaReagan's LegacyReagan's presidency revealed the contradictions at the heart of modern conservatism.By 1988 "liberal" was a term of political abuse.The Election of 1988The 1988 election seemed to show politics sinking to new lows.CHAPTER 27Globalization And Its Discontents, 1989-2000Chapter Study Outline[Introduction: The Battle of Seattle and Antiglobalization]The Post-Cold War WorldThe Crisis of CommunismThe Tiananmen Square freedom demonstration in 1989 ended in violence.Germany reunified in 1990.By December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist.The end of the Cold War ushered in a truly worldwide capitalist system.A New World Order?Although George H. W. Bush talked of a New World Order, no one knew what its characteristics would be.The Gulf WarBush intervened when Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990.The Gulf War was the first post-Cold War international crisis.Visions of America's RoleBush identified the Gulf War as the first step in the struggle to create a world based on democracy and global free trade.The Election of ClintonThe economy slipped into recession in 1991, and Bill Clinton took advantage to win the election.A charismatic campaigner, Clinton conveyed sincere concern for voters' economic anxieties.A third candidate, the eccentric Texas billionaire Ross Perot, also entered the fray.Clinton in OfficeDuring his first two years in office, Clinton turned away from some of the social and economic policies of the Reagan and Bush years.Clinton shared his predecessor's passion for free trade.North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)The major policy initiative of Clinton's first term was a plan to address the rising cost of health care and the increasing number of Americans who lacked health insurance.The plan would have provided universal coverage through large groupings of organizations like the health maintenance organizations (HMOs).It was attacked by doctors, health insurance companies, and drug companies.The "Freedom Revolution"In 1994, for the first time since the 1950s, Republicans won control of both houses of Congress.Newt Gingrich and the Contract with AmericaViewing their electoral triumph as an endorsement of the contract, Republicans moved swiftly to implement its provisions.Clinton's Political StrategyClinton rebuilt his popularity by campaigning against a radical Congress.Clinton signed into law a Republican bill that abolished the program of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC).Clinton easily defeated Republican Bob Dole in the presidential contest of 1996, becoming the first Democrat elected to two terms since FDR.Clinton and World AffairsClinton took steps to encourage the settlement of long-standing international conflicts and tried to elevate support for human rights to a central place in international relations.Like Carter, Clinton found it difficult to balance concern for human rights with strategic and economic interests.RwandaThe most complex foreign policy crisis of the Clinton years arose from the disintegration of Yugoslavia.With the Cold War over, protection of human rights in the Balkans gave the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) a new purpose.Human RightsHuman rights emerged as justification for interventions in matters once considered to be the internal affairs of sovereign nations.A New Economy?The Computer RevolutionComputers and the Internet produced a new economy.Microchips made possible the development of entirely new consumer products.The computer transformed American life.The Internet expanded the flow of information and communications more radically than any invention since the printing press.The Stock Market Boom and BustIn the United States, economic growth and talk of a new economy sparked a frenzied boom in the stock market reminiscent of the 1920s.Investors were especially attracted to the new "dot coms," companies that conducted business via the Internet and seemed to symbolize the promise of the new economy.The bubble burst on April 14, 2000, when stocks suffered their largest one-day drop in history.The Enron SyndromeOnly after the market dropped did it become apparent that the stock boom of the 1990s had been fueled in part by fraud.EnronFruits of DeregulationThe sectors of the economy most affected by the scandals-energy, telecommunications, and stock trading-had all been subjects of deregulation.Many corporate criminals were found guilty and had to serve prison and/or pay billions in compensation.Many stock frauds stemmed from the repeal in 1999 of the Glass-Steagall Act, a New Deal measure that had separated commercial banks from investment banks.Rising InequalityThe boom that began in 1995 benefited nearly all Americans.However, overall, during the last two decades of the twentieth century, the poor and middle class became worse off, while the rich became significantly richer.The economy, in large part due to NAFTA, continued its shift away from manufacturers.In 2000, the United States was a suburban nation, which was also divided by income.Culture WarsThe Newest ImmigrantsBecause of shifts in immigration, cultural and racial diversity became increasingly visible in the United States.As in the past, most immigrants became urban residents.Post-1965 immigration formed part of the worldwide uprooting of labor arising from globalization.For the first time in American history, women make up the majority of newcomers.The New DiversityLatinos formed the largest single immigrant group.Numbering over 45 million in 2007, Latinos nearly equaled blacks and were poised to become the largest minority group in the United States.Only after 1965 did immigration from Asia assume large proportions.African-Americans in the 1990sBetween 1970 and 2000, twice as many Africans immigrated to the United States than had entered during the entire period of the Atlantic slave trade.Most African-Americans remained in a more precarious situation than whites or many recent immigrants.The justices made it increasingly difficult for victims of discrimination to win lawsuits and proved increasingly sympathetic to the pleas of whites that affirmative action plans discriminated against them.Despite the nation's growing racial diversity, school segregation was on the rise.The Spread of ImprisonmentAfrican-Americans, compared to other Americans, had an extremely high rate of imprisonment.As the prison population grew, a "prison-industrial complex" emerged.Over one-quarter of all African-American men could expect to serve time in prison at some time during their lives.African-Americans were also more likely than whites to suffer execution.The continuing frustration of urban African-Americans exploded in 1992.Rodney KingThe Continuing Rights RevolutionIn 1990, newly organized disabled Americans won passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act.The campaign for gay rights continued to gain momentum in the 1990s.AIDSNative Americans in 2000The Native American population reached 4 million in the 2000 Census, reflecting not only natural population growth but also an increased pride in identifying themselves as such to census enumerators.Many Native American tribes have profited from casinos on their lands.Multiculturalism"Multiculturalism" was a term to celebrate group differences and demand group recognition.Public-opinion polls indicate a growth of toleration in America over the last three decades.Increased cultural diversity and changes in educational policy inspired harsh debates.The culture wars were battles over moral values that raged throughout the 1990s.Pat Robertson and the Christian CoalitionIt sometimes appeared during the 1990s that the country was refighting old battles between traditional religion and modern secular culture."Family Values" in RetreatThe census of 2000 showed family values increasingly in disarray.Casey v. Planned Parenthood of Pennsylvania (1992) repudiated the centuries-old doctrine that a husband has a legal claim to control the body of his wife.The Antigovernment ExtremeAt the radical fringe of conservatism, the belief that the federal government posed a threat to American freedom led to the creation of private militias that armed themselves to fend off oppressive authority.An Oklahoma federal building was bombed by Timothy McVeigh in 1995.Impeachment and the Election of 2000The Impeachment of ClintonFrom the day he took office, charges of misconduct bedeviled Clinton.WhitewaterPaula JonesMonica LewinskyThe Disputed ElectionThe 2000 election was between Al Gore and George W. Bush.The election proved to be one of the closest in the nation's history.FloridaAs in 1877, it fell to Supreme Court justices to decide the outcome.The most remarkable thing about the election of 2000 was not so much its controversial ending as the even division of the country it revealed.A Challenged DemocracyComing at the end of the decade of democracy, the 2000 election revealed troubling features of the American political system at the end of the twentieth century.Evidence abounded in 2000 of a broad disengagement from public life.Freedom and the New CenturyExceptional AmericaIn the United States, people lived longer and healthier in 2000, compared to previous generations, and enjoyed a level of material comfort unimagined a century before.Ideas of freedom in the United States seem more attuned to individual advancement than to broad social welfareCHAPTER 28September 11 And The Next American CenturyChapter Study Outline[Introduction: Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001]The War on TerrorismBush before September 11Bush emphasized American freedom of action, unrestrained by international treaties and institutions.The Bush administration announced that it would not abide by the Kyoto Protocol of 1997.Scientists consider global warming a serious situation."They Hate Freedom"An outpouring of popular patriotism followed the September 11 attacks.The Bush administration benefited from this patriotism and identification with government.Bush told America that "freedom and fear are at war."The Bush DoctrineBush revealed his new foreign policy principle that the United States would launch a war on terrorism, which quickly became known as the Bush Doctrine.War in AfghanistanThe "Axis of Evil"Remarkable changes in American foreign policy quickly followed the Afghan war.In 2002, Bush identified Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as the axis of evil.An American Empire?Charges quickly arose that the United States was bent on establishing itself as a new global empire.In America, the term "empire," once a term of abuse, came back into widespread use.Confronting IraqA conservative group within the Bush administration welcomed an American invasion of Iraq to oust Hussein from power.This group seized on the attacks on September 11 to press their case for an Iraq invasion.In 2002, the Bush administration announced that a regime change was necessary in Iraq, as Hussein was amassing weapons of mass destruction.The Iraq WarThe decision split the Western alliance and inspired a massive antiwar movement throughout the world.Foreign policy "realists" like Brent Scowcroft warned that the Iraq War deflected attention away from the administration's real foe, Al Qaeda.China, Russia, Germany, and France refused to support a preemptive strike against Iraq.Bush called the war Operation Iraqi Freedom.Another Vietnam?Baghdad was captured within a month, and soon thereafter President Bush announced "mission accomplished."Looters and insurgents took control of Iraq, as there were not enough American troops in the country to keep order.Sectarian violence soon swept the country.The war soon cost more lives and dollars than any policymaker had estimated.The World and the WarRarely in its history had the United States found itself so isolated from world public opinion.Much of the outside world viewed the United States as a superpower unwilling to abide by the rules of international law.The Aftermath of September 11 at HomeSecurity and LibertyCongress rushed to pass the USA Patriot Act.Conferred unprecedented powers on law-enforcement agenciesDetention camp at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, was established.In November 2001, the Bush administration issued an executive order authorizing the holding of secret military tribunals for noncitizens deemed to have assisted terrorism.The Power of the PresidentMany regulations of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and local police forces were rescinded; and while some of these measures had congressional authorization, many had been unilaterally implemented by the president.The Torture ControversyThe Bush administration insisted that the United States need not be bounded by international law in regard to the war on terror.Abu Ghraib prisonCongress inserted a measure banning the use of torture in 2005, sponsored by John McCain.Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Attorney General Alberto Gonzales, and other officials had authorized the torture of persons captured in the war on terrorism, over the objections of many in the military.The Economy under BushDuring 2001, the economy slipped into a recession.Ninety percent of the jobs lost were in manufacturing.The real income of average American families fell slightly despite the economic recovery.The Winds of ChangeThe 2004 ElectionDemocrats sensed a golden opportunity.John Kerry, Vietnam veteranKarl Rove mobilized the conservative base on cultural issues.Bush's Second TermBush wished to "end tyranny in the world."The expected revolution with Bush's reelection stalled because of his eroding popularity, scandal, and indictments in the vice president's office.Hurricane KatrinaIn August 2005, New Orleans was devastated when the levee system broke and the city began to flood.The natural disaster became a human-made one too, considering the ineptitude of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).The New Orleans DisasterPoor residents of the city were left abandoned amid floodwaters.Where the government failed, individuals stepped in and shone.The hurricane also brought about energy concerns as the Gulf Coast oil drilling shut down.The Immigration DebateIllegal immigration also increased, both supporting and hurting the United States' economy and prompting heated debate.In response to a House bill making it a felony to be in the country illegally, immigrants marched in protest throughout the United States.Many church and relief groups denounced the bill as akin to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850.The Constitution and LibertyTwo significant Supreme Court decisions in June 2003 revealed how the largely conservative justices had come to accept that the social revolution that began during the 1960s could not be undone.Affirmative actionHomosexualityThe Court and the PresidentHamdi v. RumsfeldThe Court ruled that Yaser Hamdi had a right to a hearing after being imprisoned in a military jail without charge or the right to see a lawyer.With two new justices sitting on the bench, the Court ruled that the Geneva Conventions were the law of the land.The Midterm Elections of 2006Democrats expected gains due to Bush's plummeting popularity.Democrats gained control of both houses of Congress.Nancy Pelosi of California became the first female Speaker of the House in history.At the end of his second term, Bush's popularity sank to historic lows.The Housing BubbleIn 2008, the American banking system found itself on the brink of collapse.The roots of the crisis lay in a combination of public and private policies that favored economic speculation.Banks and other lending institutions issued "sub-prime" mortgages.Wall Street bankers developed complex ways of repackaging and selling these mortgages to investors.The Great RecessionIn 2006 and 2007, home prices began to fall. Many homeowners owed more money than their homes were worth and could not pay monthly mortgage payments.The value of the mortgage-based securities fell precipitously, and banks were left with billions of dollars of worthless investments.In 2008, banks stopped making loans, business dried up, and the stock market collapsed.Americans cut back on spending, leading to business failures and a rapid rise in unemployment.In April 2009, the recession that began in December 2007 became the longest since the Great Depression."A Conspiracy against the Public"Leading bankers and investment houses helped to bring down the American economy.The reputation of stockbrokers and bankers fell to lows last seen during the Great Depression.Bernard Madoff, "Ponzi scheme"The crisis exposed the flaws in market fundamentalism and deregulation.Bush and the CrisisThe Bush administration allowed Lehman Brothers to fail, and Lehman Brother's failure created a domino effect.The administration reversed course and persuaded Congress to appropriate $700 billion dollars to bail out other floundering firms."Too big to fail"The crisis also revealed the limits of the American "safety net."The Rise of ObamaThe caucuses and primary elections resulted in the nomination of Barack Obama, a relatively little-known 47-year-old senator from Illinois and the first black candidate to win the nomination of a major party.Hillary Clinton sought the Democratic nomination by emphasizing her political experience, while Obama emphasized change.With its widespread use of the Internet and massive mobilization of new voters, Obama's campaign was the first political campaign of the twenty-first century.The 2008 CampaignObama faced Senator John McCain, the Republican nominee, in the general election.McCain chose Sarah Palin as his running mate. The selection of Palin raised questions among many Americans about McCain's judgment.Obama won the election.His election redrew the nation's political map.Obama carried Democratic strongholds in New England, the mid-Atlantic states, the industrial Midwest, and the West Coast.Obama also won in states that had been reliably Republican for years: Virginia, North Carolina, and Florida.The Age of Obama?Obama's victory seemed to mark the end of a political era.Republican appeals to patriotism, low taxes, and resentment against the changes sparked by the 1960s seemed out of date.Democrats regained the presidency, ended up with 60 of the 100 seats in the U.S. Senate, and won a large majority in the House.The election of the nation's first African-American president represented a historic watershed.Obama's InaugurationMany Americans viewed Obama's election as a cause for optimism.In his inaugural address, Obama offered a stark rebuke to eight years of Bush policies.Obama in OfficeObama's first policy initiatives lived up to the promise of change, but other policy initiatives followed the course set by the Bush Administration.The Republican RevivalA grassroots movement calling itself the Tea Party mobilized to oppose what it claimed was excessive government spending and regulation.Learning from HistoryIt is still far too soon to assess the full impact of September 11 on American life.As in the past, freedom is central to Americans' sense of themselves as individuals and as a nation ................
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