A Level Sociology



A Level Sociology Beliefs in Society Topic 5Secularisation 962025317500Objectives:Identify the main trends in patterns of religious beliefs and practice in the UK and AmericaUnderstand and be able to analyse the possible causes of secularisationEvaluate arguments and evidence for the view that secularisation is occurringSecularisation in Britain:CROCKETT – estimates that in 1851 40% of the adult population in Britain attended church on Sundays. This is much higher than today and it has claimed some sociologists to claim that the 19th century was a ‘golden age’ of religiosity. There has been a:Decline in church attendanceAn increase in the average age of churchgoersFewer baptisms and church weddings A decline in the numbers holding traditional Christian beliefsGreat religious diversitySecularisation can be defined as ‘the process whereby religious beliefs, practice and institutions lose social significance’.11525255842000Church attendance todayBy 2015, about 5% of the adult population attended church on Sundays. Church going has more than halved since the 1960s. Sunday attendance in the Church of England fell from 1.6 million in 1960, to under 0.8 million in 2013. Sunday school attendance has declined further and only a tiny proportion of children now attend. While church weddings and baptisms remain more popular than attendance at Sunday services, here too the trend is downwards. In 1971, 60% of weddings were in a church, but by 2012 the proportion was only 30%. Similarly, infant baptisms have fallen steadily. While infant baptisms have declined, those of older children have increased in recent years. Research indicates that this is because many faith schools, which tend to be high performing schools, will only take baptised children. Baptism thus becomes an entry ticket to a good school rather than a sign of Christian commitment. These are called ‘bogus baptisms’. Religious affiliation today A person’s religious affiliation refers to their membership of or identification with a religion. The evidence indicates a continuing decline in the number of people who are affiliated to a religion. Between 1983 and 2014 the percentage of adults with no religion rose from around a third to around a half (British Social Attitudes Survey, 2015).Religious beliefs todayEvidence about religious beliefs from 80 years of survey research shows that religious belief is declining along with the decline in church attendance and membership. For example, surveys show a significant decline in a belief in a personal god, in Jesus as the son of God and in Christian teachings about the afterlife and the Bible. Religious institutions todayThe influence of the church as a social institution has declined and no longer has the same influence on public life. The state has taken over many functions that the church used to perform. It has increasingly been relegated to the private sphere of the individual and the family. For example, until the mid-19th century, the churches provided education, but since then it has been provided mainly by the state. Although there are still some ‘faith schools’, these are mainly state funded and must conform to the states regulations. Similarly, although there is a legal requirement for schools to provide a daily act of collective worship of a ‘broadly Christian character’, a BBC survey in 2005 found that over half the secondary schools in Wales failed to comply with this. The number of clergy is also falling and they are an ageing workforce. Woodhead identifies that a lack of clergy on the ground in local communities means that the day-to-day influence of the churches is reduced. Explanations of secularisation:Common themes for explaining secularisation are:The notion of modernisation, involving the decline of tradition and its replacement with rational and scientific ways of thinking that undermine religionIndustrialisation has also led to the breakdown of small communities that were held together by religious beliefsThe growth in social and religious diversity. This growth had undermined both the authority of religious institutions and the credibility of religious beliefsWeber - rationalisation:Rationalisation is the process by which rational ways of thinking and acting come to replace religious ones. Weber argues that Western society has undergone a process of rationalisation.He argued that the Protestant Reformation begun by Martin Luther King started a process of rationalisation of life in the West. This process undermined the religious worldview of the Middle Ages and replaced it with the rational scientific outlook found in modern society.For Weber, the medieval Catholic worldview that dominated Europe saw the world as an enchanted (or magical) garden. God and other spiritual beings and forces were believed to be present and active in this world, changing the course of events through their supernatural powers. Humans could try and influence these beings through prayers and magic to ensure a good harvest, protect against disease and so on. However, the Protestant Reformation brought a new worldview. Instead, Protestantism saw God as transcendent – as existing above and beyond, or outside this world. Although God created the world he did not intervene. This meant that events were no longer to be explained as the work of unpredictable supernatural beings, but as the predictable workings of natural forces. All that was needed to understand them was rationality and reason. Using science and reason humans could discover the laws of nature, understand and predict how the world works and control it through technology. In other words there was no longer a need for religious explanations of the world. In Weber’s view, therefore, the Reformation began the disenchantment of the world. This enables science to thrive and provides the basis for technological advancement, undermining the religious worldview.Questions: What does rationalisation mean? How did the Protestant Reformation start a period of rationalisation?What does disenchantment mean? Bruce – technological worldview:right3556000This technological worldview has replaced supernatural explanations as to why things happen. For example when a plane crashes we are unlikely to regard it as the work of evil spirits. Instead we look for scientific and technological explanations. This leaves very little room for religious explanations in everyday life. It encourages people to take religion less seriously. Parsons – structural differentiation:A process of specialisation that occurs within the development of industrial society. Separate, specialised institutions develop to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single institution. With industrialisation it has become smaller and more specialised. This leads to the disengagement of religion. Its functions are transferred to other institutions such as the state and it becomes disconnected from wider society. The church has lost its influence it once had on education, social welfare and the law. Religion has now become privatised – confined to the private sphere of the home and the family. Traditional rituals and symbols have lost meaning. 325755070231000At the same time, Church and the state tend to become separated in modern society. Modern states increasingly accept that religion is a personal choice and the state should not be identified with one particular faith.Stretch yourself – how can France be used as an example of this? Wilson – social and cultural diversity:In Pre-industrial communities, shared values were expressed through collective rituals that integrated individuals and regulated their behaviour. However, when religion lost its basis in stable local communities, it lost its vitality and its hold over individuals. Small, close-knit rural communities give way to large, loose-knit urban communities with diverse values and beliefs. Social and geographical mobility not only breaks up communities but brings people together from many different backgrounds, creating more diversity.Diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermines religion. Even when people continue to hold religious beliefs, they cannot avoid knowing that many of those around them hold different views. In the absence of a practicing religious community that functions on a day to day basis, both religious belief and practice tend to decline. Evaluation: Religion can be a source of identity on a worldwide scale. This is true of Jewish, Hindu and Muslim communitiesPentecostal and other religious groups often flourish in ‘impersonal’ urban areasBerger – religious diversity:Instead of there being one religious organisations and only one interpretation of the faith, there are many. In the Middle Ages the Catholic Church held a monopoly – it had no competition. As a result, everyone lived under a single sacred canopy or set of beliefs shared by all. This gave these beliefs plausibility because they had no challengers and the Church’s version of the truth was unquestioned. This all changed with the Protestant Reformation, when Protestant Churches and sects broke away from the Catholic Church in the 16th century. Since this time a number of religious organisations have grown, each with their own version of the truth. With this diversity, no single organisation can claim a monopoly. This creates a crisis in the credibility of religion. Diversity undermines religions ‘plausibility structure’ – the reasons why people find it believable. When there are alternative versions of religion to choose from, people are likely to question them and this erodes the certainties of traditional religion. Religious beliefs become relative as opposed to absolute – what is true or false becomes simply a personal point of view and this creates the possibility of opting out altogether. Bruce – cultural defence and cultural transition:The two counter trends seem to go against secularisation theory:Cultural defence – is where religion provides a focal point for the defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against an external force such as a hostile foreign powerCultural transition – is where religion provides support and a sense of community for ethnic groups such as migrants to a different country or cultureHe argues that religion only survives in these instances because it is a focus group for identity. This does not disprove secularisation theory, but shows that religion is most likely to survive where it performs functions other than relating individuals to the supernatural. Evaluation: Berger has changed his views and now argues that diversity and choice actually stimulates interest and participation in religion – New Christian Right in USA shows continuing vitality in religionBeckford agrees with the idea that religious diversity will lead some to question or even abandon their beliefs, but it is not inevitableSummary activity What are your top 3 explanations – identify the best three explanations and justify why they are the strongest reasons: Explanation Justification Secularisation in America:375285018859500In 1962 Wilson found that 45% of Americans attended church on Sundays. However, he argued that churchgoing in America was more an expression of the ‘American way of life’ as opposed to deeply held religious beliefs. Wilson claimed that America was a secular society, not because people had abandoned churches, but because religion has become superficial. This is because of:Declining church attendanceSecularisation from withinA trend towards religious diversity and relativismDeclining church attendanceOpinion poll research asking people about church attendance suggests that it has been stable at about 40% of the population since 1940. However, Hadaway found that this figure did not match the churches’ own attendance statistics. If 40% of Americans were going to church, the churches would be full – but they were not. To investigate their suspicion that opinion polls exaggerate attendance rates, they studied church attendance in Ohio. To estimate attendance, they carried out head counts at services. Then in interviews, they asked people if they attended church. They found that the level of attendance claimed by the interviewees was 83% higher than the researchers’ estimates of church attendance in the county. There is evidence to suggest that this tendency to exaggerate churchgoing is a recent development. Bruce concludes that a stable rate of self-reported attendance of about 40% has masked a decline in actual attendance in the United States. The widening gap may be due to the fact it is still seen as socially desirable or normative to go to church, so people who have stopped going will still say they attend if asked in a survey. Secularisation from within The emphasis on traditional Christian beliefs and glorifying God has declined and religion in America has become ‘psychologised’ or turned in to a form of therapy. This change has enabled it to fit in with a secular society. American religion has remained popular by becoming less religious. This decline in commitment to traditional beliefs can be seen in people’s lifestyles and attitudes. Churchgoers are now less strict than previously in their adherence to traditional morality. Religious diversity The growth of religious diversity has also contributed to secularisation from within. Churchgoers are becoming less dogmatic (more flexible) in their views. Bruce identifies a trend towards practical relativism among American Christians, involving acceptance of the view that others are entitled to hold beliefs that are different to one’s own. The counterpart to practical relativism is the erosion of absolutism – that is, we now live in a society where many people hold views that are completely different to ours, which undermines our assumption that our own views are absolutely true. Question:34004251079500In what way does America’s changing practices support the view that secularisation is happening? Evaluation of the secularisation debate:Secularisation theorists put forward strong arguments and evidence to support their claim that religious beliefs, practices and institutions have declined in Britain and America. However, they have been criticised in several ways particularly by POST-MODERNITY theories:-276225113665Religion is not declining, but simply changing its form00Religion is not declining, but simply changing its form1238251027430Secularisation theory is one-sided. It focuses on the decline and ignores religious revivals and the growth of new religions00Secularisation theory is one-sided. It focuses on the decline and ignores religious revivals and the growth of new religionsleft2146935Evidence of falling church attendance ignores people who believe but don’t go to church – believing without belonging00Evidence of falling church attendance ignores people who believe but don’t go to church – believing without belonging2476503322955Religion may have declined in Europe but not in America or globally, so secularisation is not universal00Religion may have declined in Europe but not in America or globally, so secularisation is not universal-4000504342130Far from causing decline, religious diversity increases participation because it offers choice. There is no overall downward trend. Religious trends point in different directions and people make use of religion in all sorts of ways00Far from causing decline, religious diversity increases participation because it offers choice. There is no overall downward trend. Religious trends point in different directions and people make use of religion in all sorts of ways6286506209030The past was not a ‘golden age’ of faith from which we have declined and the future will not be an age of atheism00The past was not a ‘golden age’ of faith from which we have declined and the future will not be an age of atheismMix and match key theorists:Mix and match the definitions to the theories below:CrockettA. Believes that secularisation was as a result of rationalisation, in which rational ways of thinking and acting come to replace religious ones. He examines the way in which Western societies have undergone a process of rationalisation in the last few centuries. He argued that the Protestant Reformation started this process of rationalisation, in which the religious worldview of the Middle Ages was replaced with the rational scientific outlook found in modern society. WilsonB. He argues that the cause of secularisation is the trend towards religious diversity where instead of there being only one religious organisation and only one interpretation of the faith, there are many. The Catholic Church no longer has a monopoly of truth and the Church’s version of the truth has begun to be questioned due to the emergence of new/different versions of the truth. Diversity reduces the credibility of religion. WeberC. He looked at church attendance in the 1960s and today. He found today in Britain only 6.3% of the adult population attend church on a Sunday. He believes that social and cultural diversity is one reason why Britain is more secularised. In an industrial society the diversity of occupations, cultures and lifestyles undermine religion. BruceD. Looked at patterns of secularisation within Britain and found that the proportion of people going to church had declined. He also found that there has been an increase in the average age of churchgoers, there are fewer baptisms and church weddings, a decline in the numbers holding traditional Christian beliefs and greater religious diversity. ParsonsE. He defines structural differentiation as a process of specialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society. Separate, specialised institutions develop to carry out functions that were previously carried out by religious institutions. Structural differentiation leads to the disengagement of religion. Its functions are transferred to other institutions such as the state and it becomes disconnected from wider society.BergerF. Explores the reasons of secularisation in Britain as being a result of the technological worldview. This view has replaced religious or supernatural explanations of why things happen. He uses the explanation of a plane to emphasise his point. A crash is not likely to be thought of in modern society as the result of evil spirits or God’s punishment. Instead we look for scientific and technological explanations. Key concepts: KEY CONCEPTDEFINITION SecularisationRationalisation DisenchantmentTechnological worldviewStructural differentiation Social and cultural diversity Sacred canopy Cultural defenceCultural transition Exam technique:Outline and explain two reasons for the decline in religious beliefs in a secular society (10 marks) POINT ONE POINT TWO Item A The United States is home to groups such as the New Christian Right that campaign to promote religious values in wider society and opinion polls show that about 40% of Americans describe themselves as regular church attendees. Despite these figures religion has become superficial.Applying material from Item A, analyse two reasons to support the view that the United States is no longer a religious society (10 marks) POINT ONEPOINT TWO Item B Berger (1990) argues that religion once provided a ‘shared universe of meaning’ and was used by people to make sense of the world, and to give their lives focus and order. He refers to religion as a ‘sacred canopy’, stretching over society and helping people to cope with the uncertainties of life. Other sociologists disagree about the role religion fulfils in society today.Applying material from Item A and your knowledge, evaluate the view that religion no longer acts as a ‘shared universe of meaning’ for people today. (20 marks) ................
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