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Федеральное агентство по образованию

Государственное образовательное учреждение

высшего профессионального образования

«Тверской государственный университет»

С. А. Макаров

ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ СИНТАКСИС АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

Учебное пособие

ТВЕРЬ 2005

УДК 802.0-56 (075.8)

ББК Ш 143.21-923.3

М 15

Рецензенты:

Кандидат филологических наук, доцент кафедры

иностранных языков ТФ МосУ МВД РФ

А.М. Винокуров

Кандидат филологических наук, зав. кафедрой иностранных языков

Тверской военной академии ПВО им Г.К. Жукова

В.С. Соловьёва

Макаров С.А.

М 15 Практический синтаксис английского языка: Учеб. пособие.

– Тверь: Твер. гос. ун-т, 2005. – 104 с.

Пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов факультетов иностранных языков и имеет целью развитие и автоматизирование навыков и умений правильного употребления грамматических структур в области синтаксиса, а также систематизацию ранее изученного материала и овладение терминологией.

УДК 802.0-56 (075.8)

ББК Ш 143.21-923.3

Печатается по решению научно-методического совета Тверского госуниверситета.

| |© Макаров С.А., 2005 |

| |© Тверской государственный университет, 2005 |

| | Professors must have a theory as a dog must have fleas. |

| |William J. Bryan |

S Y N T A X

SYNTAX is the part of grammar which deals with the sentence and combinability of words (parts of the sentence).

THE SENTENCE

Anything that is said in the act of communication is called an utterance. Most utterances are sentences, although there are some which are not sentences and are called non-sentence utterances. Thus utterances fall into two groups: sentences and non-sentences.

|The Sentence |Non-sentence Utterances |

|is a unit of speech which expresses more or less complete |1. Vocatives |

|thought and has a definite grammatical form and intonation. It |e.g. John! Mr President! |

|shows the relation of the statement to reality (modality). |2. “Yes-no” utterances |

|Note: One should bear in mind that there exist about 1001 |e.g. Yes. Yeah! No! Nope! |

|definitions of the sentence. |3. Interjections |

| |e.g. Hi! Dear me! Look here! Goodness gracious! Cheers! Well, I|

| |never! Gesundheit! Oops! Ouch! Bang bang! Hush! Eh? |

| |4. Different conversational formulas |

| |e.g. Thanks. Good bye! Bye bye! Hi! |

CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE SENTENCE

The sentence can be classified in different ways. In this book only two of them will be studied: the structural classification and the classification according to the purpose of utterance.

1. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENTENCE

|SENTENCE |

|SIMPLE |COMPOSITE |

|(one subject-predicate unit) |(more than one subject-predicate units) |

|ONE-MEMBER |TWO-MEMBER |COMPOUND |COMPLEX |

|(one principal part of the |(two principal parts of the |(independent clauses, |(principal clause and one or |

|sentence) |sentence) |coordination) |more subordinate clauses, |

| | |John fell and Mary laughed. |subordination) |

| | | |John fell because Mary laughed.|

|NOMINAL |VERBAL |СOMPLETE |INCOMPLETE |

|(only subject) |(only predicate) |(both the subject and predicate|(ELLIPTICAL) |

|Summer. |Stand up! |are present) |(either the subject or the |

|English spring flowers. |Sit down! |John fell. |predicate or both are omitted) |

| | | |Looks like rain. |

| | | |2. Who ran? – John. |

| | | |3. Where are you going to? – To|

| | | |Copenhagen. |

| | | |4. How are you? –Not too bad? |

Both one-member and two-member sentences may be extended and unextended, i.e. may have or not have secondary parts of the sentence:

Mary laughed. (Two-member, unextended)

Mary laughed loud. (Two-member, extended)

Silence. (One-member, unextended)

Eerie silence. (One-member, extended)

NOTE 1: The difference between a two-member elliptical sentence and a one-member sentence is that in the former the missing principal parts can easily be restored, whereas the latter is complete and nothing can be inserted. The missing subject or predicate is implied in an elliptical sentence and can be guessed from the context, situation or preceding sentence. In a one-member sentence only the principal part is structurally necessary.

An elliptical sentence can contain adverbial expressions of place which refer to the omitted verbal predicate. E.g. In the background a little writing table. To the left a sofa. (Two-member elliptical sentences). But a one-member sentence does not contain any secondary parts which might be connected with a verbal predicate. E.g. A small but cosy room. (One-member sentence)

One-member sentences always refer to the present. They are uttered with an expressive intonation.

But sometimes it seems rather difficult to distinguish these types (and not necessary).

NOTE 2: In the elliptical two-member sentence the following principal parts of the sentence can be omitted:

1) Subject: Seems difficult. Don’t know.

2) Predicate: Who did it? – I.

What’s happened? – Nothing.

3) Part of predicate: You seen them? All settled.

You here? What’s the door locked for?

Postman been?

4) Subject and part of predicate: Not bad.

See what I mean?

5) Subject and predicate: What are you thinking about? – Food.

What do you enjoy most of all? – Grammar lessons.

2. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE PURPOSE OF UTTERANCE

1. Declarative Sentence (It gives the listener some information. I speak Dutch. Cats eat fish.)

2. Interrogative Sentence (It asks for information. Do you speak Dutch? Do cats eat fish?)

3. Imperative Sentence ( It expresses commands and requests. Speak Dutch please. Eat fish immediately!)

Each of the above-mentioned communicative sentence types can be affirmative or negative.

Besides, all types of sentences may serve as exclamations, in which case they are called exclamatory sentences.

NOTE 1: The word long as an adverb of time is mainly confined to interrogative and negative sentences; in affirmative sentences (for) long time is the norm:

Have you been waiting long?

I haven’t been waiting long.

BUT: I’ve been waiting (for) a long time.

With the words “too, so, as … as, enough” long is used in all types of sentence:

I’ve been waiting too long.

They stayed too long.

In negative sentences different meanings sometimes are possible with long and a long time.

He didn’t speak for long. (=He only spoke for a short time.)

He didn’t speak for a long time.(=It was a long time before he spoke.)

A long time can refer to the negative idea expressed by the whole verb (didn’t speak); long only refers to the idea expressed by the infinitive (speak).

NOTE 2: The word far is mainly confined to interrogative and negative sentences; in affirmative sentences a long way is the norm, especially in an informal style.

Is it far to the station?

It’s not far to the station.

BUT: It’s a long way to the station.

I live a long way from the university. (far could not be used here except in very formal or literary writing.)

This also applies when far is followed by the words away, off, out, back, etc.

Summer seemed a long way away.

Far is, however, normal in affirmative sentences after too and so, and in the structure as far as, it is also common in the expression far from:

You’ve gone too far.

I haven’t had any problems so far.

It’s OK as far as I know.

WORD ORDER

WORD ORDER is the order of words. The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order, which is fixed for every type of the sentence, and is therefore meaningful. Word order fulfils several functions – grammatical, emphatic and linking. The main function of word order in English is to express grammatical relations and determine the grammatical status of a word by fixing its position. Thus, word order in English is comparatively fixed, unlike in some other languages.

1. THE POSITION OF OBJECTS

Objects normally follow the verbs, adjectives or nouns they are objects to. If a verb is followed by two objects (indirect and direct) the following patterns are possible:

Send the book to John. – Send John the book.

Send the book to him. – Send him he book.

Send it to him. – (only in BrE) Send him it.

Send it him.

Putting an indirect object before a direct object and deletion of the preposition to is called Dative Movement Transformation. No deletion of the preposition to is possible after a number of verbs: to add, to announce, to ascribe, to attribute, to communicate, to contribute, to declare, to dedicate, to deliver, to describe, to devote, to dictate, to disclose, to explain, to interpret, to introduce, to mention, to open, to point out, to repeat, to reply, to say, to submit, to suggest, to trust, to entrust, etc.

The President has communicated to the Prime Minister what he wanted to communicate to him.

Can you explain to me what all this means?

In a few cases AmE usage is different from BrE usage: e.g. to recommend.

BrE: I recommended him the book.

AmE: I recommended to him the book.

A direct object can acquire some prominence when it is separated from the predicate by some secondary part of the sentence – generally an adverbial modifier or a prepositional indirect object. It is called the back position of the object (postponement):

I had at heart a strange and anxious thought. (Ch.Brontë)

She produced from her pocket a most housewifely bunch of keys. (Ch.Brontë)

He made clear his strong opposition to changing the voting system.

The front position of the object (object fronting) (at the beginning of the sentence) serves the purpose of emphasis:

A fearful voyage I had with such a monster in the vessel. (Ch.Brontë)

Talent Mr Micawber has, capital Mr Micawber has not. (Ch.Dickens)

Great party that was!

Oh, what a memory I have!

2. THE POSITION OF ATTRIBUTES

The usual place of the attribute expressed by an adjective, noun, pronoun, or participle is before the word it modifies.

If a noun is modified by a number of attributes their order can be fixed depending on their meaning:

1. Determiners (articles or pronouns: my, this, every, each)

2. Ordinal numerals (first, 974th)

3. Cardinal numerals (two, 544,625)

4. Adjectives denoting:

a) opinion (horrible, bad, ugly, fearful)

b) size (tremendous, tiny, microscopic)

c) shape (round, heptagonal, quadrilateral)

d) age (young)

e) colour (mauve, yellow)

f) origin or nationality (Zimbabwean, Honduran, Quebecois)

g) material (wooden)

5. Nouns or gerunds in the function of the attribute.

She has bought three horrible huge high modern orange Dutch tarpaulin walking shoes and doesn’t know what to do with them.

NOTE: The adjective little often corresponds to the Russian diminutive suffix and in this case is placed immediately before the noun.

There are some instances when attributes follow the nouns they modify, i.e. are used in post-position.

1. Most adjectives in –able and –ible are generally placed after the nouns, especially when the noun is preceded by the adjective only or an adjective in the superlative degree: E.g. the only person visible, with all the solemnity possible, the most interesting thing imaginable, sufferings unspeakable.

2. Attributes are postmodifying when expressed by extended phrases or complexes:

He found himself in a situation difficult from his point of view.

3. Two or more adjectives are often placed after the word modified for the sake of emphasis. When we say: Mary has many green and yellow pencils, we take for granted that the quality denoted by the adjectives belongs to the noun. By placing the adjectives in post-position: Mary has many pencils, green and yellow, we want to communicate something new about the head noun in the sentence itself. It is similar in meaning to: Mary has many pencils; these pencils are green and yellow.

It was a summer night, warm and starlit.

4. Postmodifying attributes are found in traditional phrases. mostly borrowed from French or Latin:

|wealth untold |Postmaster General |

|from times immemorial |God Almighty |

|generations unborn (next) |Secretary General |

|sum total |Attorney General |

|situations vacant |Prosecutor General |

|decree absolute |notary public |

|several years running |president elect |

|the first person singular |prince consort |

|court martial |prince charming |

|a poet laureate |princess royal |

|fee simple |astronomer royal |

|decree absolute |blood royal |

|heir apparent |Lords Spiritual |

|heir presumptive |Lords Temporal |

The abbreviation AA stands for the name of the organization Alcoholics Anonymous.

5. Some adjectives can only be used in post-position: galore, designate, awake, alive, afraid, etc.

There have been accidents galore this week.

6. Some adjectives change their meanings depending on the position they are in:

a) a proper answer – “подобающий ответ”

architecture proper – “собственно архитектура”

b) a present task – “данная задача”

the people present – “присутствующие люди”

с) the concerned students – “обеспокоенные студенты”

the students concerned – “студенты, которых это касается”

d) an involved solution – “запутанное решение”

the people involved – “люди, которые были вовлечены”

e) an adopted child – “усыновлённый ребёнок”

the decision adopted – “принятое решение”

7. Participles in the function of the Attribute cannot always be used before nouns. We can say a broken window, but it is not normal usage to say a climbing man, and it is not possible to say the discussed problem.

When we put a participle before a noun, it usually expresses some more permanent characteristic. If we talk about a broken window, we may just be thinking of the way the window looks and we are not thinking of the action. On the other hand, if we talk about a man climbing a rock, or the window broken last night, we are thinking more of the actions.

Failure is a job unfinished.

8. The stylistic device of putting an attribute after the noun is called ANASTROPHE (rhyming with catastrophe):

Time present and time past are both perhaps present in time

future, and time future contained in time past. (Eliot)

All things bright and beautiful,

All creatures great and small.

All things wise and wonderful,

The Lord God made them all.

A woman moved is like a fountain troubled,

Muddy, ill-seeming, thick, bereft of beauty. (Shakespeare)

3. THE POSITION OF ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS

There are three normal positions for adverbs: mid-position (He suddenly drove off.), end-position (He drove off suddenly) and initial position (Suddenly he drove off.)

1. Adverbs of indefinite time, frequency and degree (often, seldom. sometimes, always, rarely, usually, quite, almost, fully, etc.), the determiners (all, each, both) usually stand before the verb, but go after am, are, is, was, were:

I often go to the circus, but I never go to the university.

John suddenly ran away.

Helen is often late.

I am never happy at home.

When the predicate consists of several parts, the most common position of the adverb is after the first auxiliary verb:

You must always be on time?

You should definitely have been working this morning.

This lesson will never be finished.

NOTE: In emphatic sentences, many adverbs are put before the first auxiliary verb (and before am, are, is, was, were)

You should always be polite. – I always am polite.

You really will get a surprise one day.

He said he would never tell them, and he never has told them.

2. In negative sentences, some adverbs come before not, and others after, depending on the meaning. Compare:

I certainly do not agree.

I do not often have headaches.

Both positions are possible with some adverbs, often with a difference of meaning. Compare:

I don’t really think so.

I really don’t think so.

When adverbs come before not, they may also come before the first auxiliary verb; they always come before do.

I probably will not be there. (or: I will probably not be there.)

He probably does not know. (but not: *He does probably not know.)

3. The order of adverbs in end-position depends partly on questions of rhythm and emphasis. In general, we put adverbs of place before adverbs of time:

The students came to the university at four o’clock in the morning.

4. Still, yet and already

The word still is usually put in mid-position. It is used to talk about the continuation of a situation or action that started in the past, especially when we are expecting it to stop some time soon, or we are surprised that it has not stopped:

Hell! It’s still raining!

The word yet is usually put in end-position. It is used to talk about things that are expected to happen, and is only used in questions and negative sentences. If we ask about the expected event, we say: Has it happened yet? This question asks for information. If we say: Has it already happened?, the answer ‘yes’ is expected. It has probably happened. This question means: It has happened, I suppose?

Questions with already are often not real questions, but expressions of surprise. Compare:

Is the lesson over yet?

Is the lesson over already? That’s quick!

In a more formal style, yet can be put immediately after not.

The bananas are not yet ripe.

Still can be used in negative and interrogative sentences but its meaning is different from that of yet. Compare:

She hasn’t written to me yet. (But I expect she will soon.)

She still hasn’t written to me. (She would have written before.)

NOTE: One should bear in mind that the words yet and still may have other meanings.

5. Any more, any longer, no longer

Any more and any longer go at the end of the sentence:

I don’t work here any longer.

I don’t go to university any more.

No longer is used in mid-position:

I no longer eat mulligatawny.

NOTE: No more in Modern English is not used in this way to talk about time, but it can be used to talk about quantity or degree:

There is no more beer.

Einstein is no more a genius than I am.

6. The word enough comes after adverbs and adjectives:

We know trigonometry well enough.

Today’s weather is not bad enough.

But it precedes nouns:

Do you think you have enough spaghetti?

Enough of is used before articles, possessive, demonstrative and personal pronouns:

I’ve had enough of this nonsense.

We didn’t see enough of them.

When enough is used with an adjective and a noun, two positions are possible. The word order depends on whether enough refers to the adjective or the noun. Compare:

I haven’t got big enough nails to mend the table. (refers to the adjective)

I haven’t got enough big nails to mend the table. (refers to the noun)

That is enough about the word enough.

INVERSION

The order of words in which the predicate or its part is placed before the subject is called INVERSION.

There are two main kinds of inversion. In the more common kind , only part of the predicate comes before the subject:

Have you ever seen a tyrannosaurus? (partial inversion)

In the other sort of inversion, the whole predicate comes before the subject:

Out rushed the students. (full inversion)

On the cupboard was sitting a chimpanzee. (full inversion)

Inversion may be required by the grammatical structure (for example, in question). It is called grammatical inversion.

If inversion is the result of emphasis, it is called emphatic inversion. This sort of inversion is not obligatory.

The main cases of inversion are as follows:

1. In questions:

Are you hungry? (partial inversion)

Have you a cat? (full inversion)

NOTE 1: Inversion is not used in:

a) Indirect questions: I wonder what you are doing here.

b) Questions to the subject: Who speaks English here?

c) the first part of tag questions: You are a student, aren’t you?

d) Suggestive questions: You are joking, eh?

You don’t understand anything? – No. You mean you do?

NOTE 2: The parenthesis do you think (say, write, etc)… does not call for inverted word order. Do-you-think-questions are constructed without any other question-forming words:

Do you think they will won? Как вы считаете, они выиграют?

What do you think they are doing? как вы думаете, что они делают?

How long do you think she will stay here? Как вы полагаете, сколько она здесь пробудет?

Why do you think she said so? Как вы думаете, почему она это сказала?

Who do you think will break the window? Кто по-вашему, разобьёт окно?

Where did you say he lost the key? Где, вы сказали, он потерял ключ?

What did you say his name was? Как, вы сказали, его зовут?

2. In sentences introduced by there.

There is a fly on the ceiling.

Once upon a time there lived three little pigs.

Then there came lightning.

There must be something in it.

There is no stopping it.

3. In sentences beginning with so, neither or nor, if the statements are applied to new subjects:

I like whisky. – So does my horse.

They don’t have money. – Neither do we.

I’ll be back. – So will I.

(Here the subjects in the sentences express different people or things.)

NOTE: If the statements are applied to the same subject (and express surprised agreement), there is no inversion:

It’s raining. – So it is.

You forgot to put on your shoes. – Good heavens, so I did!

You can’t do it. – No more I can.

There is a fly in your coffee. – So there is.

(Here the subjects in the sentences express the same people or thing.)

4. In exclamatory sentences with Subjunctive I expressing wish, indignation, concession, etc.

Long live the dean! (wish)

May you never feel what I then felt. (wish)

Be it so! (concession)

Come what may! (despair)

Confound these flies!

Far be it from me to spoil the fun!

May success attend you!

Cost what may!

You’ll wince at what comes next, but come it must.

5. In the imperative mood, if there is a subject expressed by a pronoun in set phrases – survivals of the old word order.

Mind you what I say.

Don’t you worry.

6. In exclamatory sentences which are negative in form but positive in meaning.

Wouldn’t that be fun! (=That would be fun.)

Haven’t I told you! (=I have told you.)

Am I not fed up! (=I am fed up.)

7. In conditional clauses if the conjunction is omitted, but only when the predicate contains an auxiliary or modal verb, or when the verb “to be” and “to have” are used as predicates.

Were she here, she would be eating something. (unreal condition, present)

Had I seen you yesterday, I would have asked you. (unreal condition, past)

Should you go to the zoo, feed the elephants. (problematic condition)

8. In clauses of concession, if part of the predicate followed by a concessive “as” is at the end of the sentence.

a) Partial inversion if the subject is expressed by a pronoun:

Tired as they were, the students came to the lesson.

Tired though she was, she went on chewing.

Try as I would, nothing came of it.

b) Full inversion (or partial) if the subject is expressed by a noun:

Tired as were the students, they came to the lesson.

Try as would John, nothing came of it.

9. In the principal clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of result:

a) Partial inversion if the subject is expressed by a pronoun:

So tired I was that I couldn’t speak Swahili.

So loud did she sing, that everybody ran away.

b) Full inversion if the subject is expressed by a noun:

So tired were the students, that they couldn’t speak Swahili.

So loud sang Mary, that everybody ran away.

10. Sometimes after “as” in a literary style:

Helen knew grammar badly, as did most of the students.

11. When the sentence begins with one of the following adverbs: here, there (meaning “вот” and “вон”), now, then, but only if the subject is a noun. The whole predicate is put before the subject. Do and did are not used.

Here is your change!

There goes the prime minister!

NOTE: No inversion is used if the subject is a pronoun.

Here she comes!

12. If a long adverbial expression, especially a prepositional one, opens the sentence; but only if the subject group is lengthy. Here inversion is common with intransitive verbs like come, lie, stand., walk, etc. The whole verb is put before the subject. Do and did are not used .

Round the corner walked a funny prime minister.

Down the frozen river came a sledge drawn by dogs.

On the stairs was sitting a big bad wolf.

13. If the sentence begins with an adverb of direction (in, out, up, down, away, off, etc), but only if the subject is a noun.

Out jumped Mr Du Maurier.

In bounced the landlady.

Away crept the bugs.

Along came a spider.

NOTE: There is no inversion if the subject is a pronoun.

Down he fell. Away they ran.

14. If the sentence begins with an adverb, a conjunction or an emphatic particle with a negative or restrictive meaning: seldom, rarely, never, never ever, only, not only, hardly, neither, nor, at no time, in no way, under no circumstances, on no account, by no means, not a, no sooner … than, hardly … when, scarcely … when, not until, nowhere, only then, etc.

Seldom have I seen such a remarkable creature.

Seldom is he sober.

Rarely could she have been faced with so difficult a choice.

Never again will I come here.

Not until the teacher came did the students stop shouting.

Little does she care about my words.

Only then did they notice me.

Under no circumstances can the bank accept cheques.

Not only did John lose all his money, but he also was hungry.

Only in a few countries does the whole of population enjoy a reasonable standard of living.

At no time was the President aware of the fact.

On no account are visitors allowed to feed the water rats.

Not a word did she pronounce.

NOTE: Mind the special use of tenses and conjunctions in sentences with no sooner … than, hardly … when, scarcely … when.

Hardly had I arrived when I had a new problem.

Scarcely had we started lunch when dinner began.

No sooner had John entered the hall than the light went out.

(The Past Perfect is used in the first part, the Past Indefinite in the second.)

15. Sometimes if emphasized “so” or “thus” precedes the predicate.

So wore the day away.

Thus was the country plundered by the invaders.

16. Sometimes if the predicative opens the sentence.

Fine and sunny was the morning when we had a grammar lesson.

Sweet was that evening.

Such is life.

Almost visible was the heat!

But: Right you are! (partial inversion with pronouns)

17. In a rather old-fashioned literary style in exclamations after how and what.

How unspeakably vulgar you are sometimes!

‘How bright your garden looks!’ said Gandalf.

How cold it is! (But not: *How cold is it!)

18. Often with verbs of reporting say, ask, answer, etc, only if the subject is a pronoun.

‘Let’s go,’ shouted Mary. (or: … Mary shouted.)

NOTE: There can be no inversion if the subject is a pronoun:

‘Let’s go,’ she shouted.

19. Sometimes in the stylistic device called CHIASMUS [kai’æzməs] (a rhetorical inversion of the second parallel structure).

She rose up and down sat he.

He went to the door, to the door went he.

20. In stage directions.

Enter the King.

Exit Hamlet.

Exeunt [‘eksiənt] Hamlet and Ophelia.

Sound trumpets.

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A COMPOUND SENTENCE is a sentence which consists of two or more independent clauses. Clauses have a subject and a predicate of their own. They are called coordinate clauses, as they are joined by coordination.

In a compound sentence clauses may be connected syndetically (by means of conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs) and asyndetically (without conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs).

Syndetically: Give me one firm spot to stand, and I will move the earth. (Archimedes)

Asyndetically: Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,

Humpty Dumpty had a great fall;

All the king’s horses, and all the king’s men

Cannot put Humpty Dumpty together again.

Clauses in a compound sentence are sequentially joined. We cannot change the order of clauses without changing the meaning of the whole sentence. The opening clause usually plays the leading role.

From the point of view of relationship between coordinate clauses, we distinguish four kinds of coordination:

1. Copulative coordination implies that two events or ideas are merely connected, joined in time and place.

Copulative connectors: 1) conjunctions: and, nor, neither …

nor, not only … but, as well as

2) conjunctive adverbs: then, moreover

3) asyndetically

The students didn’t know grammar, nor did they come to the lesson.

He doesn’t have a car and neither do I.

She was familiar with the problems, and they bored her.

We entered the university, then we turned to the right.

The bus stopped, the automatic door sprang open, a lady got off.

The price is too high, moreover the bike is in need of repair.

He was neither going to apologize, nor was he going to offer any explanation.

2. Disjunctive coordination denotes choice between two or more alternatives.

Disjunctive connectors: 1) conjunctions: or, either … or

2) conjunctive adverbs: else (or else),

otherwise

We must hurry up, or we’ll miss the tram.

Either listen to me, or go home.

Don’t sit in a draught else you’ll catch a cold.

Books must have pictures, otherwise it’s no use reading them.

3. Adversative coordination denotes that two ideas contradict each other.

Adversative connectors: 1) conjunctions: but, while whereas

2) conjunctive adverbs: yet, still,

nevertheless, nonetheless

3) conjunctive particle: only

4) asyndetically

I was not hungry, but I ate much.

Mary is a dentist, while John is a musician.

There was an electric light, only Bill didn’t know.

John wants to come with us, only he can’t.

He was angry, yet he smiled.

I wanted to go to the mountains, whereas the rest of us wanted to go to the beach.

It may rain before the game begins; nevertheless we’re going.

Two or three scenes stood out vividly in his mind – all the rest became a blur.

4. Causative-consecutive coordination implies that one of the clauses contains a cause and the other – a consequence.

1) causative conjunction: for

2) asyndetically

3) consecutive conjunctive adverbs: so, therefore, hence,

consequently, accordingly, then, and

The days became longer, for it was now springtime.

I thought they were brother and sister, they were so much alike.

The dinner is ready, so go and wash your hands.

I fell down the stairs; hence I didn’t come to the lesson.

Pull at the rope, and the door will open.

Mr Jones was asked to come, and accordingly he came.

The bank refused to help the company; consequently it went bankrupt.

NOTE: The difference between causative-consecutive coordination and causative subordination (see below) is that the connection is much looser in the former. A for-clause never precedes the clause it is joined to.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

A COMPLEX SENTENCE is a sentence which consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The connection between clauses is called subordination.

Clauses can be connected syndetically (by means of connectors) or asyndetically.

WAYS OF CONNECTION

|SYNDETICALLY |ASYNDETICALLY |

|I wish that you were not here. |I wish you were not here. |

| |This is the house Jack built. |

CON

|CONNECTIVES |CONJUNCTIONS |

|(They are parts of the sentence) |(They are not parts of the sentence) |

| |that, whether, if, as if, when, after, because, than, etc. |

| |My proposal is that you should join us. |

|CONJUNCTIVE WORDS |RELATIVE WORDS |

|(They introduce Nominal and Appositive clauses) |(They introduce Attributive Relative clauses) |

|CONJUNC-TIVE PRONOUNS |CONJUNC-TIVE ADVERBS |RELATIVE PRONOUNS |RELATIVE ADVERBS |

|what, which, who, whose, whom, |where, when, whence, how, why, |that, which, who, whose, whose,|where, when, whence |

|whoever, whatever |wherever, whenever, whoever |whom, as |It’s the place where he |

|I know who will fail the exam. |This is where he lives. |This is the student who failed |lives. |

| | |the exam. | |

Subordinate clauses may follow, precede or interrupt the principal clause.

Subordinate clauses perform the same syntactic functions as single words: subject, predicative, object, attribute, adverbial modifier.

Traditionally these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses, attributive clauses, and adverbial clauses.

NOMINAL CLAUSES

NOMINAL CLAUSES perform syntactic functions typical of a noun: subject, object and predicative.

1. SUBJECT CLAUSES

A SUBJECT CLAUSE may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, because, the way), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why) and asyndetically.

What I need is a piece of good advice.

Because I ask too many questions doesn’t mean I am curious.

It’s a pity you were absent.

A subject clause can be introduced by the anticipatory (introductory, dummy) pronoun “it”.

It is strange that I am here.

(In this case we can change the word order and do without “it”: That I am here is strange.)

NOTE: Subject clauses are not separated by a comma.

2. OBJECT CLAUSES

AN OBJECT CLAUSE may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, lest), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which), conjunctive adverbs (where, when, whenever, why, how) and asyndetically.

I wonder what you are doing here.

They were delighted with what they saw.

I knew you would come.

I could say nothing but that I was sorry.

I know when I am wasting time.

An object clause can refer to the anticipatory “it”.

I found it strange that she could speak so calmly.

NOTE: Object clauses are not separated by a comma.

3. PREDICATIVE CLAUSES

A PREDICATIVE CLAUSE performs the function of a predicative (i.e. the nominal part of the compound nominal predicate) and always follows link verbs (to be, to feel, to seem, to appear, to remain, to become, to sound).

A predicative clause may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, as, as if, as though, because, lest, the way), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which), conjunctive adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why) and asyndetically.

The fact is that I have forgotten everything.

The only reason for my coming is because I hoped to see you again.

You look as if you were happy.

The problem is you don’t attend the classes.

The question is not who will come, but who will stay.

It appears he hasn’t been here.

A predicative clause may follow he main clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun “it”.

It appears as if the spring began by the act of Parliament.

Care should be taken not to confuse this last type of sentence with a sentence with a subject clause which begins with anticipatory pronoun “it”. With a subject clause “it” can be removed. Compare:

It seems that there is no cure. (predicative)

It seems evident that there is no cure. (=That there is no cure seems evident.) (subject)

NOTE: Predicative clauses are not separated by a comma.

ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES

ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES serve as an attribute to some noun or pronoun in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called ANTECEDENT [ænti’si:dənt]

ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSE

|RELATIVE CLAUSE | |APPOSITIVE CLAUSE |

|(It qualifies the antecedent.) | |(It discloses the meaning of the antecedent expressed by an |

|This is the house I live in. | |abstract noun.) |

|The only man who is really free is the one who can turn down| |Conjunctions: that, if, whether, as if, as though |

|an invitation to dinner without giving an excuse. | |Conjunctive adverbs: how, why |

|Time engraves our faces with all tears we have not shed. | |Not asyndetically |

| | |No comma |

| | |She had a warm desire that the conversation might continue. |

|LIMITING (RESTRICTIVE) | |DESCRIPTIVE |

|(It restricts the meaning of the antecedent and cannot be | |(NON-RESTRICTIVE) |

|removed.) | |(It gives additional information about the antecedent and can|

|Relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose, as | |be removed.) |

|Relative adverbs: where, when | |Relative pronouns: which, who, whom, whose |

|Asyndetically | |Relative adverbs: where, when |

|No comma | |Not asyndetically |

|He was a man one always forgot. | |Comma |

|The university is the place where I go to. | |I consulted my father, who promised to help me. |

|French is something I don’t speak. | |She returned to The Hague, where I remained for a week. |

|It is the lesson when we sleep. | | |

|Time is all I need. | |SENTENTIAL (CONTINUATIVE) |

| | |(Its antecedent is the whole principal clause.) |

| | |Relative pronoun: which |

| | |Not asyndetically |

| | |Comma |

| | |The students are here, which is very nice. (=the fact is |

| | |good) |

NOTE 1: The antecedent of an appositive clause can be only an abstract noun with a very general meaning (thing, reason, idea, point, moral, comment, remark, fact, feature, question, etc.) and it gives its content. An appositive clause cannot be asyndetical.

The question whether it was he or not he was hotly

discussed.

She had a strange sensation as if something had happened.

If the clause does not disclose the meaning of an abstract noun, but qualifies it, it is a relative clause: Compare:

The idea that something must be done occurred to me. (appositive)

The idea that occurred to me was vague. (relative limiting)

NOTE 2: A relative pronoun introducing a limiting clause can be omitted only if it an object in the subordinate clause. If it is the subject of the subordinate clause, it cannot be omitted. Compare

This is the book that was brought yesterday. (subject. cannot be omitted)

This is the book that I bought yesterday. (object. can be omitted. This is the book I bought yesterday.)

NOTE 3: If the antecedent is modified by the demonstrative pronoun such, the relative pronoun as is used:

Mary was playing the piano with such feeling as couldn’t be expected.

NOTE 4: If the antecedent is expressed by everything, something, anything or nothing, the relative pronoun that is generally used, or else the clause is joined asyndetically.

NOTE 5: The relative pronoun whose can refer not only to living beings but also to things.

I live in a house whose roof is green.

NOTE 6: A sentential (continuative) clause is a sort of a descriptive clause. It refers not to a single word, but to the whole principal clause. it can be introduced only by the relative pronoun which.

Helen passed the exam, which pleased her no end.

I live near the university, which is very convenient.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

AN ADVERBIAL CLAUSE performs the function of an adverbial modifier. It can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause.

1. Adverbial Clauses of Time

Conjunctions: as, as soon as, as long as, when, whenever, while, now that, till, until, after, before, since, the time (that), the day (that), the moment, the instant, every time, directly, immediately, instantly, once

Since we have been friends we have never quarrelled.

The students didn’t say a word till they were asked.

Directly she saw me, she said good-bye.

We’ll be married the very moment we find a house.

2. Adverbial Clauses of Place

Conjunctions: where, whence, wherever, everywhere (that)

John was standing where he had always been standing.

Why can’t we go where it’s warm?

NOTE: Adverbial clauses of place should not be confused with predicative, object or attributive clauses introduced by where. Compare:

This must be where she lives. (predicative)

Swaziland is the country where I want to live. (attributive)

I wonder where you are hurrying. (object)

3. Adverbial Clauses of Manner

Conjunctions: as, the way

I can do it as no one else could do.

I am sorry I talked the way I did at lunch.

He was puzzled by the situation, as one could easily be in his place.

4. Adverbial Clauses of Comparison

Conjunctions: as, like, as though, than, as … as, so … as

He was as obstinate as were most of his relatives.

They don’t have long intervals like they do at other theatres.

It’s not so easy as you think.

It’s rather longer than he said.

NOTE 1: The conjunctions as if and as though may also introduce appositive and predicative clauses. Compare:

She had a look as if she had something on her mind.. (appositive)

She looked as if she had something on her mind. (predicative)

She looked at me as if nothing was wrong. (comparison)

NOTE 2: Special mention should be made of cases when two subordinating devices are used to introduce a clause, usually a conjunction and a conjunctive word: than whose, than which, than where, or two conjunctions: than if. They bear double relation to the main clause, one of which is that of comparison.

Tver is the city than which none is more beautiful. (comparison + attribute)

I am never happier than when I watch football. (comparison + time)

5. Adverbial Clauses of Condition

Conjunctions: if, unless, in case, provided (that), providing (that), suppose (that), considering (that), given (that), granted (that), granting (that), admitting (that), presuming (that), seeing (that)

Asyndetically

If you don’t come, they will be pleased.

Unless somebody interferes, there may be a disaster.

I will do my best, provided it lies in my power.

Had the colour of the TV set been to my taste, I’d have

bought it.

Buy a cheeseburger, in case you are hungry.

Suppose they are late, what shall we do?

Given that they are unexperienced, they have done a good job.

6. Adverbial Clauses of Concession

Conjunctions: although, though, if, whether … or, even if, even though, even when

Conjunctive words: whoever, whatever, whichever, wherever, as

Conjunctive phrases: no matter how, no matter what, for all that, despite that

Late as it was, nobody went home.

Whenever you come let me know.

Try as he might, nothing came of it.

Whoever may come, don’t open the door.

Although the weather was fine, nobody was happy.

7. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

Conjunctions: that, so that, lest, so as, so, in order that, for fear that

I tell you all that so that you may understand me perfectly.

She jotted down the number for fear she should forget it.

I packed them a little food so that they wouldn’t get hungry.

Lest anyone (should) worry, let me reassure you.

8. Adverbial Clauses of Cause (Reason)

Conjunctions: as, because, since, so, that, lest, seeing (that), considering

Conjunctive phrases: by reason of, in so far as (insofar as)

Since you are here, we may begin our talk.

In so far as it is difficult to assign an external cause to certain happenings, they are written off as uncaused and spontaneous.

Do you ask me because I am the only student present or for another reason?

NOTE: Differentiate between a parenthesis making reference to the source of information and an adverbial clause of cause:

As was reported in the press … Как сообщили в прессе, …

As it was reported in the press … Так как это сообщили в прессе,…

As was clear to everybody … Как всем было ясно, …

As it was clear to everybody … Так как это всем было ясно, …

As is known … Как известно, …

As it is known … Так как это известно, …

As seen above, some of the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses are polysemantic and can introduce different types of clauses.

One should keep in mind that, of course, there are many other approaches to The Complex Sentence.

9. Adverbial Clauses of Result (Consequence)

Conjunctions: so that, that

Asyndetically

Light fell on her there, so that Soames could see her face.

The buffet was so nice that the students stayed there for the whole lesson.

It is so simple that even an adult can understand it.

Mary is so tall she can touch the ceiling.

NOTE: Adverbial clauses of result may have an additional meaning of degree.

They are so weak that they can hardly move.

10. Adverbial Clauses of Degree

Conjunctive phrases: in so far as, in as far as, inasmuch as, insomuch as

I’ll help you in so far as I can.

He is also guilty, inasmuch as he knew what they were planning to do.

PSEUDO-COMPLEX SENTENCES

Pseudo-complex sentences consist of two clauses and are joined according to some pattern of subordination, but differ from complex sentences in the relation they bear to one another. There are several types of pseudo-complex sentences.

1. Emphatic (or Cleft) Sentence.

Emphatic sentences are used to emphasize some part of the sentence.

It is my friend who told me this.

It was Mary who smoked in the corridor.

What was it he disliked so much?

The role of the principle clause is purely emphatic, as the information which is divided between the principle and the subordinate clause can be expressed in a simple sentence:

It is my friend who told me this .( My friend told me this.

The emphatic position may be occupied by a whole clause.

It was that she said that spoiled the impression.

Was it because dusk was gathering that you failed to come to the grammar lesson?

The subordinate clause may be joined asyndetically.

It is not you I hate.

2. Appended Clauses

Appended clauses are used to intensify or reinforce a statement in the previous clause. The most common types of appended clauses are tag questions.

You speak Urdu, don’t you?

In non-formal style there is another form of appended clause, which is elliptical:

He is always very gloomy, is that John of yours.

In such sentences the link verb to be is generally repeated, or a form of the verb to do is used:

He never told me anything, did your brother.

3. Parenthetical (Comment) Clauses

A parenthetical clause interrupts another sentence with which it is either not connected syntactically or is only loosely connected with separate parts of the sentence. Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like independent sentences, coordinate, main, or subordinate sentences.

As you know, horses eat oats.

As was reported, the kick-off will be at 6 pm.

Mr Ford – if this was now to be his name – walked slowly up to the counter.

Although the evening was still light – we dined early – the lamps were on.

I am, you know, a good student.

Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like different communicative types of the sentence – statements, questions, imperative sentences.

It was – why hadn’t he noticed it before? – beginning to be an effort for her to hold her back straight. (a parenthetical clause patterned like a question)

THE PREDICATE

THE PREDICATE is one of the two principal parts of the sentence (the other is the subject) which expresses an action, state, or quality of the subject. It is grammatically dependent on the subject.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PREDICATE

PREDICATE

|SIMPLE | |COMPOUND |

|(It is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or analytical | |(It consists of two parts: notional and structural.) |

|form or verbal phrase.) | | |

|SIMPLE PROPER | |COMPOUND NOMINAL | |COMPOUND VERBAL |

|John runs fast. | |(It consists of a link verb | |(It consists of a |

|I was given a present. | |and a predicative (nominal | |semi-auxiliary verb and a |

|What are you doing? | |part) | |non-finite form of the |

| | |She is a student. | |verb) |

|SIMPLE PHRASEOLOGICAL | | | | |

|a) phrases denoting momentaneous actions: have a look,| | | | |

|have a smoke, have a talk, give a look, give a laugh, | |ASPECT (PHASAL) | |MODAL |

|give a cry, take a look, make a move, make a remark, | |(It consists of an aspect | |(It consists of a modal |

|pay a visit, etc. | |verb and a non-finite form of| |verb and a non-finite form |

|Did you have a sleep? | |the verb.) | |of the verb.) |

|It’s time we made a move. | |She stopped chewing and began| |You can’t do it. |

|b) phrases comprising an abstract noun with no | |sleeping. | | |

|article: change one’s mind, get rid of, get hold of, | | | | |

|lose sight of, male fun of, make up one’s mind, make | | | | |

|use (of), take care (of), take leave (of), take part | | | | |

|(in), pay attention (to), etc | | | | |

|She paid little heed to it. | | | | |

|I have never taken much interest in tennis. | | | | |

THE COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE

It consists of a link verb and a predicative.

Link Verbs:

1) of being: be, feel, look, smell, taste, sound, appear, seem, etc.

I felt better pleased than ever.

Your voice sounds cold and hostile.

He seemed bewildered.

2) of becoming: become, grow, turn, get, make, fall, go, etc.

The noise becomes intolerable.

Her face suddenly turned red.

The student will make a good interpreter.

3) of remaining: remain, continue, keep, stay, etc.

She remained vexed with him.

The students kept suspiciously silent.

The predicative can be expressed by:

1) a noun:

Mary was an astronomer.

2) an adjective or adjective phrase:

Helen’s eyes grew angry.

The teacher is difficult to convince.

3) a pronoun:

It’s me.

Who are you? She is somebody.

4) a numeral:

Will you be the third? They were five.

5) an infinitive (or an infinitive phrase or construction):

My first thought was to run away.

The only thing to do is for you to go to the lesson.

6) a gerund (or a gerundial phrase or construction):

My hobby is going by tram.

The problem is your being absent.

7) a participle (or a participial phrase):

The subject seemed strangely chosen.

8) a prepositional phrase:

She is on our side.

9) a stative:

Are you wide awake at the moment?

10) an indivisible group of words:

It’s 9 o’clock already.

11) a clause:

That is what has happened.

NOTE: The objective predicative refers to the object (not to the subject). It expresses the state or quality of the person or thing denoted by the object.

They appointed him secretary.

We painted the door green.

Leave me alone.

The objective predicative does not form part of the predicate, in this case the predicate is simple.

THE COMPOUND VERBAL ASPECT (PHASAL) PREDICATE

It consists of an aspect (phasal) verb and a non-finite form of the verb (an infinitive or a gerund). It denotes the beginning, duration, repetition or cessation of the action.

Aspect Verbs:

1) of beginning: begin, start, commence, set about, take to, fall to, etc.

Then they began to talk about nothing.

So I took to going to university.

2) of duration: continue, go on, keep, proceed, etc

They kept talking about nothing.

So I continued to go to university.

3) of repetition: used to, would

They used to talk about nothing.

4) of cessation: stop, finish, cease, give up, leave off, etc.

They ceased talking about nothing.

Then I gave up going to university.

NOTE: The choice between a gerund or infinitive depends on the verb it follows.

THE COMPOUND VERBAL MODAL PREDICATE

It consists of a modal verb (or a modal expression) and a non-finite form of the verb (an infinitive or a gerund). It expresses the action as possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, planned, certain, permissible, etc.

Modal Verbs: can, may, must, should, would, need, dare, have to, be to

Modal Expressions: to be able, to be allowed, to be willing, to be anxious, to be capable, to be going, to be bound, to be obliged

I can’t remember who I am.

They are willing and able to help.

How dare you say so?

We are going to strike a bargain.

He may have to return.

She must be willing to come here again.

That remark is capable of being misunderstood.

THE DOUBLE PREDICATE

It combines two different types of the predicate. It has the features of the simple predicate and of the compound nominal predicate.

The moon rose red. (=The moon rose (simple) and it was red. (compound nominal))

There are a number of verbs that most often occur in this type of predicate, performing the double function of denoting a process and serving as a link verb at the same time: live, die, marry, return, lie, rise, sit, stand, shine, etc

She sat silent.

She married young and died a hero.

The moon was shining cold and bright.

They met friends and parted enemies.

But: He went mad. (compound nominal, because “went” is only a link verb here.)

MIXED TYPES OF THE PREDICATE

They combine elements of different types of predicate:

1. The Compound Modal Nominal Predicate

It has a modal verb and a link verb:

She couldn’t be happy.

Jane must feel better pleased than ever.

2. The Compound Aspect Nominal Predicate

It has an aspect verb and a link verb:

He was beginning to look desperate.

George stopped being ashamed.

3. The Compound Modal Aspect Predicate

It has a modal verb and an aspect verb:

You ought to stop doing nothing.

He can’t continue training.

4. The Compound Modal Aspect Nominal Predicate

It has a modal verb, an aspect verb and a link verb:

You must stop being lazy.

AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT

In the English language the predicate agrees with the subject in person and number. Below are some rules of agreement:

1. When two or more singular subjects are connected by the conjunction and or asyndetically, the verb is plural.

Mary and Helen like cheese.

a) But the verb is singular if the two nouns express one person or thing, or is considered to be a unit.

Bread and butter is wholesome food.

This bomber and its cargo probably weighs over a hundred tons.

The sum and substance of all she says has no effect.

The painter and decorator has fallen off the fence.

b) There is a strong tendency to use the verb in the singular when the verb precedes a number of homogeneous subjects and the first is in the singular:

There is a bottle and three glasses on the table.

Here is Tom and Jerry.

In the distance was heard the applause and the shouts of people.

There was a concert and dancing in the hall.

c) The verb is in the singular if the subjects are expressed by infinitives:

To do homework and to eat sandwiches is very interesting.

d) If two attributes characterize one subject in the singular but denote two persons or things, the plural verb is used.

Vertical and sloping writing are both allowed.

In modern hotels hot and cold water are supplied.

American and Dutch beer are both lighter than British.

A black and white kitten were playing on the table. (2 kittens)

e) The singular is required when “and” introduces something in parenthesis:

The Prime Minister, and perhaps the President, is coming.

2. Agreement depends on the conjunctions the subjects are joined by:

a) If the subjects are connected by the conjunctions as well as, rather than, as much as, more than, together with, with, the predicate agrees with the first subject.

The teacher as well as the students is present.

I as much as they am ready.

b) If the subjects are connected by the conjunctions not only … but, also, either … or, neither … nor, the predicate agrees with the nearest subject.

Either you or I am right.

Neither the teacher nor the students were present.

There was not only the teacher but also some students at the lesson.

3. If the subject is expressed by the pronoun, the agreement is as follows:

a) The pronouns somebody, someone, anybody, everybody, everyone, everything, each, either, nobody, no one, neither, etc. have a singular predicate.

Somebody has come.

However, we often use plural pronouns (they, them, their) to refer to these words, especially in a conversational style.

If anybody calls, tell them I’m out.

Nobody came, didn’t they?

Someone left their umbrella yesterday.

Everyone thinks they are the centre of the universe.

Whoever comes, tell them to go away.

The plural pronouns are used instead of he, she, him, her, as a way of purposely not specifying the sex of the person referred to. In a more formal style he, him and his (not necessarily referring to a male person) are generally used instead of they, etc.

b) The pronoun none may have a plural or singular predicative.

c) The interrogative pronouns who, what have a singular predicate. But if the pronoun denotes more than one person or thing a plural predicate may be used.

Who has come?

Who are walking on the grass?

d) With relative pronouns the form of the verb depends on the noun or pronoun which is its antecedent.

Do you know the girl who lives next door?

Do you know the girls who live next door?

But: It’s me who is right.

e) If the subject is expressed by the formal emphatic pronoun “it”, the predicate is in the singular, no matter what follows.

It was my friends who suddenly arrived.

It’s they who are responsible.

NOTE: The predicate also agrees with the subject when the subject and the predicate are of different numbers.

The only guide was the stars.

The stars were our only guide.

f) Linked subjects introduced by each or every require a singular verb. The reason is that each and every focus on the individual units separately.

Each room and corridor has been painted in the same colour.

4. With quantifiers the predicate agrees in the following way:

a) The number of the predicate with the quantifiers part of, plenty of, half (of), quarter of, remainder, per cent of, percentage of, a lot of, lots of, heaps of, bags of, loads of depends on the noun it refers to, whether it is countable or uncountable.

There is a lot of snow this years.

There are a lot of mistakes in the test paper.

There is lots of snow this year.

There are lots of mistakes in the test paper.

It seems like half the articles in this magazine are just filler.

There’s heaps/bags/loads of time yet, slow down.

There was absolutely tons of food at the party.

There are tons of apples this year.

The remainder of the food is for tomorrow.

Two students in our group know English well, the remainder are very good people.

b) The group many a + noun agrees with a singular verb.

Many a lie has been told.

c) The expression more than one is followed by a singular noun and verb.

More than one student is present.

d) The expressions a number of …, a variety of …, a group of … are normally used with plural verb.

A number of students have attended the lecture.

e) The expressions the number of …, the variety of … retain their concrete meaning (количество, разнообразие) are used with the definite article and have a singular verb.

The number of the students present is small.

f) The expression the majority of … , the minority of … can be used with both a singular and plural verb.

5. The number of the predicate can depend on the lexical meaning of the subject.

a) Some collective nouns, though singular in form, always have a plural predicate: police, cattle, livestock, poultry, vermin, infantry, clergy, gentry, jury, memorabilia These are the so-called “nouns of multitude”

I don’t know what the police are doing.

b) Some collective nouns, though singular in form, can be used in the plural or in the singular depending on their meaning (the idea of oneness or plurality): family, committee, board, army, chorus, band, corps de ballet, part, team, squad, crew, crowd, orchestra, cast, group, judiciary, navy, intelligentsia, think tank, fair sex, coterie, The General Assembly, government, public, couple, pair, folk, the KGB, etc.

The family were sitting round the table. (considered separately)

My family is small. (considered as a whole)

c) The words data, media, although plural in their Latin forms, are now coming to be used as uncountable nouns. Some people still do not like this uncountable use of the words.

d) Names of sports teams in British English are used in the plural.

Chester City were relegated from Division 3 in 2000.

England are playing tomorrow.

e) Subjects expressed by invariable singular nouns ending in –s have a singular verb: news, measles, mumps, rabies, billiards, dominoes.

f) Nouns in –ics which are names if sciences and other abstract notions have a singular agreement when used in their abstract sense, but may have a plural predicate when denoting qualities, practical applications, different activities, etc. Politics, economics, linguistics, logistics, tactics, acoustics, optics, ceramics, ethics, etc.

Tactics is one of the subjects studied in the academy.

Your tactics are obvious.

g) Names of countries, territories, cities or organizations ending in –s or connected by the conjunction and are usually used in the singular.

The United Arab Emirates is a highly developed country.

The Netherlands is the country I have never been to.

The United States strongly objects to this decision.

São Tomé and Príncipe has the population of 160,000.

Debenhams is a group of large shops in Britain.

Nantes is not far from Bordeaux.

h) Titles of books, films, plays, etc. are used in the singular even if they are plural in form.

Gulliver’s Travels is full of satire.

(The plural is possible if a collection of stories is meant: The Canterbury Tales)

6. Subjects expressed by nouns denoting measure, weight, time, etc. have a singular verb when the statement is made about the whole amount.

Ten years is a long time.

Another five minutes has gone by.

A million kwanzas is a lot of money.

Twenty miles is a long way to walk.

8 degrees C is always better than 9 degrees C.

7. In arithmetical calculations the singular verb is usually used.

4672 minus 1143 equals 3529, doesn’t it?

261 divided by 9 is 29.

(However, multiplication admits of two variants: Twice two is/are four.)

8. If an expression is used as a quotation, the verb is singular.

‘My apologies’ was all he could say.

‘Mice’ is an irregular plural.

9. No rules can be observed in the stylistic device called ENALLAGE [ə’nælədʒi:] – substitution of one grammatical form for another, an effective grammatical mistake.

We was (wuz) robbed! (a phrase typically said by supporters of a sports team who feel that their team lost a match unfairly)

But see where Somerset and Clarence comes! (Shakespeare)

The posture of your blows are yet unknown. (Shakespeare)

I takes my man Friday with me. (Defoe)

My patience are exhausted. (James Joyce)

She don’t care. (The Beatles)

NOTE: Students should not use enallage at their exams.

THE OBJECT

THE OBJECT is a secondary part of the sentence which completes or restricts the meaning of a verb or sometimes an adjective or a noun.

She has bought a pine apple.

I am glad to see you.

Who is afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?

She passed the exam unexpectedly to herself.

From the point of view of their structure objects may be:

1) simple: I’ve never seen you before.

She promised to come.

2) phrasal: I’ve brought a lot of money.

Do you know Miss Sibyl Vane?

3) complex: Nobody knew of his being absent.

We waited for the lesson to begin.

She thinks herself very bright.

I want you to go out.

4) clausal: Do you know what it all means?

He was amazed by what he saw there.

TYPES OF OBJECT

OBJECT

|DIRECT | |INDIRECT | |COGNATE |

|(non-prepositional) | | | |(non-prepositional) |

|RECIPIENT | |NON-RECIPIENT |

| | |(prepositional) |

|(non-prepositional) | |(prepositional) |

| | |to, for |

THE DIRECT OBJECT

is a non-prepositional object that follows transitive verbs and adjectives and completes their meaning.

I wrote a book. Nobody reads it.

She saw me leave.

THE INDIRECT OBJECT

can be recipient and non-recipient.

1) THE INDIRECT RECIPIENT OBJECT is attached only to verbs. It is expressed by a noun or a pronoun which as a rule denotes (or, in the case of pronouns, points out) a person who is the addressee or recipient of the action of the verb. It is joined to the verb either without a preposition or by the preposition “to” (or occasionally “for”). The indirect recipient object is generally used with transitive verbs, which thus take two objects, and are accordingly called ditransitive.

Verbs governing the indirect recipient object fall into two classes, which in accordance with their semantics are called verbs of benefaction and verbs of inducement.

Verbs of benefaction denote an action that is addressed to a person or is done for that person’s sake: give, buy, help, promise, teach, forgive, answer, read, write, etc.

Give me a piece of advice.

She used to teach me.

I’ve bought a vacuum cleaner for you, dear.

Verbs of inducement denote an action which causes a person to do some other action: ask, tell, order, urge, compel, etc.

Did I tell you to leave me alone?

I beg you to forgive me.

Ask Mr Humpty to come here at once.

Whether the indirect recipient object is prepositional (to, for) or non-prepositional depends on the kind of verb it is attached to or its position in relation to the direct object.

a) The indirect recipient object is non-prepositional when it precedes the direct object.

b) The indirect recipient object is prepositional when it follows the direct object.

c) The indirect recipient object is always prepositional no matter whether it precedes or follows the direct object with the verbs announce, ascribe, attribute, communicate, contribute, declare, dedicate, dictate, describe, deliver, disclose, devote, explain, interpret, prove, introduce, mention, open, point out, relate, repeat, reply, say, submit, suggest, etc.

She didn’t open to me her secret.

She didn’t open her secret to me.

2) THE INDIRECT NON-RECIPIENT OBJECT is attached to verbs, adjectives or adverbs. Its semantics can be different, but it never denotes the addressee (recipient) of the action.

The indirect non-recipient object is always prepositional.

This job is inconsistent with my principles.

This food is deficient in iron.

The council bestowed an honour on the professor.

What are you pondering on?

The book treats of the real events.

Mr Brown was acquitted of driving too fast.

Many people dissented from the policy of the government.

She lavished a lot of attention on her friends.

THE COGNATE OBJECT

is a non-prepositional object which is attached to otherwise intransitive verbs and is always expressed by nouns derived from, or semantically related to, the root of the governing verb.

John slept a long sleep.

Mary laughed a small laugh.

He smiled an idiotic smile.

The child smiled the smile and laughed the laugh of

contentment.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

1. THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION

It consists of two independent elements: a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case (i.e. without a preposition) and Participle I (non-perfect or perfect) or Participle II.

The novel having been read, Mary put it aside.

The letter home finally written, John went to post it.

It being March, rooks flew in.

This construction performs the following syntactic function:

a) an adverbial modifier of time:

The lesson being over, everybody went home. (Когда урок закончился, все пошли домой.)

The light being off, it was dark and horrible in the Moscow Planetarium. (Когда не было света, в московском планетарии было темно и страшно.)

b) an adverbial modifier of cause:

It being late, everybody wanted to sleep. (Так как было поздно, все хотели спать.)

My attention distracted, I took small notice of the event.

(Так как моё внимание было занято, я не обратил

внимание на происходящее.)

There being nothing to do, the students did nothing. (Так

как делать было нечего, студенты ничего и не делали.)

c) an adverbial modifier of condition:

Weather permitting, we shall go to the university. (Если

погода позволит, мы пойдём в университет.)

d) an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances:

John stood in front of the window, his nose pressed to the glass. (Джон стоял перед окном, при этом его нос был прижат к стеклу.)

The students were writing a test, their hands trembling. (Студенты писали контрольную работу, а их руки

дрожали.)

Jack was running after the tram, his tongue stuck out. ( Джек бежал за трамваем, с высунытым языком.)

NOTE: The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

2. THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION

This construction looks like the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction, but it has no participle. The participle (usually of a link verb) is omitted.

Breakfast over, everybody wanted to have dinner. (Когда

завтрак закончился, всем захотелось обедать.)

John was chewing spaghetti, nobody else in the room.

This construction performs the following syntactical functions:

a) an adverbial modifier of time:

The sun high in the sky, the alarm clock suddenly went off. (Когда солнце было уже высоко, неожиданно зазвенел будильник.)

b) an adverbial modifier of condition:

The weather good, I’ll go to the university. (Если погода будет хорошая, я пойду в университет.)

c) an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances:

There he stood, his face to the north-east. (Он стоял, повернувшись лицом к северо-востоку.)

The students were writing a test, illegal materials under their desks. (Студенты писали контрольную работу, а под партами лежали шпаргалки.)

NOTE: The Nominative Absolute Construction is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

3. THE PREPOSITIONAL ABSOLUTE PARTICIPIAL CONSTRUCTION

It consists of two independent elements: a noun or a pronoun introduced by the preposition “with” and Participle I or Participle II.

John entered the haunted house with his heart beating fast.

This construction usually performs the syntactical function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances:

The students were writing a test paper with their eyes fixed

on the ceiling. (Студенты писали контрольную работу, а

их глаза были направлены на потолок.)

The meaning of attendant circumstances may be combined with temporal, causal or conditional meanings.

I shall not speak with you staring at me like that. (Я не буду

говорить, если вы будете на меня так смотреть.)

(condition)

Now, with the exam being over, one can forget everything again. (Теперь, когда экзамен позади, можно снова всё забыть.) (time)

I can’t speak English with my phrase book left at home. (Я не могу говорить по-английски, так как мой разговорник остался дома.) (cause)

NOTE: It is not necessary to separate the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction by a comma.

4. THE PREPOSITIONAL ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION

This construction differs from the Prepositional Absolute Construction by the absence of the participle (usually of a link verb). The same preposition “with” precedes a noun or a pronoun.

John was waiting for Mary with potatoes in his bag.

This construction performs the stylistic function of an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances:

Bill was running down the street with a dog at his heels.

(Билл бежал вдоль по улице, а за ним бежала собака.)

Sometimes the meaning of attendant circumstances may be combined with other meanings.

With the moon in the sky it is hard to observe the stars.

(Когда на небе луна, трудно наблюдать за звёздами.)

(time)

NOTE: It is not necessary to separate this construction by a

comma.

Absolute Constructions very often occur in mass media, fiction and scientific literature.

EXERCISES

VERY SIMPLE SENTENCE

Ex. 1. Decide whether the following sentences are elliptical or one-member sentences. Complete them if you can.

1. Wise men talk because they have something to say; fools, because they have to say something. (Plato)

2. The past exists only in our memories; the future only in our plans; the present is our only reality.

3. It is impossible to live pleasurably without living prudently, honorably, and justly; or to live prudently, honorably, and justly, without living pleasurably. (Epicurus)

4. Admiration – our polite recognition of another's resemblance to ourselves.

5. A woman is as old as she looks. Before breakfast.

6. No offense intended.

7. Nice to see you, to see you nice.

8. Conversation is the slowest means of communication. The quickest are telegraph, telephone, tell a woman.

9. Where? -- Out and around.

10. Blowy earachy winter Monday.

11. Begin at the beginning and go on till you come to the end; then stop.

12. Anyone waiting for me? -- Not a soul!

13. Teachers' parking only – you park, you teach!

14. And you, Brute.

15. Only this, and nothing more. (E.A.Poe)

16. Teacher dead, students happy.

17. What a monstrosity!

18. What stories do you read? -- Short.

19. Haply you shall not see me more; or if, a mingled shadow. (Shakespeare)

20. A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse!

21. Sorry honey, short of money.

Ex. 2. Define types of sentences according to the structural classification.

A) Mr Krankenhausen drove home, rattling down the lane, parking on the cul-de-sac. A space today, lately often not. Talk of the need for a stoplight at the corner where the lane turned. Confusing to out-of-towners. Too many cars. Too many people. He heated water on their electric coil and made instant coffee. Maxwell. Faraday. Another scratchy August day. Hours away. His own phone rang. Mary talking, Irish accent emergent.

B)

Richard,

Waited an hour!!! Dinner in the dog.

Taken car to mechanic (still making funny noises!) Back before 6.

Don't forget to pay the milkman. Money in the fridge (5 rubles).

PLEASE FEED CAT. (Tin open on coffee table.)

See you later. Mary

Ex. 3. Translate the following signs into English using elliptical or one-member sentences.

1. Тянуть к себе. 2. По газону не ходить. Траву не есть. 3. Собакам вход категорически запрещён. 4. Бассейн. Часы работы с 1346 до 1347. 5. Только для сумасшедших. 6. Руки прочь! 7. Не высовываться. 8. Пива нет. Ушла на базу. 9. Добро пожаловать в ТГУ. 10. Вход бесплатный. 11. Выход платный. 12. Место для очереди. 13. Детям до трёх лет скидка. Взрослым бесплатно. 14. Первый! Первый! Я второй! Приём! 15. Держите вора! 16. Окрашено. 17. Для отходов. 18. Не сорить. Частная собственность. 19. Вешалка для студентов. 20. Начало матча в 1800. 21. Продаются ботинки. Пробег 15000 км. 22. Найду кошелёк с деньгами. Обращаться в группу № 42. 23. Отдам в хорошие руки учебник по грамматике английского языка. 24. Скатертью дорога. 25. Пришёл. Увидел. Упал. Очнулся. Гипс. 26. Просьба орангутангов не кормить. Администрация. 27. Просьба администрацию не кормить. Орангутанги. 28. Требуйте долива после отстоя пены. 29. Экстренный вызов баяниста по вызову. 30. Да здравствуют все желающие! Ура! 31. Открыто на перерыв. 32. Вертеть против часовой стрелки. 33. Осторожно, злая как собака! 34. Ушла к психиатру. Обед в стиральной машине. 35. Скрепки канцелярские. В пищу не употреблять. 36. Дверью не хлопать. 37. Лифт не работает. Ближайший лифт в доме напротив. 38. Приём заявок на ремонт телефона только по телефону. 39. Ушла на 15 минут. Время местное. 40. Яблочный сок «Привет». Изготовлен из 100% натурального апельсинового сока. 41. Колбаса «останкинская». Срок хранения до 2895 года. 42. Обход ( 43. Уходя, гасите свет.

Ex. 4. Read the following ads. Then choose one of the following products (or invent an unusual product) to advertise and try to sell it to the class: edible CDs, coloured tooth-varnish, perfumed books, musical mousetraps, anti-yawning pills, bicycle-seat warmers, portable folding toilets, etc. Talk at least for 3 minutes.

|PIANOS from $350 |C-SCOPE METAL |SILVER CROSS detachable Coach Pram |

|guaranteed, Clavinovas and other digital |DETECTORS |(navy), shopping tray, excellent clean |

|pianos, Yamaha Keyboards, organs, |The ideal family gift to treasure from |condition, $30; Carry Cot, $5; Baby Bath |

|guitars, sheet music and accessories, |$39.99 to $449.59. |$2.50; Atari system, joystick and paddle |

|0% interest free credit. |Tel. Ashford (0233) 2818 today for free |stick, in good working order, needs a new|

|The Music Supermarket, 71/72 Bygrave |color brochure. |mains adapter, $40 ono; 5 Atari |

|Street, Puddleby-on-the-Swamp - | |cassettes, $10 each, very good condition,|

|Tel 56655 | |ideal Xmas presents. – Apply 34 Kynaston |

| | |Road, Didcot, Oxbridge, evenings. |

Ex. 5. Write a job ad like below. Use elliptical and one member sentences.

| PART TIME JOB |TEACHER NEEDED |

|Circus has an unexpected vacancy for a knife-thrower assistant.|for private language school. |

|Excellent pay. Apply in writing to: City Show Office, 13 Rose |Teaching experience unnecessary. |

|Lane, Sevenoaks. |Must be of smart appearance. |

| |Aged over 60. Must be able to swim. Apply to the Director of |

| |Studies. Instant Languages Ltd., |

| |279 Canal Street, Woolloomooloo. |

Ex. 6. Here are real instructions printed on products sold in the USA. Translate them back.

1. На фене для сушения волос: Не пользуйтесь во время сна.

2. На кульке с хрустящей картошкой Fritos: ВЫ МОЖЕТЕ ВЫИГРАТЬ! ПОКУПКА НЕ ТРЕБУЕТСЯ! Детали внутри.

3. На обертке от куска мыла фирмы Dial: Пользуйтесь как обычным мылом.

4. На замороженном ужине: Можете разморозить перед едой.

5. На коробке от торта Tesco: Не переворачивайте вверх ногами. (написано на дне коробки)

6. На пудинге фирмы Marks and Spenser: Продукт будет горячим после подогревания.

7. На утюге Rowenda: Не гладьте одежду на себе.

8. На порошке от кашля для детей от 2 до 5 лет, фирмы Boot: не водите автомобиль и не пользуйтесь тяжелыми машинами после принятия.

9. На напитке от бессонницы фирмы Nytol: Осторожно, может вызвать сонливость.

10. На рождественских лампочках, сделанных в Китае: Использовать только внутри или на улице.

11. На кульке орехов фирмы Sainsbury: Осторожно: внутри орехи.

12. На пакете орехов на авиалинии American Airlines: Инструкция: откройте пакет, ешьте орехи.

Ex. 7. Newspaper headlines often follow grammatical rules rather different from other kinds of writings causing ambiguity sometimes. Find peculiarities in the following newspaper headlines and translate them into Russian. Choose one to write a short article about.

1. MP FACING CAT PROBLEMS

2. EIFFEL TOWER STOLEN BY ALIENS

3. EX-PRESIDENT TO START NEW JOB

4. PRISON FOR MIDNIGHT FRIDGE THIEF

5. CHOCOLATE FACTORY PAY CUT RIOT

6. HUNGRY STUDENTS STUDY BETTER, SAYS DOCTOR

7. DEAN TO PAPUA NEW GUINEA

8. POLICE RAID DUCHESS'S FLAT

9. MISSING ENVOY RIDDLE DRAMA

10. KREMLIN SPLIT ON IMF ADVICE

11. CHANCELLOR TO SELL UNIVERSITY TO STUDENTS

12. THEFT SUSPECT GETS APPOINTED ATTORNEY

13. DISNEYLAND PORNOGRAPHY FREE, OFFICIALS SAY

14. MANUFACTURERS DISCHARGED INTO RIVER

15. AMBASSADOR ABDUCTED FROM EMBASSY SAFE

16. FRENCH OFFER TERRORISTS REWARD

17. GOVERNMENT PLANS COLLAPSE

18. BADDEST MAN ON THE PLANET

19. CROWDS RUSHING TO SEE PM TRAMPLE SIX TO DEATH

Ex. 8. Explain what the following headlines mean in ordinary English.

1. GO AHEAD FOR WATER CURBS

2. POLL PROBES SPENDING HABITS

3. BID TO OUST PM

4. PM PLEDGES BACKING FOR EUROPE

5. YELLOW FEVER FIGURES DROP

6. POLICE BEGIN CAMPAIGN TO RUN DOWN JAYWALKERS

7. DRUNKS GET NINE MONTHS IN VIOLIN CASE

8. IRAQI HEAD SEEKS ARMS

9. TEACHER STRIKES IDLE KIDS

10. JUVENILE COURT TO TRY SHOOTING DEFENDANT

11. STOLEN PAINTING FOUND BY TREE

12. KIDS MAKE NUTRITIOUS SNACKS

13. LOCAL HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS CUT IN HALF

Ex. 9. Choose the right words in brackets. Consult a dictionary.

1. Mr Walker walked (far/a long way). 2. I don’t live (far/a long way) from the rubbish dump. 3. You are carrying that joke (too far/a too long way). 4. It won’t take (long/a long time) to finish this exercise. 5. He didn’t work for (long/a long time). (=He soon stopped working.) 6. He didn’t work for (long/a long time). (=He was unemployed for a long time.) 7. It was getting dark but the university was still (far/a long way) off. 8. It’s (very far/a very long way) to Beijing. 9. Mr Kugelschreiber lives (far/a long way) out. 10. Is New Zealand (far/a long way) from Old Zealand? 11. We seem to have been studying (too long/for a too long time).12. Have you been studying at university (long/for a long time)? – No, not (long/a very long time), but I will study here (long/(for) a very long time).

WORD ORDER AND WORD DISORDER

Ex. 1. Put adverbs in brackets in the right place.

1. The system administrator may be there. (well)

2. I can't go to Woolloomooloo tomorrow. (possibly)

3. The witnesses were perfectly certain of that. (each)

4. I bought the girls an ice cream. (each)

5. You are not working carefully. (enough)

6. I'd like to be a professional singer, but I don't think I've got a(n) good voice. (enough)

7. Do you think we have green tea. (enough)

8. I will go to university. (no longer)

9. The computer doesn't work well. (any more)

10. It ought to be you than me that signs the letter. (rather)

11. I always prefer starting early, than leaving everything to the last minute. (rather)

12. I would you came next weekend. (rather)

13. That's a nuisance. (rather)

14. Your job is to make the club a success. (really) (the meaning of 'make' is intensified)

15. Your job is to make the club a success. (really) (=the real purpose of your job)

16. He can lift it. (alone) (=unassisted)

17. He can lift it. (alone) (=only he)

18. I don't like her. (really) (=I dislike her strongly)

19. I don't like her. (really) (=I'm indifferent to her, or dislike her a little)

20. I don't know. (really) (=I don't have a clear idea)

21. Mr Basketville is lying. (effectively) (=in fact, although perhaps not appearing so)

22. Mr Basketville is lying. (effectively) (=in an effective way)

23. I have no money. (whatever)

Ex. 2. Insert words in brackets in the right place. Decide what parts of speech they are. Consult a dictionary.

1. The ... students ... are fast asleep. (present) (=the ones who are at the lesson)

2. The ... students ... are very smart. (present) (=those who are students now)

3. After the introduction we started the ... meeting ... . (proper) (=itself)

4. Snowdon is not very high, but it's a ... mountain ... , not a hill. (proper) (=real)

5. I'll pass on your comments to the ... people ... . (concerned) (=the people who were affected by what was happening)

6. The ... parents ... approached the school about the problem. (concerned) (=the worried parents)

7. I have enjoyed my visit very much, and would like to thank all the ... people ... . (concerned)

8. The manager has written an ... explanation ... of how the system works. (involved) (=a complicated explanation)

9. The secretary was extremely grateful to the ... personnel ... . (involved) (=the personnel who were affected by what was happening)

10. The ... solution ... was suitable to all the sides. (adopted) (=chosen)

11. John says he is a(n) ... child ... . (adopted). (=taken into someone's family)

12. Any ... person ... should raise his hand. (objecting)

13. The only ... place ... was sticky with some goo. (left)

14. The ... point ... is very obscure, I am afraid. (mentioned)

15. The ... facts ... are of great importance. (above-mentioned)

16. Can you see the ... man ... on that rock? (climbing)

17. The ... people ... gave very different opinions. (questioned)

18. We couldn't agree on any of the ... problems ... . (discussed)

19. ... joking ... , we must do something about that hole in the wall. (apart) (=seriously speaking)

20. There are ... bargains ... in the sales this year. (galore)

21. The ... minister ... shuffled across the room. (designate)

22. He is the … person … for keeping the class in order. (responsible)

23. The students enjoyed their ... eight ... attempts to pass their exam in German. (first)

Ex. 3. Put the words in brackets in the right place. Decide whether they are prepositions or adverbial particles. Consult a dictionary.

1. You should hear ... all the candidates ... before you make a decision. (out)

2. We can carry ... our lesson ... after lunch. (on)

3. You're working too hard. Why don't you take ... a few weeks ... . (off)

4. Mr O'Corner saw ... the foreign delegations ... at the rickshaw stop. (off)

5. The prosecuting lawyer tried to catch ... the witness ... by clever questioning. (out) (=show that he was wrong; BrE)

6. Let us pass ... my rude remarks ... . (over) (=try not to notice)

7. She knew him well enough to see ... his laughter ... and realize he was upset about what had happened. (through) (=not to be deceived by)

8. Whatever happens, we'll see ... the lesson ... . (through) (=persevere with)

9. Mr Oxy Moron is putting ... his house in Ouagadougou ... for sale. (up)

10. In the FA Cup final Grimsby Town put ... a lot of resistance ... . (up)

11. Mary broke her washing machine and has to get ... a mechanic ... now. (round) (=call)

12. The students refused to receive their scholarship at first but the dean managed to get ... them ... . (round) (=persuade)

13. If you don't know what to do with good advice, pass ... it ... . (on) (=tell another person)

14. But if you are asked a difficult question, you pass ... it ... . (on) (=can't answer it)

INVERSION

Ex. 1. Comment on the cases of inversion in the following sentences. Translate into Russian.

1. Only in Paris can you buy a toothbrush like that! 2. "And who the devil may you be?" asked Mrs Hudson truculently. 3. Your talk is surely the handiwork of wisdom because not one word of it do I understand. 4. Are microbiologists very small biologists? 5. Late as it was the students decided to attend the lesson. 6. Not since Korea had Peter cared about news. News happened to other people.7. Good as is discourse, silence is better and shames it. 8. Here is the manager! Safe and sound! 9. Under no circumstances can visitors be allowed to walk on the grass. 10. Mad I am not – and very surely do I not dream. 11. Round the corner came Mr O'Connor. 12. Quoth the raven, "Never more." 13. Also present were the Mayor and Mayoress. 14. It is not my interest to pay the principal, nor is it my principle to pay the interest. (R.B. Sheridan) 15. Quickly the years fly past forever; Here forever is this spring morning. (Chinese poem) 16. Try as she would, she couldn't lift the samovar. 17. Jump he will and, I’m afraid, jump he should. 18. Darkly and bitterly did she resent the incessant appeal they made to her better feelings. 19. Not for five minutes could they drag themselves away from this triumph. 20. Iron rusts from disuse, stagnant water loses its purity, and in cold weather becomes frozen, even so does inaction sap the vigour of the mind. (Leonardo da Vinci) 21. Along with the new laws came new practice. 22. As the central authority gained in might so did the sheriffdoms multiply. 23. Says who?

Ex. 2. Change word order so as to use emphatic inversion.

1. The students didn't know irregular verbs. They didn't know irregular nouns and irregular adjectives either. 2. Charles's words sounded so odd that he himself didn't believe them. 3. My parrot flew away! He flew to Africa! 4. Mr Brown tumbled down! 5. She would say so on no account! 6. The audience didn't leave until the end. 7. If I were in your shoes I would polish them. 8. I will do it again by no means. 9. I've never been to Oklahoma before. 10. Though John was stupid he understood everything. 11. Though we are busy we go to university. 12. It stopped raining the moment I reached home. 13. Only at the airport Mr Smith realized he had a railway ticket. The country goes to dogs! 14. The moment I entered the room the telephone stopped ringing. 15. It was not only a goal to celebrate, but a thing of beauty! 16. Mr Montag fell asleep only sixteen times in his chair while listening to the opera in the opera house. 17. Mr Zeugman was there, large as life and twice as ugly. 18. We go here!

Ex. 3. Translate into English using inversion

1. Не успел Джон войти в трамвай № 10, как трамвай № 10 сломался. 2. Первое заказывали? Вот вам! 3. Лекция была такой интересной, что никто не хотел есть. 4. Только когда четверокурсники учились на четвёртом курсе, они чередовали умственную деятельность с учебной. 5. Ни одного слова не знал мистер Смит по-английски. 6. Никогда больше не пойду в Большой театр. 7. Была бы сейчас зима, можно было бы кататься на лыжах! 8. Особенно мне понравилось фруктовое мороженое. 9. Только придя на работу, мистер Браун понял, что был выходной. 10. Никогда ещё не было так жарко в аудитории № 201. 11. Если бы вы пришли вовремя, вы бы не опоздали. 12. Как бы я ни устал, я всегда хожу на футбол. 13. Если вдруг пойдёте в магазин, не забудьте купить морской капусты. 14. Как только студенты сдали педагогику, сразу её забыли. 15. Да здравствует второй вице-премьер первого премьера кабинета министров нашего правительства! Ура! 16. На противоположной стене, напротив электротелевизора, висел большой треугольный французский поеденный молью красный ковёр зелёного цвета и не падал. 17. Вот ваш колбасный сыр, сэр! Приятного аппетита! 18. Как только в доме отключили горячее отопление, сразу же включили холодное отопление. 19. Хотя Джон был в Лондоне 2118 раз, он так и не видел Эйфелеву башню. 20. Знал бы Билл, что может случиться, он никогда не стал бы изучать английский язык. 21. Терпеть не могу музыку. – И я тоже. 22. Очень редко студенты получали хорошие оценки по стилистическому анализу. Да и по деловому английскому тоже они не получали хорошие оценки. 23. Только через неделю мистер Уайт понял, что сказал мистер Блэк. 24. Как глубоко в полуночном метро! 25. А вот и банк – но мне туда не надо. 26. Как горестно стоять на остановке! 27. Лекция была нудная, но зато длинная. 28. Ни в коем случае нельзя опаздывать на уроки грамматики. 29. Студенты не только поняли книгу, но и прочитали её. 30. Как космонавт Смит ни старался, он больше не мог есть шоколад. 31. Не успел Биг Бен пробить 21 час, как по всей Твери наступила полночь. 32. Будете проходить мимо, проходите.

Ex. 4. Translate into English using do-you-think questions. Answer the questions.

1. Как вы думаете, на каких языках говорят в Испании? 2. Как вы думаете, вы когда-нибудь были в музее имени Пушкина? 3. Как вы полагаете, сколько штатов в Малайзии? 4. Как вы думаете, почему ирландцы не умеют говорить по-ирландски? 5. Как вы считаете, сколько времени вам понадобится, чтобы забыть грамматику английского языка? 6. Чему, по-вашему, равен косинус (cosine) угла в 90 градусов? 7. Как, вы думаете, раньше назывался Нью-Йорк? 8. Как вы думаете, сколько лет продолжалась Столетняя война? 9. Как вы считаете, кто открыл закон Архимеда? 10. Как вы думаете, в каких странах говорят по-португальски? 11. Как вы считаете, есть ли жизнь на Марсе? 12. Как вы полагаете, где находится Паликир? 13. Как вы думаете, какой город является столицей Сент-Винсента и Гренадин? 14. Как вы считаете, хорошо ли прогуливать занятия по грамматике английского языка? 15. Как вы думаете, где у кузнечика находятся уши? 16. Как вы думаете, что такое морской огурец? 17. Как вы считаете, почему в неделе семь дней?

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

Ex.1. Define types of coordination.

1. How do you know I am mad? -- You must be mad, otherwise you wouldn't have come here.

2. There ain't no happiness in this world, so you've just gotta be happy without it.

3. You've no need to light a night-light on a light night like tonight, for a night-light's a slight light, and tonight's a night that's light when a night's light, like tonight's light, it's really not quite right to light night-lights with their slight lights on a light night like tonight.

4. A good wife is good, but the best wife is not so good as no wife at all.

5. I did my best, nevertheless I made no progress at all as regards the question of the points.

6. Tom doesn't drink whisky; neither does Jerry.

7. We must all hang together, else we shall all hang separately.

8. Bachelors have consciences, married men have wives.

9. An American lifts his hat to ladies in an elevator, whereas an Englishman elevates his hat to ladies in a lift.

10. The town was built near a bridge on the River Cam; hence is the name Cambridge.

11. This year's fall in profits was not unexpected, nonetheless it is very disappointing.

12. She's a zany girl, yet you can't help liking her.

13. They asked him to leave the meeting, and accordingly he went.

14. And the rain descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew and beat upon the house; and it fell and great was the fall of it.

15. It's raining; still I want to eat.

16. Umberto Montanari was unable to get rid of a mouse which chewed holes in his car's carpet, so he put a pot of water inside the vehicle and dropped a block of carbide into it.

17. I decided to stop and have lunch, for I was feeling quite hungry.

18. I think therefore I am.

19. Let women in, and they'll never stop lecturing.

20. It's not good to be bad, while it's not bad to be good.

21. Either I am a great Russian writer, or I will eat this porridge.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

Ex. 1. Define types of nominal clauses. Translate into Russian.

1. That which has been is what will be,

That which is done is what will be done,

And there is nothing new under the sun.

2. It looks as if we'll have to walk.

2. What's mine is yours, and what's yours is mine.

3. Little Willie is no more,

For what Little Willie thought was H2O

Was H2SO4 .

5. It seems not economically feasible that such a lavish production will be staged.

5. It doesn't sound as if we were alone in the universe.

6. U.S. Air Force General Don Flickinger said last night that all chimpanzees used in space flights would be volunteers.

7. It is making money what Lucy is interested in.

8. What it seems to be is real.

9. George made it clear that he disagreed.

10. It appears that Geoffrey might change his mind.

11. What is amazing is not that so little is produced locally, but that anything is produced here at all.

12. Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.

13. What doesn’t poison fattens. (Italian proverb)

14. I think it necessary that students should do their homework.

Ex. 2. Translate the sentences into English using the oblique moods in nominal clauses where possible.

1. Доброе утро! Вы выглядите, как будто по вам проехал каток. – Спасибо, и вы тоже. 2. Вполне естественно, что домашнее задание лучше, чем дикое задание. 3. Входите пожалуйста. Жаль, что вы не позавтракали, не пообедали и не поужинали дома. 4. Студенты боялись, что они не опоздают на урок грамматики английского языка. 5. Пора бы вам меня будить! 6. Врач ухо-горло-нос Джонсон настаивал на том, чтобы больной вёл себя хорошо. 7. По сведениям гидрометцентра, завтра, вероятно, погоды не будет. 8. Странно, что квадрат гипотенузы равен сумме квадратов катетов. 9. Ничего удивительного, что она когда-то видела сверчка внутри круглого зеркала, погружённого, утопленного в его твёрдую прозрачность, и, что она проникла внутрь стеклянной поверхности, чтобы достать его. 10. Боюсь, как бы завтра в Париже торжественно не открылся бы 168-й международный Берлинский кинофестиваль. 11. Самое время, чтобы кто-нибудь что-нибудь сказал. 12. Вероятно, не всё так плохо, как всё есть на самом деле. 13. Учитель предложил, чтобы студенты немедленно шли домой и ни в коем случае не делали домашнее задание.

Ex. 3. Define types of attributive clauses. Translate into Russian.

1. Nothing is enough for the man for whom enough is too little. (Epicurus)

2. The lie that exalts us is dearer than a thousand sober truths. (A.S. Pushkin)

3. Doctor, I keep getting the feeling that nobody can hear what I say.

4. There is always something a woman will prefer to the truth.

5. Maggie lives alone with her mouse, whose name is Bartholomew, but she spends a lot of time visiting her mother.

6. Patriotism is your conviction that this country is superior to all other countries because you were born in it. (G.B. Shaw)

7. What bewildered me was the sure knowledge, deeply rooted in my mind, that this was the house I was searching for and that there were people inside it.

8. John broke his leg skiing, which didn't surprise us in the least.

9. He was a man who understood all dogs thoroughly and treated them like human beings.

10. She lived in Liverpool when a child, which is why she's got a Scouse accent.

11. A man who has never made a woman angry is a failure in life.

12. Men are the reason that women hate one another.

13. The government ignored the objection that the antipollution measures would greatly increase the cost of the products.

14. As soon as I finished speaking, Jephson, who had been listening very thoughtfully, asked me if I believed in ghosts.

15. Mary goes to the same university as I do.

16. There is no doubt but he will recover.

17. A pessimist is someone who has had to listen to too many optimists.

18. Everything you can do I can do better.

19. All's well that ends well.

Ex. 4. Insert correct connectors introducing attributive clauses. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. Mr Scrooge has a scarf, … colour I don’t like.

2. He … rides the tiger can never dismount. (Chinese proverb)

3. This is a letter, … words I will remember.

4. The summer has been very warm, … is unusual in this country.

5. There was such a thunderstorm … we’ve never heard of.

6. Mary again came late, … annoyed John.

7. You have never read such books … I can give you.

8. Helen wears the same kind of clothes … her sister wears.

9. The students are reading a novel, … plot they greatly enjoy.

10. I am well read in literature, … is remarkable for my age.

11. She began to tell the story herself, … spoiled everything.

12. He … doesn’t know one thing knows another.(Kenyan proverb)

13. Eventually I mentioned Mr Smith, … put me in bad with her.

14. Never was there a dandy such … Hercule Poirot.

15. From board the plane the fascinated passengers watched the mountains, … pattern was slowly unraveling below.

16. Whenever she came, … was often, she came quite noisily.

17. Carlyle’s doctor had told him to take afternoon naps, and it seemed he was often upstairs, in a kind of hibernation, from … he would emerge red-eyed, wearing soft moccasins.

18. He … is outside his door has the hardest part of his journey behind him. (Dutch proverb)

Ex. 5. Join these sentences together so as to get attributive clauses. Define their types. Use a comma where required.

E.g. My house needs a lot doing to it. It is about 1000 years old.

My house, which needs a lot doing to it, is about 1000 years old.

1. His violin is worth $20,000. It once belonged to Karl Marx.

2. Yesterday's meeting lasted six hours. It was a complete waste of time.

3. The average weekly wage used to be about $8. It is now about $300.

4. Penguins are completely unable to fly. They have no natural enemies.

5. The cover of this book is interesting. The book is dull..

6. I saw a man. He stole my pan.

7. Charles's wife is a Member of Parliament. He isn't interested in politics at all.

8. The idea is that we go to London. This idea is stupid.

9. You disseminate the idea. This idea is fairly good.

10. These glasses give me a headache. I have to wear them for reading.

11. John can speak Mandarin. This fact is very remarkable.

12. I caught the 10:10 train. It is very surprising.

13. I supported the party. The party was unsuccessful in the last election.

Ex. 6. Define the types of adverbial clauses. Translate into Russian.

1. Sir Pferdinando murmured such a dreadful oath that he would not dare to repeat it to himself.

2. Two is to four as four is to eight.

3. A lovely lady looked longingly at Larry as he limped lazily along the lake.

4. As popular as is the president he has not been able to get his own way on every issue.

5. As she has no car, she can't get there easily.

6. Improbable as it seems, it's true.

7. She was as proud as she could be.

8. Close the door so that the heat doesn't escape.

9. While I understand what you say, I can't agree with you.

10. She doesn't enjoy her job the way she used to.

11. Once she arrives we can start.

12. The game is easy, once you learn the basic rules.

13. Suppose it rains, what shall we do?

14. Seeing she's legally old enough to get married, I don't see how you can stop her.

15. I'll help you so far as I can.

16. Wherever you go, I'll go with you.

17. Since you can't answer the question, perhaps we'd better ask someone else.

18. You can take my car as long as you don't smash it up.

19. Once you get into a rut, it's often really difficult to get out of it and make a new life for oneself.

20. The retreating whistles of those flatland trains seemed drawn with a pencil sharpened so fine that in reality it broke.

21. She looked at him as lovingly as she knew how.

22. I'm itching for them to leave so I can eat the chocolate.

23. A ragged group gathered on an appointed wooden bridge, on a February day so clear it did not feel cold.

24. You can borrow my bike provided you bring it back.

25. It isn't anything like as cold as it was yesterday.

Ex. 7. Define the types of subordinate clauses. Translate into Russian.

1. A pleasant place to place a plaice is a place where a plaice is pleased to be placed.

2. I'm sorry if she's annoyed.

3. Now it turns out his company can can him virtually the minute the poor bastard wanders from the straight and narrow.

4. Who pulleth out this sword of this stone and anvil is rightwise king born of all England.

5. Stop doing what you have been doing.

6. If you will just sign here please, I'll give you the money.

7. Turn everything you hear to your own advantage.

8. Now we were going through a country full of fine enduring trees where it was always five a clock in the afternoon.

9. Do you know if she's coming?

10. Since many minor revisions were still required, the second draft of the document had to be approved by the committee, contact with the individual members of which was made by the phone or letter, because the committee had by then been dissolved as a standing committee by the Board.

11. Live as you will have wished to have lived when you are dying.

12. It's what a fish feels for the fish it's eating.

13. Janet had taken to reading the newspapers as if this smudgy peek into other lives might show her the way out of her own.

14. I hope that's the last we ever see of them.

15. That doesn't mean the world isn't wonderful.

16. She can't help what she dreams.

17. Whichever day you come, we'll be pleased to see you.

18. She'll probably be on the same plane as I will be tomorrow.

19. The longest I can stay is three hours.

20. I think we're pretty much alike, no matter what we think we believe.

21. I seem to be the only person I know who has any sense of humour.

22. Do not let what you cannot do tear from your hands what you can. (Ashanti proverb)

23. A man can do more than he can.

24. If universities must admit all students who apply for admission, they will admit many students who are not capable of pursuing studies at university level, which will force them to withdraw when they find that they cannot cope with the work, which will be a waste of government money.

25. Most of us are just as happy as we make up our minds to be.

26. I don't see what relationship of this is with that.

27. After that happened, what was bad became worse.

28. If you think you can do a thing or think you can't do a thing, you're right.

29. Is that what you're trying to tell me?

30. The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, and wise people so full of doubts. (B.Russel)

31. It beats me how he could have done it.

32. Mr Brown-Brown never eats while reading, albeit he reads while eating.

33. Cats know exactly how we, people, feel. They don't give a damn, but they know.

34. This seems to leave us where we were.

35. Now, as ever, I wish not to misrepresent Judge Douglas's position, question his motives, or do aught that can be personally offensive to him. (A.Lincoln)

36. He breathes best who breathes last.

37. I never smelled a smelt that smelled as bad as that smelt smelled.

38. You can go out as long as you promise to be back before 11 o'clock.

39. Time is fun when you're having fleas. (Kermit the Frog)

40. I've been waiting for you passionately and impatiently as if you were a tram.

41. All Helen does Helen does well.

42. That's the way things are.

43. The house where I live is yellow.

44. I know all, what I don't is not worth knowing.

45. Never try to outsmart a woman unless you are another woman.

46. Never imagine yourself not to be otherwise than what it might appear to others that what you were or might have been was not otherwise that what you had been would have appeared to them to be otherwise.

47. The students did very well in their exams considering how little they had studied.

48. I recognized the president the moment he entered.

49. She was so glad to see me go away, that I have almost a mind to come again, that she may again have the same pleasure.

50. Love is something one has to make.

51. There was never yet a fair woman but she made mouths in a glass. (Shakespeare)

52. If you are afraid of loneliness, don't marry. (Chekhov)

53. No one can more easily deceive others than someone who is reputed never to deceive.

54. A man must marry only a very pretty woman in case he should ever want some other man to take her off his hands.

55. The worst of marriage is that it makes a woman believe that all other men are just as easy to fool.

56. Since all the girls are good and lovable, from whence come the bad wives?

57. I met a man in the Strand one day that I knew very well, as I thought, though I had not seen him for years.

58. Zeugmas and the rest of the stylistic bestiary are of significance only insofar as they help us learn better.

59. The doctor wore such an expression on his face as left no doubt of his decision.

60. Is there any reason why she did it?

61. She doesn't know why she does what she does.

62. Tell me immediately you have any news.

63. It isn't as if she had no money.

64. -- Doctor, I feel as if nobody ever listens to me. – Next please.

Ex. 8. Translate into English. Differentiate between a parenthesis making reference to the source of information and an adverbial clause of cause.

1. Так как это сообщили по интернету, все уже знают новость.

2. Как известно, на 7-й Международной Конференции в Гааге наша делегация выступила с пакетом конструктивных предложений, направленных на укрепление процесса сотрудничества и интеграции в Европе. Выступали все. А я не поехал.

3. Как было открыто нашими учёными, луна имеет круглую форму и светится в темноте.

4. Как всем известно, гипердетерминация означает, что любой элемент свободных ассоциаций связан с многочисленными образованиями в поле сознания, а каждые из них с многочисленными подсознательными и бессознательными содержаниями.

5. Как сообщалось на заборе, сила тока на каком-либо участке проводника прямо пропорциональна напряжению, выбранному между концами выбранного участка, и обратно пропорциональна сопротивлению проводника.

6. Так как это сообщалось на заборе, все это читали.

7. Как уже было сказано, основные средства представляют собой средства имеющие материальную ценность, которые функционируют в течении нескольких лет, и предназначены для использования в хозяйственной деятельности и в основном не предназначены для перепродажи или перевода в наличные деньги.

Ex. 9. Prove that you are good at writing diploma theses. Extend the following sentences by using subordinate clauses without change of meaning.

E.g. Italians eat a lot of pasta. – Pasta in all of its forms is well known to be high on the list of those foods which are most frequently consumed by the inhabitants of the Italian Peninsula.

1. Horses eat oats. 2. I am a good student. 3. To be or not to be – that is the question. 4. Bujumbura is the capital of Burundi. 5. The shot-putter put the shot. 6. Everybody likes English Grammar very much.

Ex. 10. Translate into English paying attention to complex sentences.

В уединённой комнатке, куда не проникали ни знойный ветер, ни пыль, ни жара, оба они вспоминали далёкий призрак старика в шляпе с полями, как вороновы крылья, который за много лет до их рождения, сидя здесь спиной к окну, рассказывал о мире. Оба они одновременно заметили, что в этой комнате всегда стоит март и всегда понедельник, и тут они поняли, как ошибалась семья, считая Хосе Аркадио Буэндиа безумцем, напротив, он единственный в доме обладал достаточной ясностью ума, позволившей ему постигнуть ту истину, что время в своём движении тоже сталкивается с препятствиями и терпит аварии, а потому кусок времени может отколоться и навечно застрять в какой-нибудь комнате. Кроме того, Хосе Аркадио Второму удалось классифицировать криптографические знаки пергаментов и составить из них таблицу. Он убедился, что они соответствуют алфавиту, насчитывающему от сорока семи до пятидесяти трёх букв, которые, будучи написаны по отдельности, похожи на маленьких паучков и клещей, а соединённые в строчки – напоминают бельё, развешанное сушиться на проволоке. Аурелиано вспомнил, что видел нечто подобное в английской энциклопедии, и принёс её, чтобы сравнить. Таблицы действительно совпадали.

(Г.-Г. Маркес)

Видя, что Аурелиано Второй работает с таким рвением, какого в нём и заподозрить нельзя было, Фернанда приняла охвативший его азарт за трудолюбие, мучительную жажду наживы – за самоотверженность, упрямство за настойчивость; теперь её мучили угрызения совести, когда она вспоминала все ядовитые слова, брошенные ему в лицо, чтобы вывести его из состояния апатии. Стоя по горло в трясине из мёртвых веток и сгнивших цветов, он перекапывал сад, покончив уже со двором и задним двором, и так глубоко подрыл фундамент восточной галереи, что однажды ночью обитатели дома были разбужены подземными толчками и треском, исходившим откуда-то из-под земли; они подумали было о землетрясении, но оказалось, что это провалился пол в трёх комнатах дома, а в полу галереи открылась огромная трещина, доходившая до спальни. Но и тут Аурелиано Второй не отказался от своих поисков. Хотя последняя надежда угасла и ему оставалось только цепляться за предсказания карт, всё же он укрепил пошатнувшийся фундамент, залил трещину известковым раствором и продолжал свои раскопки уже на западной стороне. Там его и застигла вторая неделя июня месяца следующего года, с наступлением которой дождь наконец стал утихать. Дождевые тучи таяли, и со дня на день можно было ожидать прояснения. Так и случилось. В пятницу в два часа дня глупое доброе солнце осветило мир, и было оно красным и шершавым, как кирпич, и почти таким же свежим, как вода. И с этого дня дождь не шёл целых десять лет.

(Г.-Г. Маркес)

Ex. 11. Translate into English paying attention to complex sentences.

Земля поплыла и зашевелилась. Взвилась огромная снежная туча. Все повалились друг на друга, и меня тоже опрокинуло и покатило. Рёв всё усиливался, и, когда я с трудом, цепляясь за гусеницы грузовика, поднялся на ноги, я увидел, как жутко, гигантской чашей в мёртвом свете луны, ползёт, заворачиваясь внутрь, край горизонта, как угрожающе раскачиваются бронещиты, как бегут врассыпную, падают и снова вскакивают вывалянные в снегу зрители. Я увидел, как Фёдор Симеонович и Кристобаль Хунта, накрытые радужными колпаками защитного поля, пятятся под натиском урагана, как они, подняв руки, силятся растянуть защиту на всех остальных, но вихрь рвёт защиту в клочья, и эти клочья несутся над равниной подобно огромным мыльным пузырям и лопаются в звёздном небе. Я увидел поднявшего воротник Януса Полуэктовича, который стоял, повернувшись спиной к ветру, прочно упёршись тростью в обнажившуюся землю, и смотрел на часы. А там, где был автоклав, крутилось освещённое изнутри красным тугое облако пара, и горизонт стремительно загибался всё круче и круче, и казалось, что все мы находимся на дне колоссального кувшина. А потом совсем рядом с эпицентром этого космического безобразия появился вдруг Роман в своём зелёном пальто. Он широко размахнулся, швырнул в ревущий пар что-то большое, блеснувшее бутылочным блеском, и сейчас же упал ничком, закрыв голову руками. Из облака вынырнула безобразная, искажённая бешенством физиономия джинна, глаза его крутились от ярости. Разевая пасть в беззвучном хохоте, он взмахнул просторными волосатыми ушами, пахнуло гарью, над метелью взметнулись призрачные стены великолепного дворца, затряслись и опали, а джинн, превратившись в длинный язык оранжевого пламени, исчез в небе. Несколько секунд было тихо. Затем горизонт с тяжёлым грохотом осел. Меня подбросило высоко вверх, и, придя в себя, я обнаружил, что сижу, упираясь руками в землю, неподалёку от грузовика. Снег пропал. Всё поле вокруг было чёрным. Там, где минуту назад стоял автоклав, зияла большая воронка. Из неё поднимался белый дымок, и пахло палёным.

(The Brothers Strugatskiye)

Ex. 12. Ask for a repetition. Mind sequence of tenses.

E.g. I will take my exam in June. – When did you say you would take your exam?

1. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman to sail around the world. 2. The Pleiades are a group of stars in the constellation Taurus. 3. Kiribati consists of 33 islands. 4. The audition was attended by scores of young hopefuls. 5. The speaker seemed completely nonplussed by my question. 6. Predicative is a nominal part of the compound nominal predicate. 7. As is evident form the title of the book we deal here with three pigs and the Big Bad Wolf.

THE PREDICATE

Ex. 1. Define types of the predicate. Translate into Russian.

1. You must stop talking German; your language is deteriorating.

2. Students should be seen, not heard.

3. Who would wear hats in Moscow but CIA agents?

4. How little is little?

5. Cheer up! The worst is yet to come.

6. Why can't people mind their own dirty business, instead of our dirty business?

7. A beggar can never be bankrupt.

8. The valley lay quiet and peaceful in the sun.

9. She sat motionless, waiting for the decision.

10. It's getting dark.

11. He looks as nervous as a brick wall.

12. Two people in a burning house must not stop to argue.

13. Leaves go brown.

14. The sun set purple.

15. My dream has come true.

16. The railway carriage smelt of beer and old socks.

17. Can you smell burning?

18. Let advertisers spend the same amount of money improving their product that they do on advertising and they wouldn't have to advertise it.

19. This isn't gonna turn strange, is it?

20. There didn't happen to be any beer left.

21. You're only as old as you feel.

22. I may not always be right, but I am never wrong.

23. You look absolutely stunning in these galoshes.

24. You might be thinking I am from a mental asylum, but it's not true.

25. What do you smell today of?

26. The hall would make a good theatre.

27. And I wish you wouldn't keep appearing and vanishing so suddenly; you make one quite giddy.

28. If I seem confused it's because I'm thinking.

29. There is no sincerity like a woman telling a lie.

30. I hate Sundays: I feel so Mondayish.

31. If he goes on acting like that for much longer we'll have to send for the people in white coats.

32. If a man must needs walk in sight of the Black Gate, or tread the deadly flowers of Morgul Vale, then perils he will have.

33. The colonel is nowhere to be found.

34. I can't stop eating these chocolates. They are so moreish.

35. You cannot be too careful.

36. There was a sultry smell and many flies of the gnat class were at home here.

37. Anything can be said in this place and it will be true and will have to be believed.

38. This is bound to be extremely interesting.

39. That makes four who wants to go.

40. This essay represents a considerable improvement on your recent work.

41. Wonders will never cease to happen.

42. More often than not we will be unable to agree whether or not to employ this term at all.

43. Your plan sounds quite feasible.

44. Mary stands 5' 10".

45. I’m sure she would end up forever suspicious, bitter and soured.

46. I used to sleepwalk.

47. They should keep quiet for the time being.

48. If those are his commands we must needs obey.

49. Doctor, I can't stop stealing things.

50. Doctor, doctor! I keep thinking I am a dustbin. – Don't talk such rubbish.

51. Are you chewing gum? – No, I am Mr Brown.

52. Get lost!

Ex. 2. Choose the correct form in brackets. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. He opened the door (wide/widely).

2. The road goes (straight/straightly) to Port Moresby.

3. The driver stopped (short/shortly) when the child ran into the street.

4. Then you turn (sharp/sharply) right at the crossroads.

5. It's (high/highly) amusing.

6. He has travelled (wide/widely).

7. The president returned to work (short/shortly) after the operation.

8. I've (hard/hardly) got any clean clothes left.

9. I am afraid I must stop you (short/shortly) there, minister, as we are running out of time on the programme.

10. He replied very (sharp/sharply) when we criticized him.

11. She answered me rather (short/shortly).

12. You'll have to look (sharp/sharply) if you want to get there on time.

13. They believe (right/rightly) or (wrong/wrongly) that they have been badly treated.

14. That suits me (fine/finely).

15. George was bent down (low/lowly) over the book.

16. The party was going (good/well) until my parents arrived, then everything went (wrong/wrongly).

17. Don't take it so (hard/hardly); you'll feel better tomorrow.

18. The sun sank (low/lowly) in the sky.

19. You cook (real/really) well.

20. Study this (close/closely): it's very important.

21. They are (low/lowly) paid workers.

22. I hate arriving (late/lately).

23. I think he behaved (fine/finely).

24. He can jump really (high/highly).

25. I haven't been to the theatre much (late/lately).

26. I thought (long/longly) and (hard/hardly) about the problem.

27. Cut the bread (fair/fairly) small, but not too small.

28. Babies are allowed to travel (free/freely) on buses.

29. Monica can drive very (fast/fastly).

30. You can speak (free/freely) in front of Michael – he knows everything.

31. His joke fell (flat/flatly).

32. The machine works (fine/finely) if you oil it.

33. The window had stuck, but I pushed it (hard/hardly) and it swung (free/freely).

34. Our company is (dead/deadly) ahead of its rivals.

35. The manager (flat/flatly) refused to give us any information.

36. You're cutting it a bit (fine/finely) if you want to catch the 5:45 train.

37. You must play (fair/fairly).

38. Come (close/closely), so that I could hear you.

39. (Easy/easily) come, (easy/easily) go.

40. The voting was split (clean/cleanly) in two.

41. Go (easy/easily) on the whisky if you're going to be driving.

42. He said it in (dead/deadly) earnest.

43. It happened (close/closely) on 100 years ago.

44. They are (dead/deadly) certain of it.

45. Bill is (close/closely) related to the Duke of Halifax.

46. I (clean/cleanly) forgot it was her birthday.

47. I told her (plain/plainly) what I thought of her scheme. (=clearly)

48. Helen is (easy/easily) the best student in the class.

49. We live (close/closely) to the church.

50. Tom is rumored to have been (dead/deadly) drunk at the concert..

51. I can (easy/easily) do my homework.

52. The sun shone (full/fully) in her face.

53. This superstition had its roots (deep/deeply) in the Dark Ages.

54. She says she's (fair/fairly) dinkum alright.

55. The Parkers let their children run (wild/wildly).

56. His new story is (fair/fairly) interesting, but certainly not his best.

57. That's just (plain/plainly) stupid! (=completely)

58. We are (deep/deeply) grateful for your support.

59. She was (deep/deeply) in thought and didn't hear the phone ring.

60. Mr Brown pushed his stick (deep/deeply) down into the mud.

61. The arrow flew (straight/straightly) and (true/truly) into its target.

62. You've played me (false/falsely).

63. The critics went (wild/wildly) over my new play.

64. Today I am hungrier than (usual/usually).

65. I am late as (usual/usually).

66. This rule holds (good/well) at all times and places.

67. Michael Jackson (sure/surely) looked (different/differently) after his nose job.

68. He won’t know. he is a (dead/deadly) loss at maths.

69. She's been acting rather (funny/funnily) just recently.

70. We searched (high/highly) and (low/lowly) but we couldn’t find the propeller anywhere.

71. Tell the truth, then leave (quick/quickly). (Serb proverb)

Ex. 3. Choose the correct form in brackets. Define kinds of predicates. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. The threat of economic crisis is beginning to bulk (large/largely) in the government's thinking. 2. The coming examination looms (large/largely) with every passing day. 3. Our army was to stand (firm/firmly) in the face of a terrible onslaught. 4. If he would only learn to eat (quiet/quietly)! 5. If only he wouldn't eat so (noisy/noisily)! 6. The problem appeared (impossible/impossibly). 7. She's looking at you (angry/angrily).8. Professor Murky pulled his belt (tight/tightly) and started off. 9. Meat goes (bad/badly). 10. Beer goes (flat/flatly). 11. The soup tastes (wonderful/ wonderfully). 12. They tasted the soup (suspicious/suspiciously). 13. The differences run (deep/deeply). 14. Supplies are running (low/lowly). 15. It was a clever excuse but it didn't really ring (true/truly). 16. If you drink this medicine you will get (good/well) soon. Or maybe not. 17. Looking for tourists highlights in Montepulciano can prove (difficult/difficultly). 18 I mean if you stay (sober/soberly).

Ex. 4. Revision. Use the correct forms of the verbs in brackets.

1. This is the first time I (to drink) California champagne.

2. This is the seventeenth time I (to be) here.

3. It was the third time Helen (to sing) that month.

4. Your report (to read) well.

5. We (to know) each other for 300 years.

6. The new product (to sell) lately.

7. It's a pretty material but it (not to wash).

8. Henry (to play) hide-and-seek for 7 hours yesterday.

9. I got a real shock immediately I (to open) the box.

10. I (to fall) downstairs just now.

11. Thomas (to believe) in God since childhood.

12. And Smith (to pass) to McGraith, McGraith to Barnes, Barnes across to Lucas – and Taylor (to interrupt), Taylor to Peters – and he (to shoot) – and it's a goal!!! Stoke City (to lead) by three goals to nil in the first half.

13. This time tomorrow I (to cross) the Channel.

14. I always (to meet) Mary in the Red Lion. (=That's our regular meeting place)

15. I always (to meet) Mary in the Red Lion. (=We meet there often, but by accident)

16. What are you doing? -- I (to smell) my socks.

17. I'd rather you (to make) not so many mistakes in the test yesterday.

18. My wife would rather we (not to see) each other any more.

19. Do you know when Janet (to be) in tomorrow?

Ex. 5. Revision. Use the correct forms of oblique moods or modal verbs. Explain the usage to the teacher.

1. It is unlikely that I (should/may) know which form to choose. 2. It was possible she (should/might) come. 3. Is it possible that I (should/may) have done it? 4. The Prime Minister was afraid that he (should/might) have missed a number ten tram. 5. Mrs Sipp feared lest the dinner (should/might) be spoiled. 6. The students jotted down the lecture lest they (should/might) fall asleep. 7. 'Come near that I (should/may) hear you better', said the teacher. 8. Mr Eeyore broke his computer so that nobody else (should/might) break it. 9. Whatever you (should/may) say, I won't believe it. 10. Though he (should/may) have done it quickly, I am not pleased with his work. 11. If it (should snow/snowed) today, we'll be happy. 12. If you (would/did) not litter in room 201, I would be very delighted. 13. I wish you (would stay/stayed) here for a while.

AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT

Ex.1. Choose the right forms of the verbs. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. The heat and the humidity (deters/deter) tourists from visiting the country during the summer.

2. Both the immature and the precocious student (needs/need) individual attention.

3. My closest colleague and best friend (has/have) recently divorced her husband.

4. Her first and best essay (has/have) won a prize.

5. Bread and butter (is/are) sold in the shop on the corner.

6. The head of my department – and perhaps her spouse – (is/are) expected to attend the reception.

7. Your style, and even your handwriting, (needs/need) to be improved.

8. Every man and woman (is/are) required to complete two years of national service.

9. Gin and tonic (is/are) served with ice and a slice of lemon.

10. One child after another (has/have) complained of the cold.

11. Perseverance rather than intelligence (ensures/ensure) success in this type of position.

12. My son as well as my daughter (is/are) at college.

13. Their house or their business (is/are) in Manchester.

14. I as well as my wife (was/were) happy for twenty five years. Then we met.

15. Three thousand head of cattle (was/were) consuming the grass.

16. Wildfowl, especially living near water, (is/are) shot for sports.

17. The school football eleven (is/are) playing today.

18. The ends of the nets were then passed back to the British trawler and the fish (was/were) taken from sea.

19. Time past and time future, what might have been and what has been, (points/point) to one end, which is always present. (Eliot)

20. The alpha and omega of this problem (is/are) our participation in it.

21. The Inuit (is/are) people living in the icy northern part of North America.

22. The skull and crossbones (was/were) flapping in the breeze as the frigate approached.

23. Dr Martens (is/are) worn by people in certain jobs, especially policemen.

24. Aspirins (reduces/reduce) pain, inflammation and fever.

25. Three halves (makes/make) 1,5.

26. The company has 60 computers but only half (is/are) used.

27. G & T (was/were) taken out of the fridge.

28. The paparazzi (was/were) following the prime minister about hoping to find out interesting or shocking stories about him.

29. Macaroni and cheese (is/are) made from cooked macaroni with a cheese sauce.

30. There (is/are) a plethora of writings in Russia and abroad on this subject.

31. Swindon Town (was/were) rooted to the foot of the table for the duration of the season, and did not manage the first win until the end of November.

32. Spaghetti (is/are) made from flour mixed with water in the shape of long strings, cooked in boiling water.

33. The trapezia (has/have) only one pair of parallel sides.

34. There (is/are) a number of typos in the text.

35. A cathedral, a wave of a storm, a dancer's leap, never (turns/turn) out to be as high as we had hoped.

36. Neither of the roads (is/are) very good here.

37. No woman ever hates a man for being in love with her; but many a woman (hates/hate) a man for being her friend.

38. He was a Brown, as (was/were) all his family.

39. The Birmingham Six (was/were) found guilty of putting IRA bombs in two Birmingham pubs in 1974 and freed in 1991, after new facts were considered about the way the police had acted.

40. Elevenses (is/are) coffee, tea or a light meal taken at about 11 o'clock in the morning.

41. Turnips (is/are) used as food.

42. One and a half months (has/have) passed since I saw them.

43. A month and a half (has/have) passed since I saw them.

44. The Maori (is/are) now only a small part of New Zealand's population.

45. The Republic of Ireland (was/were) eliminated from the World Cup quarter-finals by Italy.

46. There (was/were) bad and good news for the representatives.

47. Vasco da Gama (has/have) won the Libertadores Cup.

48. Macaroni (is/are) made from wheat flour pressed into hollow tubes.

49. Brussels (is/are) right in the centre of Belgium.

50. Marks and Spencer (is/are) just round the corner.

51. A great number of pictures (was/were) added to the collection.

52. Governments make laws and the police (enforces/enforce) them.

53. The Eskimos (is/are) fishing.

54. The Stars and Bars (is/are) still used by some American southerners to show support for the Confederacy.

55. Either of the children (is/are) quite capable.

56. I don't think either of them (is/are) at home.

57. Half the lemons (is/are) unripe and half (is/are) bad.

58. The scum who (fights/fight) at football matches should be severely dealt with.

59. What (is/are) this doings on the table?

60. The 747 (is/are) taking off in 20 minutes.

61. Thousand Oaks (has/have) the second lowest rate of crime in the Western USA.

62. There (is/are) three kind of friends: best friends, guest friends and pest friends.

63. Fish and chips (is/are) very popular in Britain and (is/are) considered a typically British meal.

64. The landed gentry (owns/own) land and (obtains/obtain) income from it.

65. Some of merchandise (was/were) judged to be different.

66. Either of the houses (is/are) big enough.

67. One student after another (was/were) throwing illegal cribs to the dustbin and going to take the exam.

68. Lyons (is/are) situated in the Rhône department in the east of central France.

69. Manchester City (is/are) sure to win; the other team (hasn't/haven't) got a chance.

70. Fish (doesn't/don't) have any knees at all.

Ex. 2. Choose the right form in brackets. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. The Niagara Falls (is/are) very popular with tourists and used to supply electricity.

2. The addenda (contains/contain) many new words.

3. A number of my friends (thinks/think) I should take a holiday.

4. 3 cubed (is/are) 27.

5. 6 (is/are) integer, but 6.3 (is/are) not.

6. There (is/are) lots of snow in the garden.

7. What (is/are) your politics?

8. Microelectronics (concerns/concern) the production of very small printed circuits and components.

9. Microeconomics (studies/study) the economics of a single industry, product, or other features within a larger system.

10. There (is/are) far greater variety among the white wines of the district than red.

11. Two salmon (was/were) caught.

12. Neither John nor his cat (eats/eat) garlic with strawberries.

13. Either she or I (am/is/are) wrong.

14. Three Pigs (is/are) the longest book I've ever read.

15. Those sort of cars (is/are) tremendously expensive to run.

16. Five pounds (doesn't/don't) buy as much as used to.

17. A group of us (has/have) decided to hire a boat and travel through Holland by canal.

18. Most of the local media (is/are) flabbergasting.

19. Gemini (is/are) a constellation in the northern sky, thought to resemble the twin brothers.

20. Guinea fowl (is/are) widely domesticated and raised for food.

21. Rabies (is/are) out of control in many parts of the country.

22. Approximately 60% of the community (is/are) of polish and Russian ancestry, and approximately 40% (is/are) blacks.

23. Mr Frogg or his wife (was/were) about to take a bath.

24. I went on a fourteen day diet and all I lost (was/were) two weeks.

25. History (is/are) tables agreed upon. (Voltaire)

26. Computation seems to show that the number of sheep in Scotland in 1378 (was/were) about a million and a half, very much what it had been in 1327.

27. The cat is the best person in our family. The second best (is/am) I.

28. Flanders (was/were) an important battle ground in the First World War.

29. What percentage of students (flunks/flunk) every year?

30. The cast (was/were) all amateurs.

31. After the bombing there (was/were) a lot of debris everywhere.

32. Check that no food or drink (has/have) been consumed.

33. In recent years asbestos used in building (has/have) been found to be harmful to humans.

34. Half the group’s sales (is/are) to be used to cut its borrowings.

35. Your histrionics (gets/get) on my nerves.

36. Seventeen times three hundred and eighty-one (makes/make) six thousand, four hundred and seventy-seven.

37. The hammer and sickle (was/were) flying from the flagpole.

38. Agilent Technologies (AT), an American firm, (has/have) signed an agreement with Russia's State Committee for Standartization, Metrology and Certification (Gosstandart) and its affiliate, the All-Russia Research Institute of Physiotechnical Measurements (VNIIFTRI) for the supply of $1.5 million worth of calibrators.

39. Another of New Zealand's heroically boring attractions (is/are) the Waitomo Caves glowworm grotto, where hundreds of thousands of worms simply hang there, glowing.

40. Pompeii (was/were) destroyed by the volcano.

Ex. 3. Choose the right form in brackets. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. The be-all and end-all of the course (is/are) as follows.

2. Alice Springs (is/are) somewhere in Australia, (isn't/aren't) (it/they)?

3. Where are my socks? -- There (is/are) a lot of them in the washing machine.

4. Athletics (includes/include) both track events and field events.

5. All my fishing paraphernalia (is/are) kept under my sofa.

6. Musical exotica (is/are) seldom broadcast on this channel.

7. The royal regalia (has/have) been stolen from the museum.

8. A plethora of suggestions (was/were) considered at the meeting.

9. The kibbutzim (grows/grow) oranges in this area.

10. The tiffosi (was/were) arrested after the match while eating spaghetti.

11. Pyrites (is/are) a natural compound of sulphur with a metal, especially iron, found in the earth and having a shiny yellow appearance like gold.

12. The laity (is/are) a religious group without the special training of priests.

13. The pianist’s pyrotechnics in the scherzo (was/were) inimitable.

14. The (was/were) a slight contretemps when both his girlfriends arrived together.

15. The United Arab Emirates (consists/consist) of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Ajman and Umm al-Qawain.

16. On the benches (was/were) various folks: men of Bree, a collection of local hobbits (sitting chattering together), a few more dwarves, and other vague figures difficult to make out away in the shadows and corners.

17. But some of our kinsfolk (dwells/dwell) still in peace in Rivendell.

18. Inside the hall there (was/were) piled a large assortment of packages and parcels and small articles of furniture.

19. The cognoscenti (claims/claim) to have special knowledge in art.

20. Half the ideas in his talk (was/were) plagiarized from the article I wrote last year.

21. All aircraft (has/have) been grounded because of thick fog.

22. British Airways (is/are) ditching six services from Aberdeen airport as part of a cost-cutting shake-up of its regional operators.

23. If only I’d known from the beginning that the real you (takes/take) nothing seriously.

24. All my fishing paraphernalia (is/are) kept under my bed.

25. The Apache (lives/live) in the Western US.

26. Noughts and crosses (is/are) a tricky game.

27. Diletanti (has/have) interest in some activity but (doesn’t/don’t) take it very seriously.

28. A lot of kudos (was/were) gained by winning the contest.

29. There (is/are) a table and 14 students in the room.

30. Mr Brown together with Mr Green (has/have) 53 teeth.

31. Methylated spirits (is/are) sometimes drunk by alcoholics because it is cheap but it is very harmful and dangerous.

THE OBJECT

Ex. 1. Insert the correct prepositions if you can. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. It was the start of the new semester, and the campus was teeming ... students.

2. For years the satellite spied ... secret weapon bases.

3. John was longing ... everyone to leave so that he could think in peace about what had happened that day.

4. My friends rather disapprove ... my smoking.

5. The test put candidates whose first language was not English ... a disadvantage.

6. Britain's pollution regulations are inconsistent ... stricter European regulations.

7. She is the kind of woman who delights ... pointing out other people's mistakes.

8. Occasionally she indulges ... a bottle of wine or a box of chocolates.

9. They are going to charge him ... dangerous driving.

10. The canal system fell ... disuse around the end of the nineteenth century.

11. Mr Smith was indicted ... perjury before a grand jury.

12. It was so quiet that one could actually hear the squirrels frolicking ... the trees, all of which created a weird feeling.

13. Throughout the 1920s and 30s memories of the Great War exerted a powerful influence ... foreign policy.

14. Increases ... efficiency will be necessary if the company is to survive.

15. In the end she convinced the jury ... her innocence.

16. The university has already conferred honorary degrees ... several prime ministers.

17. To her relief Mary was acquitted ... all the charges laid against her.

18. The Government is obliged to comply ... the court's ruling.

19. What's the best cure ... a hangover?

20. Being a member entitles you ... discounts on tickets.

21. The president is being treated ... an acute respiratory condition.

22. Having decided ... a career in journalism, I wrote to all the major newspapers asking ... an interview.

23. Factories are using the river to dispose ... their industrial waste.

24. I've made this recipe dozens of times before, so I think I can dispense ... the recipe book.

25. Telling a lie or denying the truth -- it amounts ... the same thing.

Ex. 2. Inset the right prepositions. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. It is really difficult to subsist ... 75 pounds a week in London.

2. The beauty of Venice consists largely ... the style of its ancient buildings.

3. The reason ... this is that doing anything is ridiculously difficult.

4. Russian political players have recently shown commendable zeal ... victory and outstanding ingenuity.

5. Sardines are rich ... oil.

6. I am telling you this ... confidence.

7. Congress is strongly opposed ... cuts ... military spending.

8. His eyes wide shut, Dr Morris Norris was operating ... a patient ... appendicitis.

9. John doesn't believe ... getting up early.

10. Mary learned to play the piano ... ear.

11. The place was swarming ... tourists.

12. She breakfasted early ... cheeseburgers.

13. Politicians of all parties are guilty ... ignoring this serious problem.

14. They were pining ... their homeland back in Europe.

15. The students shrank ... learning the use of prepositions properly.

16. The president blamed his failure ... the people.

17. The judge told the man to desist ... threatening his wife.

18. The value of the painting was estimated ... several thousand pounds.

19. Bill is a leading authority ... plant diseases.

20. The actress was showered with compliments ... her excellent performance.

21. He reported the boy ... the head teacher ... smoking ... the school premises.

22. People who walk on the grass are liable ... a fine of 5 pounds.

23. The boss is not a person to trifle ... .

24. This week a package of bills that are key ... signing an agreement between the government and the IMF will be submitted to the State Duma.

25. Five bills, which among other things provide ... higher excise taxes ... gas and vodka, are both the price and the upshot of seven-month-long negotiations between the government and the IMF.

Ex. 3. Try to insert the right prepositions. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. Which of the two drivers was ... the wrong?

2. I am behindhand ... my work.

3. John flattered ... Mary's cooking.

4. A silence fell ... the room.

5. These subjects fall ... the general heading of "zoology".

6. Pop music has a very bad effect ... me.

7. As often as not the students show remarkable ability ... mathematics.

8. Mr Pigtail was very adept ... making up excuses for his lateness.

9. The Japanese ambassador ... Mexico took the opportunity ... a lecture ... the necessity ... improvement ... relations ... Russia and Guinea.

10. What's the use ... asking questions which no one can answer?

11. It would be a thousand pities and a burning shame ... the bargain not to see you.

12. I was playing my own tunes ... the piano in order to extract private satisfaction from the sweetest of them.

13. It's an exercise ... futility.

14. Postman Pat is never ... a loss ... words.

15. Can you adduce any reason ... his behaviour?

16. Sir Gringamore delved ... the family archives looking for the facts.

17. As well as getting ... everybody's nerves Mister Starkenschnupfen has got a habit of borrowing money and forgetting to pay it back.

18. Dr Slowwit is a person who is devoid ... sense.

19. What can you prescribe ... the pain in my back, doctor?

20. This is a more structured version of language, as distinct ... its various spoken forms.

21. It is at this point that Julia's career diverges ... the normal path of a classical actress.

22. The questions in the exam vary ... difficulty.

23. After two months abroad John began to hanker ... some good home cooking.

24. On the whole speculation is frowned ... because it sometimes drives prices up.

25. The tram was so packed that people were actually sitting on the roof and clinging ... the sides.

26. The book is full of herbal remedies which can supposedly cure people ... all manner of ailments.

27. The house was so badly infested ... cockroaches that all the furniture had to be disposed ... .

28. The police suspected them ... being involved ... a robbery.

29. The sleepy little village was almost impervious ... change.

30. Food bought in this shop may not be eaten ... the premises.

31. Long before the stars arrived the place was swarming ... newspaper reporters.

32. She learned to cook ... trial and error.

33. The boy has been a constant trial ... his parents.

34. With his walking shoes and thinking cap on, the professor expounded for some hours ... his theories about Central America.

35. What was done was done ... Michael's instigation.

36. I am eager ... success.

37. A common sales tactic is to play ... people's greed in order to make them buy more than they need.

38. The addition of cream to the soup is a departure ... the traditional recipe.

39. Miss Polly Syndeton admitted that living on the farm she had been starved ... conversation and ideas.

40. Public buildings of the mid 20th century are often lacking ... style.

Ex. 4. Try to insert the right prepositions. Translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. Try not to let your personal feelings enter ... the decision.

2. The book describes the revolution and its immediate impact ... the lives of ordinary Russians.

3. I was stupid enough to get drawn ... an argument about politics – a subject that always makes me angry and unreasonable.

4. Pneumonia has been ... the increase recently.

5. There are fears that the violence might escalate ... full civil war.

6. Borrowers have been warned to expect another leap ... bank interest rates.

7. It's a safe bet that stores are expecting a surge ... demand as Christmas approaches.

8. Players have to abide ... the referee's decision.

9. She was always different, refusing to conform ... society's expectations.

10. I'm really busy right now. There are a lot of things to attend ... before the trade fair.

11. There is no known antidote ... a bite from this snake.

12. It's all but impossible that his claim ... the house was finally recognized by the court.

13. The painter aspired ... artistic perfection in all his paintings.

14. What he did was ... variance with his earlier promises.

15. The chairman refused to accede ... demands that the debate be arguing.

16. Have you come to gloat ... my problems?

17. I think Terry enjoys being all – he's revelling ... all the attention he's getting.

18. Developments in microelectronics have had a major impact ... industrial process.

19. The voters opted ... higher taxes rather than any reduction ... services.

20. The old lady saw the thief running up the street and gave him chase ... her bicycle.

21. It doesn't stand up as a fact that she has staked her academic reputation ... the accuracy of the figures she produced.

22. Article 289 of the RF Criminal Code does not provide ... the extradition of a suspect from the country of his sojourn.

23. The taste of the cakes was evocative ... my childhood.

24. She has a predilection ... sweets.

25. I don't want to force myself ... you, but I'd be grateful for a lift if you've got some extra room in the car.

26. A new tax has been imposed ... wine.

27. ... the director's insistence, the new product was kept secret.

28. The company offered us time off ... lieu of the extra payment.

29. We mustn't bank ... getting their agreement.

30. Their ideas are quite alien ... ours.

Ex. 5. Use gerunds or infinitives instead of the verbs in brackets. Consult a dictionary. Translate into Russian.

1. We commence (do) this exercise. 2. Americans enjoy (speak) with a nasal twang. 3. We can't afford (upset) such an important customer. 4. We've arranged (meet) them at the coach station. 5. I told them once, I told them twice. They chose (ignore) my advice. 6. Comrade Clinton offered (drive) me to the station. 7. Don't trouble (write) when I am away. 8. Mr Badman suggested (do) something bad. 9. She doesn't mind (be disturbed) while she's working. 10. They delayed (publish) the report until after the election. 11. Could I borrow that book when you've finished (read) it? 12. I'd really appreciate (have) time to relax. 13. Please remember (put) out the cat before you go to bed. 14. I wouldn't advise you (take) the car – there's nowhere to park. 15. Try (put) in some vinegar – that might make it taste a bit better. 16. Sorry, we don't allow (smoke) in room 201. 17. When Mr Dobermann-Pinscher was older, he used (eat) satsumas every day. 18. But McDonald's managers were anything but pleased with the news and still refuse (recognize) the trade union local founded last December. 19. The slightest bit of dust starts me (sneeze). 20. The clock keeps (start) and (stop). 21. What do you mean (do) during the break between the lessons? 22. Julia abhors (be) idle. 23. Mr De Lirious purported (be) the editor-in-chief. 24. I can't abide (see) people like that. 25. The students declined (go) home till they quit (study). 26. The consequences don't bear (think) about. 27. Freddy risked (lose) everything. 28. They are pondering (move) their offices outside London. 29. When do you envisage (be) able (pay) me back? 30. Janet tends (be) very angry if you disagree with her. 31. The company is seeking (improve) its profitability. 32. Mr O'Grizzly intended (catch) the early train, but he couldn't get up in time. 33. The violinist resumed (eat) crisps after the intermission. 34. At the meeting with people the president advised (drink) Indian tea. 35. The cosmonauts contrived (keep) their plans secret. 36. Bob wished he had never attempted (learn) (ski). 37. Geoffrey Chaucer determined (be) a success as an author. 38. If you think I plan (lend) you a pound you've got another think coming. 39. When asked about the Absolute Constructions the students avoided (answer) the question like the plague. 40. Everybody detests (wait) for a number ten tram. 41. I hesitate (ask) her because I know she will refuse. 42. If you evade (attend) your grammar classes you risk (remain) ignorant. 43. Fancy (study) in room 201 every day. 44. Jose Carlos resents (have) to do what he has to do. 45. The rules of the University don't permit professors (shoot) in the corridor. 46. Miss Rotkäppchen has fixed (go) to Nuku'alofa. 47. I was not a little surprised to find out they forbade (consume) beer in the ground in Birkenhead. 48. If the new law is passed we stand (lose) our tax advantage. 49. A long-jumper needs (get) a takeoff exactly right. 50. Don't defer (eat) what you can eat now. 51. Carry on (do) this exercise. It's very useful. 52. I fail (see) why you find it so amusing. 53. Mr. Crivello expects (eat) spaghetti bolognese tomorrow morning. 54. I hasten (apologize). 55. Mr O'Corner demands (be) informed of everything. 56. They might consider (let) us borrow a little money, but a million pounds is a definite no-no. 57. I can't stand (see) women smoke. 58. They claim (have discovered) a cure for the disease but this hasn't yet been proved. 59. We shun (speak) in public. 60. The job has got a lot of things going for it, but the catch is that it requires (spend) six months of the year in the Antarctic. 61. She disclaimed (be) involved in the matter. 62. I will endeavour (pay) the bill as soon as possible. 63. The change would necessitate (start) all over again. 64. The director said he liked my scheme very much, and then proceeded (tear) it to bits. 65. We are about (finish) this exercise. 66. After the lesson the students went on (sleep).

Ex. 6. State the kind of each object and its way of expression. Translate into Russian.

1. I was a dusty little thinker thinking stony little thoughts and casting them at oblivious little shadows. 2. What did you think I thought? 3. I seem to be the only person I know who has any sense of humour. 4. I trust the plumbers not to suddenly arrive. 5. Freddy had provided himself with a pencil. 6. Let us not do it and say we did. 7. Try to persuade them to pipe down. 8. The lawyers explained the new laws to us. 9. Stop doing what you have been doing. 10. I found her working at her desk. 11. Have you ever heard Urdu spoken? 12. They went on working at the thesis. 13. I don't lend my books to anybody. 14. Please throw me that bag. 15. It's rare to see him smile a happy smile. 16. It smells very fishy to me. 17. I feel myself filled with nothingness. 18. When I want your opinion I'll give it to you. 19. It has never been a habit of mine to say anything bad about myself. 20. The committee allowed themselves to get bogged down in a quagmire of unnecessary details. 21. Can you imagine an imaginary menagerie manager imagining managing an imaginary menagerie? 22. Mary lives a lonely life. 23. Pass me whatchamacallit – there. 24. John's discovered that No is a better word than Yes. 25. Every "why" has a "because". 26. Not a know I know! 27. – Allow me to present my wife to you. -- Many thanks, but I already have one.

Ex. 7. Insert "to" where required. Don't insert "to" where not required. Consult a dictionary if necessary.

1. The results of the experiment seem to contradict ... the laws of physics. 2. The conductor explained ... me where to go off, but I am none the wiser. 3. One year at a public school costs ... a British family £25,ooo to £30,ooo. 4. I could see that she was near ... tears. 5. Let me introduce … you what I think of it. 6. They offered ... us $60,000 for the house. 7. The children obeyed ... their parents and came home before dark. 8. Can you prove ... me that an object in a liquid is kept up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced liquid? 9. Don't try to threaten ... me. 10. If you think so, you flatter ... yourself. 11. Are you going to answer ... her? 12. The announcer announced ... us what he thought was worth announcing. 13. I always subscribe … The Funday Times. 14. The rest of the world owes … Japan over $400 billion. 16. The listeners never stopped applauding ... the symphonic orchestra. 17. You didn’t reply … my question. 18. We complained … the police about our noisy neighbours’ dog. 19. Mary’s words contradict … her behaviour. 20. Mr Bagman’s dream is to climb … power. 21. Gentlemen, I have invited you here to convey … you some extremely unpleasant news. We are to be visited by a Government Inspector.

Ex. 8. Translate into English or German. Mind the prepositions. Use a dictionary.

1. Есть что-то нехорошее в людях, которые не ходят на лекции по методике. 2. Скажите, пожалуйста, как на острове Великобритания продаётся редиска – на граммы или на килограммы. 3. Как сообщили по телевидению, по сведению Гидрометцентра завтра ожидается мокрый снег, мокрый дождь и мокрые прохожие. 4. Как не сообщили по радио, вчера в Кремле президент принял официальную делегацию из Уругвая за официальную делегацию из Парагвая. 5. Данный отрывок написан от четвертого лица двойственного числа и кишит стилистическими приемами. 6. Джон ехал на метро со скоростью 120 км в час на глубине 800 метров. 7. На главной площади посёлка, перпендикулярно 116 авеню, стоит памятник Пифагору, покрашенный в жёлтый цвет. 8. Одна пара укорачивает жизнь на полтора часа. 9. Смола АФ-1с представляет собой продукт поликонденсации карбамида с формальдегидом с последующим введением фурфурилового спирта, модифицированный кремнийорганическим мономером. 10. В лекционном зале лектор читал лекцию о результатах обследования состояния выполнения распоряжения дирекции о трудовой дисциплине за период конца первого – начала второго квартала текущего года. 11. Можно угостить вас едой? -- Нет, спасибо, не хочу привыкать. 12. А вы читали 14-ю симфонию Бетховена в оригинале? 13. Смех без причины – признак неоконченного высшего образования. (to be indicative) 14. Студент имеет право на зачет.

Ex. 9. Insert the correct prepositions. Use a dictionary. Translate into something.

1. They have abandoned their former policy, which is tantamount ...

admitting that it was wrong.

1. Even adults know that the military budget could be augmented from the extra revenues ensuing ... inflation and the ruble's deeper than expected slump.

2. His new farm buildings encroach ... his neighbour's land.

3. I hammered away ... the problem all afternoon.

4. I wouldn't pin too many hopes ... that.

5. Don't try and pin the blame ... me.

6. While one of the thieves engaged the guard ... conversation, the others crept into the factory.

7. The railways are about to embark ... a major programme of modernization.

8. Strange-smelling gases emanated ... holes in the garden.

9. Julia is endowed ... both beauty and brains.

10. It is a long report, but it really boils down ... a demand ... higher safety standards.

11. In the end he was so desperate that he stooped ... flattering her.

12. A stranger who said he was my mother's son's mother's husband's daughter's father's brother had arrived to lay claim ... the fortune.

13. Mr Drinkmore felt elated ... this sudden and unexpected success.

14. Mary laughed, exultant ... John's misfortune.

15. When we find the stolen vehicle we shall, of course, make sure that it is restored ... the rightful owner.

2. She confined herself ... using the phone only once a day because the telephone bill had been so high.

16. She will be remembered as someone who was always prominent ... the anti-apartheid movement.

17. As a result of the financial collapse many people are stuck ... worthless investments.

18. The mine owners coerced the workers ... going back to work by threatening to close down the mines completely.

3. Parents should try to avoid imposing their own beliefs and moral values ... their children.

4. Mr Dolby thinks that just because he is the boss he can force his opinions ... everybody.

23. Most new electrical goods are bought ... credit.

23. They occasionally have time to relax, but it is never more a short respite ['respit] ... the daily grind.

24. I waited until there was a break ... the storm before running.

25. Murray felt he needed a break ... studying, so he arranged a holiday in South America.

26. Ted didn't want to go to dance, but he got cajoled ... it by his girlfriend.

27. My house is insured ... fire.

28. He tried to atone ... his rudeness by sending her some flowers.

29. Helen was so engrossed ... what she was doing she didn't even hear the doorbell ring.

Ex. 10. Can you insert the correct prepositions? Don't forget to translate. Use a dictionary if necessary.

1. At the moment she is totally preoccupied ... her exams.

2. Mike doesn't smoke cigarettes, but he is not averse ... having the occasional cigar.

3. It is quite normal for adolescents to have a crush ... pop stars.

4. I would like to avail myself ... this opportunity to express my surprise at the fact.

5. It is very important that official Moscow has not succumbed ... the historical emotions.

6. We tried and tried, but it was all ... no avail.

7. Mr O’Tannenbaum wouldn’t stop short ... stealing.

8. The distribution of votes in the IMF Board of Directors is known to be contingent ... a country's contribution to the charter capital.

9. When the budget is ... odds with reality, either the budget or reality has to be changed.

10. After the accident the police discovered that the car's brakes had been tampered ... .

11. The committee proposed some amendments ... the rules.

12. The future prospects of a student hinge ... his performance in these examinations.

13. Chicago's fate hangs ... the future of the Stock Market in New York.

14. ... no consideration must you leave the patient unattended.

15. Mrs Sippy was highly commended ... her organizational skills.

16. The salary will be commensurate ... your experience.

17. Mr O’Clock was held ... police custody for six weeks.

18. This sportsman won ... default, because his opponent refused to play.

19. He defaulted ... his payment for support of the child.

20. She was destitute ... human feeling.

21. Baseball has the advantage … cricket of being sooner ended. (G.B. Shaw)

22. I envy people who drink – at least they know what to blame everything … .

23. There is no pleasure … having nothing to do; the fun is … having lots to do and not doing it.

24. Blessed is he who, having nothing to say, abstains … giving evidence of the fact. (George Eliot)

25. When I gave lectures … Dostoyevsky, I tried to find the reason … this fascination … evil in Russian literature.

26. Mountains loomed dark … the distance against a pale sky.

27. The film is completely void … sense so far as I can see.

28. Does the idea of working abroad appeal … you?

29. I was eventually prevailed … to accept the appointment.

30. Anyone wishing to dissent … the motion should now raise their hand.

31. I’m rather partial … cheese.

32. I also have a partiality … sausage.

33. I’m cheesed off … my job.

Ex. 11. Revision. Insert the correct prepositions and translate into Russian. Consult a dictionary.

1. The company's plans to increase production were predicated ... the growing demand ... computer products.

2. Most viewers are consistently opting ... light hearted TV instead of serious documentaries.

3. Japanese people will often use foreign words in preference ... perfectly acceptable Japanese words.

4. You'll have the boss to reckon ... if you go home this early.

5. Since his girlfriend left him he's wallowing ... self-pity.

6. The Prime Minister is still basking ... the success of his visit to Washington.

7. The new policy means that even higher bills will be inflicted ... the tax payers.

8. Jennifer is desperate ... money.

9. Mr Von Smith felt contrite ... his rude behaviour.

10. You can't look at Annabel Lee without taking a fancy ... her.

11. I am ... the delusion that I am Napoleon.

12. The failure ... the exam didn't deter the students ... taking it again.

13. The General was not following Government orders, he was acting ... his own initiative.

14. A few newspapers have been prosecuted ... libel.

15. There were four defendants ... trial, all sitting together in a line.

16. Many firms shy away ... adopting this policy.

17. A penalty kick is a free kick ... the goal given to a team because the other team have broken a rule in the penalty area.

18. Mr Andy Capp is something of an expert ... growing vegetables.

19. Mr Gutenmorgen made a snatch ... his hat, but too late – it had blown away.

20. My car runs ... petrol.

21. I don't go to the university ... principle.

22. Your stupid remarks are not pertinent ... our clever discussion.

23. Is there any use ... flying to Copenhagen?

24. Do you have any use ... this old perpetual motion machine?

25. What's the use ... reading books without pictures?

26. It was of no earthly use ... us.

27. Our ability to go is contingent ... our employer's willingness to give us time off ... work.

28. Good food is a very high priority ... me.

29. Hippopotami can be a curse ... farmers.

30. A pack of monkeys were making faces ... the Prime Minister and other visitors ... the zoo.

31. Heavy smoking is detrimental ... one's health.

32. Given that during the injury time two midfielders were booked and sent off, the fact that Wolverhampton Wanderers lost is not to be wondered ... .

33. The wicked witch put a curse ... the kind Prime Minister.

34. Joe acquiesced ... the plans his parents had made.

35. They were lost ... sea, ... the mercy of wind and weather.

36. I recommended Mr Jabberwocky that brand-new cat-proof fridge, and he bought a dozen of them: he never does anything ... halves.

37. The students passed the exam ... the fourteenth attempt.

38. Barring any last minute problem, the students will be awarded a diploma ... Intergalactic Communication.

39. If more people were like me, ... my way of thinking, the world would be better.

40. Interest accrues ... the money in our savings account.

Ex. 12. Revision. Insert the correct prepositions. Use a dictionary. Translate into Russian.

1. I don't think I've noticed the weather once since we got involved ... those people.

2. … high altitude, water boils … a lower temperature.

3. I don’t want to intrude … you if you are busy.

4. Mr O’Riginal is showing a considerable interest … eating.

5. I immersed myself … work so as to stop thinking.

6. Mr Barker wants to buy a parrot and is saving money … that end.

7. If you fail … your exam you are in … a nice surprise.

8. Dr Smith’s’s face was contorted … anger.

9. I’ll tell you a funny story, if I may digress … my subject for a moment.

10. If you are going to Thiruvananthapuram you should buy a guide book … Thiruvananthapuram first.

11. The cost of living has increased while there has been a decrease … wages.

12. A good standard of English is a prerequisite … studying at a British university.

13. My remark resulted … everyone getting angry.

14. I’ve invited you here with a view … resolving our differences.

15. Her arguments incline me towards a different view … the matter.

16. I am exempt … tax as I am a student.

17. Where is the sense … going by boat when the plane costs no more and is quicker?

18. Our car does 10 km … a litre.

19. I wonder what your motives were … sending that letter.

20. The canteen caters … 500 people every day.

21. The region is prone … flooding.

22. She entrusted me … her watch.

23. One of the difficulties attendant … shift work is lack of sleep.

24. Mr. Yellow boarded a plane bound … Old Zealand.

25. She is disposed … sudden bouts of anger.

26. High blood pressure is a contraindication … this medicine.

27. If you don’t hear anything … the contrary I’ll meat you at seven o’clock tonight.

28. They divested the king … all his power.

29. You have no right to sit in judgment … her; you’d probably done exactly the same if you’d been in her position.

30. Share prices this week have fallen … an average of 5% across-the-board.

31. Foolproof systems do not take … account the ingenuity of fools.

32. Someone scribbled some notes … the margin of the book.

33. … the margin of the forest walked Mr Drunkenstein.

34. I read a book that treats … ancient history.

35. Many people dissented … the policy of the government.

36. She is very fussy … food.

37. I can recite Beowulf … memory.

38. They prevailed … me to stay.

39. This statement is void … meaning.

40. John and Mary fell out … whose turn it was to eat cheese.

Ex. 13. Revision. Insert the correct prepositions. Use a dictionary. Translate into Russian.

1. The report on the accident exonerates the company … any responsibility.

2. Hobbits have a passion … mushrooms, surpassing even the greediest likings of Big People.

3. Now the decision lies … you.

4. The speaker seemed completely nonplussed … my question.

5. The judge said he was not fully cognaizant … the facts in the case.

6. All our students receive a good grounding … English grammar.

7. Our English teacher made sure that we were well grounded … basic grammar.

8. The papers were set fire … in order to get rid of the evidence.

9. She charges him … systematically siphoning off money from her trust fund.

10. Then I did begin to realize we were … the same wavelength.

11. I always know when you are angry … me.

12. Many people dissented … the policy of the government.

13. The university will bestow honours … the bright students.

14. Mr Toshnini prevailed … us to stay.

15. John and Mary fell out … whose turn it was to wash the wolfdog.

16. I read the book that treats … military history.

17. We must dispose … the illegal materials before going to the exam.

18. Mr Tuesday-Smith is disposed … sudden bouts of depression.

19. They divested the King … all his power.

20. Mr Moorlow lavished his fortune … ice cream.

21. Your stupidity resulted … us having to do more work.

22. Are you up … a game of chess?

23. Mr Greengoose won the gold … the 100 metres.

24. Mr Barrymore’s trouble is that he is obsessed … work.

25. My English isn’t up … translating this sentence … ear.

26. They don’t cater …non-meat eaters here.

27. London streets are awash ... my portraits.

28. The policeman connived ... Joe's escape because he was sorry ... him.

29. Mr Brown is allergic ... his cat, while his cat is allergic ... Mr Brown.

30. This alligator bears only a slight resemblance ... Mr Green.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTIONS

Ex. 1. Define kinds of absolute constructions. State their functions. Translate into Russian.

1. All the money having been spent, Mr Smith started looking for work.

2. Sir Charles walked past, his suitcase dragging behind him on the pavement.

3. The whole overhead was occupied by the sky, serene, impenetrable, ineffable and incomparable, with a fine island of clouds anchored in the calm two yards to the right of Mr Jarvis's outhouse.

4. A car roared past with smoke pouring from the exhausts.

5. With Peter working in Birmingham, and Lucy travelling most of the week, the house seems pretty empty.

6. He seems to speak eagerly, his words coming out as if they had been imprisoned in his mouth for a thousand years.

7. The ground was muddy, and she hadn't run for a month, so her speed was really quite good, all things considered.

8. This is in part because the European Community legislation here is autonomous, there being no international agreement on this matter in 1968.

9. This being so, it is clear that the ordinary means of knowing are incompetent to reality.

10. At daybreak on the morning of Friday, August 3, 1492, an Italian adventurer named Christopher Columbus set sail from Spain to find a new way from Europe to Asia, his aim being to open up a shorter trade route between the two continents.

11. The time of the day was now a dark time, the sun being about to vanish completely in the red west and withdraw all the light.

12. Christmas only once a year, Mr Bean was busy buying presents.

13. The resolution having been put to the vote, the chairman refused to allow any further discussion of the matter.

14. Mrs Schlagbaum, her eyes watering, watched streams of television.

15. The defunct cuckoo clock still haunted the high corner misted with cobwebs, the television set cracking with ignored news.

16. The man in the mirror was hunched, a shadow ready to spring, sunless daylight filtering into the room behind him.

17. Its name beginning with two “A”s, the aardvark is commonly the first animal in dictionaries, ranking ahead of the aardwolf.

18. Nobody having any more to say, the lesson was over.

Ex. 2. Complete the sentences using Absolute Constructions.

1.The students were very keyed up about the exam. 2. Everything's gonna be alright. 3. I am going to fly off at a tangent. 4. There is no simple nostrum for this problem. 5. At last it's come home to us that they've been tricking us all the time. 6. Geoffrey was in the clean. 7. The funny thing about regret is that it's better to regret something you have done than to regret something you haven't. 8. Paris is said to be the capital of the French Republic. 9. No waiver of any rights shall be effective unless assented to in writing by the party to be charged and the waiver of any breach or default shall not constitute a waiver of any other right hereunder of any subsequent breach or default. 10. Nostalgia is like a grammar lesson: you find the past perfect and the present tense.

Ex. 3. Translate into English using Absolute Constructions.

1. Излучение или поглощение света происходит при переходе атома из одного стационарного состояния в другое, а энергия излучаемого или поглощаемого фотона равна разности энергий стационарных состояний. (Постулат Бора) 2. Из корпуса А в корпус Б шли студенты группы 41, а им навстречу из корпуса Б в корпус А шли студенты группы 42. 3. Так как всё было съедено, есть было нечего. 4. Когда наступила зима, студенты поскользили в тверской государственный университет. 5. 31 октября 2002 года матч чемпионата Мадагаскара по футболу между клубами ADEMA и Stade Olympique de l’Emyrne закончился со счётом 149:0, при этом все голы были забиты в свои ворота. 6. Если погода позволит, московские колхозники снова перевыполнят план по сдачи морской капусты государству. 7. Когда заканчивается четвёртая пара, начинается пятая пара. 8. Огромный пылающий каркас солнца неторопливо приближался к зениту, потом замер в неподвижности, выпаривая континентальные водоёмы, а башенные и стенные часы города пробили три раза. 9. Небо висело совсем низко, красные птицы едва не задевали телеграфные провода, поднимаясь и опускаясь вместе с ними от столба к столбу, а их пронзительные крики отражались в свинцовой воде луж. 10. Когда нечего сказать, трудно говорить. 11. Поскольку экзамен по методике был сдан, никто не помнил методику.

REFERENCES

Арбекова Т.И. Английский без ошибок. М., 1990.

Блох М.Я. и др. Практикум по грамматике английского языка. М., 1985.

Бенсон М. и др. Комбинаторный словарь английского языка. М., 1990.

Вейхман Г.А. Новое в английской грамматике. М., 1990.

Гринбаум С., Уиткат Дж. Словарь трудностей английского языка. М., 1990.

Каушанская В.Л. и др. Грамматика английского языка. Л., 1973.

Кобрина Н.А. и др. Грамматика английского языка: Синтаксис. М., 1986.

Поуви Дж. Говорите правильно по-английски. М., 1984.

Родионов А.Ф. Variants in Current English Grammar. M., 1981.

Суон М. Английский язык в современном употреблении. М., 1984.

The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge, 2002.

Quirk R. A University Grammar of English. M., 1982.

CONTENTS

S Y N T A X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 3

The Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3

Word Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

The Compound Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

The Complex Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

The Predicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..31

Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

The Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Absolute Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Very Simple Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47

Word Order and Word Disorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

The Compound Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

The Complex Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59

The Predicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

The Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82

Absolute Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

CONTENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

МАКАРОВ Сергей Александрович

ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЙ СИНТАКСИС

АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

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Адрес: Россия, 170000, г. Тверь, ул. Желябова, 33.

Тел. РИУ: (0822) 35-60-63

ДЛЯ ЗАМЕТОК

-----------------------

|RELATIVE PRONOUNS |

|that, which, who, whose, whose,|

|whom, as |

|This is the student who failed |

|the exam. |

|RELATIVE ADVERBS |

|where, when, whence |

|It’s the place where he lives. |

|CONJUNC-TIVE ADVERBS |

|where, when, whence, how, why, |

|wherever, whenever, whoever |

|This is where he lives. |

|CONJUNC-TIVE PRONOUNS |

|what, which, who, whose, whom, |

|whoever, whatever |

|I know who will fail the exam. |

|ASYNDETICALLY |

|I wish you were not here. |

|This is the house Jack built. |

|SYNDETICALLY |

|®µ°µ²µ´µ¶µ¸µºµI wish that you were not here. |

CONNECTORS

|CONJUNCTIONS |

|(They are not parts of the sentence) |

|that, whether, if, as if, when, after, because, than, etc. |

|My proposal is that you should join us. |

|CONNECTIVES |

|(They are parts of the sentence) |

|RELATIVE WORDS |

|(They introduce Attributive Relative clauses) |

CONJUNCTIVE WORDS

(They introduce Nominal and Appositive clauses)

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