Piaget - University of Southern California



Bandura

- Self-efficacy

- Outcome expectancy

Paivio

- Dual coding theory (1971)

Piaget

- His stagewise view of cognitive development is a prominent representative of endogenous constructivism (p. 216)

o Endogenous Constructivism: biological organism—the key process is coordination of cognitive activities.

▪ Concepts are not mirrors of the external world. Knowledge exists at a more abstract level and develops through cognitive activity.

▪ Cognitive structures are created from other, earlier structures, not directly from information provided by the environment.

o Exogenous Constructivism: Knowledge formation is basically a reconstruction of structures (e.g., cause-effect relationships, presented information, observed behavior) that already exists in external reality.

▪ Mental structures reflect the organization of the organization of the world.

• Schemata, network models, production systems fit this perspective.

- Stages

o Preoperational state: kindergarten

o Concrete-Operations stage: Grades one through three

o

Skinnner: Mid 1960s: Behaviorism: Stimulus-response

- Standardized learning environments

- Carefully specifying behavioral goals

- Teaching machines

o Frequent responding, progress in small steps, shaping, and positive reinforcement

- Education in the 1970s reflected this movement

- Could not account for complex thinking, memory, problem solving, decision making, and creativity (as commented by Bandura, 19690.

Vygotsky

- Core of Vygotsky’s theory is it’s integration of “internal” and “external” aspects of learning and its emphasis on the social environment of learning.

o Cultures externalize individual cognition in their “tools,” by which he means not only the shared physical objects of a culture (e.g., a toothbrush, artwork, car), but also more abstract social-psychological tools (e.g., written language, social institutions).

▪ Whereas physical tools are directed toward the external world, social-psychological tools are “symbol systems used by individuals engaged in thinking”

• Cognitive change occurs as children use these mental tools in social interactions and internalize and transform these interactions.

• In Vygotsky’s view, all higher human cognitive functions have their origin in each individual’s social interactions in a social and cultural context.

- Zone of proximal development: The difference between the difficulty level of a problem a child can cope with independently and the level that can be accomplished with adult help.

o A child and adult (or novice and expert) work together on problems that the child (or novice) alone could not work on successfully.

o Instruction should be designed just beyond the student’s current level of development.

- Instructional scaffolding: closely aligned with Vygotsky’s theoretical perspective.

Weiner

- Attribution theory, 1985, 1995

Schema

Sensory Memory

- Briefly holds stimuli in sensory registers

- Perception

o Recognizing incoming stumuli and allocating attention to them.

o Then pattern recognition

o Then forwarded to working memory for additional processing

- Visual registers: George Sperling (1960)

o Holds information for approximately .5 second

- Auditory registers: Darwin, Turvey, & Crowder, 1972

o Holds information for 3 seconds

Working memory (formerly short-term memory)

- Developed by Baddeley & Hitch, 1974 and more fully by Baddeley, 1986.

- Executive control system (select, plan, transfer to LTM)

- Articulartory Lop

o Auditory rehearsal, articulation processs

- Visual-spatial sketch pad

o Visual rehearsal, Spatial Comparisons

LTM

- Concept

o Mental structures by which we represent meaningful categories

o Objects or events grouped together on the basis of perceived similarities

o Examples and nonexamples

o Attributes: essential features

▪ Based on early work of Bruner (1956)

o Prototype theory: Rosch & Mervis, 1975

- Propositions

o Smallest unit of meaning

▪ E.g., John sleeps = sleep, John

▪ E.g., A bird has feathers = have, bird, featuers

▪ E.g., If Mary trusts John, she is a fool = If (trust, mary, john) (fool, mary)

o Frederiksen, 1975; Kintsch, 1974; Rumelhart & Norman, 1978

o Can be judged true or false

o Usually don’t stand alone. They are connected with one another and may be embedded within one another: Kintsch, 1986, 1988; Anderson, 1995)

▪ Propositional network

- Productions

o Condition-action rules: If/then (Anderson, 1983)

o Organized networks

o Can fire automatically. Generally implicit memory

- Schema

o Anderson, Spiro, & Anderson, 1978; Ausubel, 1960; Rumelhart, 1981)

o Organize declarative knowledge

- Scripts

o Underlying organizing framework for procedural knowledge

o Schema representations for events (Schank & Abelson, 1977).

Cognitive Load Theory

- Chandler & Sweller, 1990; Sweller, 1994; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995

- A Number of researchers pivotal to the cognitive revolution

o Jerome Bruner (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956).

o David Ausubel (Ausubel, 1960; Ausubel & Youssef, 1963).

o G. A. Miller’s article “The Magical Number Seven, Plus-or-Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information” (1956)

o Rumelhard, 1975: Schemata

o Schank & Abelson, 1977: Scripts

- Schemata appeared under many labels

o Minsky, 1975

o Rumelhart, 1975

o Schank & Abelson 1977

o Winograd, 1975

o Research showed value of analogies and metaphors

▪ Researchers touting need for instruction with analogies and metaphors

• Anderson & Peasron, 1984

- Automated processes: Neisser, 1967

o Elaborated by Laberge & Samuels, 1974; Schiffrin & Schneider, 1977; Neves & Anderson, 1981; Nusbaum & Schwab, 1986

o

Self-regulated learning theory

- Schunk, 1991; Zimmerman, 1990; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994

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Expectancy-value theory (Eccles & Wigfield)

- Eccles, 1983, 1987, 1993; Eccles et al., 1989)

- Valence (Lewiun, 1935). Value a person attached to an object in the environment

- Level of Aspiration (Lewin, Dembo, Festinger, & Sears, 1944). The goals or standard that individuals set for themselves in a task, based on past experience and familiarity with the task.

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