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Chapter 15

This chart is great!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

|THEORIES OF PERSONALITY |

|PERSONALITY: A person’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. |

|Perspective |Emphasis |Theorists |Important Concepts |Assessment Techniques |Treatment |

|Psychoanalytic |Behavior & |Sigmund |Structure of the mind (Id, ego, & superego); the 5 |Projective tests |Insight therapy involving: |

| |personality spring|Freud |psychosexual stages of development (oral, anal, |(consisting of ambiguous |free association, analysis |

| |from unconscious | |phallic, latent, & genital); defense mechanisms; |material) such as the |of dreams (i.e., latent vs. |

| |conflicts & early | |libido; Electra Complex; penis envy (yeah, right!);|Rorschach & Thematic |manifest content); |

| |childhood | |Oedipal Conflict; castration anxiety. |Apperception Test (TAT) |resistance, interpretation; |

| |experiences. The | | | |positive & negative |

| |theory places an | | | |transference. |

| |emphasis on sexual| | | | |

| |instincts. | | | | |

|Psycho-analytic: |Emphasis is still |Jung |Personal unconscious (much like Freud’s) AND |Similar to the above. |Insight therapy but with |

|Neo-Freudians |on the | |collective unconscious made up of |Jung also examined the |less of an emphasis on |

|  |unconscious, but | |archetypes—shadow, persona, anima, animus, etc. |drawings of mandalas to |sexual instincts. |

|  |less of an | |Main personality traits consist of |penetrate the collective | |

|  |emphasis on sexual| |introversion/extroversion & |unconscious. | |

|  |instincts. | |rationality/irrationality. |  | |

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| | |Adler |Inferiority vs superiority; inferiority complex; | | |

| | | |fictional finalism. | | |

| | |Horney |Anxiety is a stronger motivating source than sexual| | |

| | | |impulses. | | |

| | |Erikson |Eight stages of psychosocial development; | | |

| | | |parent-child relationships. | | |

|Humanistic |An optimistic view|William |Focus is on the "self"—the material self, social |Questionnaires and |Person (or client) centered |

| |of human nature |James |self, spiritual self, & pure ego. |empathetic interviews |therapy incorporating active|

| |that emphasizes | | |that assess self-concept.|listening & unconditional |

| |the self and the | | | |positive regard. |

| |fulfillment of | | |  | |

| |each person’s | | |  | |

| |unique potential. | | |  | |

| | |Carl Rogers |Actualizing tendency; fully functioning person; | | |

| | | |unconditional positive regard. | | |

| | |Abraham |Hierarchy of needs; self-actualization. | | |

| | |Maslow | | | |

|Perspective |Emphasis |Theorists |Important Concepts |Assessment |Treatment |

|Biomedical; |Based on the | |Most mental illnesses are caused by a "chemical |There are no definitive |Electroconvulsive Therapy |

|Neuro-psychological|"Medical Model" | |imbalance" in the brain. Ex: the neurotransmitter |medical tests for mental |(ECT); psycho-surgery |

|, |which states that | |Serotonin has been linked to depression and |illness. But, advances |(lobotomy); drug therapies: |

|or physiological |mental illnesses | |Dopamine has been linked to schizophrenia. |are likely in |anti-depressant (Prozac), |

|psychology |are similar to | |Stress-diathesis model of mental illness. |brain-imaging techniques |antipsychotic (Clozapine, |

| |physical illnesses| | | |Thorazine), anti-anxiety |

| |in that both are | | | |(Valium, Xanex), & |

| |caused by the | | | |anti-bipolar (Lithium). |

| |physical | | | | |

| |malfunction of | | | | |

| |certain systems | | | | |

| |within the body. | | | | |

| |The malfunction | | | | |

| |may be linked to | | | | |

| |genetics. | | | | |

|Trait |Emphasizes the |Sheldon |Endomorphs, mesomorphs, & ectomorphs. |OBJECTIVE personality |Trait theorists are NOT NOT |

| |description & | | |inventories that assess |NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT NOT |

| |measurement of | | |different traits (e.g., |interested in therapy or the|

| |specific | | |MMPI, 16 PF, CPI, etc.) |origins of mental illness. |

| |personality traits| | | |They simply want to MEASURE |

| |among individuals.| | | |& DESCRIBE personality |

| | | | | |traits. |

| | |Allport |Identified 200 stable personality traits. | | |

| | |Cattell |Through factor-analysis, identified 16 basic | | |

| | | |personality traits. | | |

| | |Eysenk |Identified two personality trait dimensions: | | |

| | | |stability/instability & introversion/extroversion. | | |

|Behavioral |Behavior is a |B. F. |Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, |Behavioral observations |Behavioral therapies: |

| |product of |Skinner |punishment, schedules of reinforcement. ABC’s of |and ratings. |Classical conditioning: |

| |antecedents & | |behavior: Antecedents, behaviors, & consequences. | |counterconditioning (both |

| |consequences in | | | |aversive conditioning and |

| |the environment. | | | |systematic desensitization).|

| |The importance of | | | | |

| |"cognition" is | | | |Operant conditioning: token |

| |dismissed or | | | |economies. |

| |minimized. | | | | |

|Social-cognitive |Emphasis is on |Bandura |Social learning theory (observation & modeling); |Behavioral observations &|Rational-emotive therapy |

|(or |learning | |reciprocal determinism; |questionnaires assessing |(Albert Ellis); Beck’s |

|Cognitive-behaviora|(behavioral) AND | | |people’s thoughts and |cognitive therapy for |

|l) |conscious | | |feelings. |depression. |

| |cognitive | | | | |

| |processes. | | | | |

| | |Rotter |Internal vs. external locus of control. | | |

| | |Seligman |Learned helplessness. | | |

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NAMES TO KNOW~~~

|Name |School |Discovery |

|B. Whorf |Cog |Linguistic relativity theory |

|Mary Ainsworth |Developmental |Placed infants in “strange situations” to study attachment theory |

|Carol Gilligan |Developmental |Challenged universality of Kohlberg’s theory of moral dev. |

|Stanley Schacter |Mot and Emo |Two factor theory |

|Harlow |Behaviorist |Attachment; cloth/wire monkey experiment (infant had stronger bond with cloth monkey – need for affection|

| |Developmental |creates a stronger bond) |

|Elizabeth Loftus |Cog |Demonstrated problems with eye witness testimony and constructive memory/false memory |

|Bowlby |Psychodynamic (Developmental)|Attachment; watched babies, theorized that secure attachment early on leads to ability to develop close |

| | |personal relationships later in life |

|Freud |Psychoanalytic |States of consciousness, psychosexual development, Id, ego, superego; defense mechanisms |

|Adler |Psychoanalytic |Inferiority complex; Will to Power and striving for superiority/perfection |

|Jung | |Collective unconscious, anima, animus, dreams |

|Horney |Psychoanalytic |Groundbreaking work on neuroticism; concept of womb envy, criticism of penis envy |

|Cattell |Trait Theory |Used factor analysis to determine surface traits and 16 source traits |

|Allport |Trait Theory |Reduced behavioral characteristics in the dictionary from 18,000 words to 42 |

|Eysenck |Trait Theory |Coined the “Big 3” dimensions of personality: Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism |

|Pavlov |Behaviorist |Groundbreaking research with dogs on classical conditioning |

| |Learning | |

|Watson |Behaviorist |Founder of behaviorism (American) |

|Skinner |Behaviorist |Described different types of reinforcement in his studies of operant conditioning: skinner box |

|Bandura |Behaviorist/Cognitive |Learning and Personality: modeling and reciprocal determinism, self efficacy |

| | |Studied observational learning (aka vicarious learning) in his Bobo Doll study; also created the theory |

| | |of reciprocal determinism, a social-cognitive theory of personality (external and internal determinants |

| | |of behavior interact reciprocally) |

|Kohlberg |Cognitive |Came up with stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, and post conventional) in |

| |Developmental |development of moral judgment |

|Erikson |Psychoanalytic – Neo Freudian|He said the world gets bigger, failure is cumulative, and described stages of development that include an|

| |Developmental |adolescent identity crisis. |

| | |Psychosocial development, 8 stages – stage theorist |

|Rogers |Humanist |Person (client) Centered therapy and unconditional positive regard / absolute listening skills.The |

| |Personality PSI |founder of the humanistic approach, he described an “actualizing tendency” – towards fulfilling your |

| | |potential. |

|Piaget |Cognitive |Stage theorist - He described 4 stages of cognitive development (sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete|

| |Dev. |operational, formal operational); also assimilation and accommodation |

|Asch |Behaviorist/ |Studied compliance and conformity – by putting subjects in groups, asking simple questions where some |

| |Social PSI |assistants had been told to give wrong answers |

|Milgram |Behaviorist/ |Studied obedience to authority by putting subjects in a situation where they believed they were shocking |

| |Social |somenone, potentially fatally |

|Zimbardo |Behaviorist/ |Studied instiutional norms; Stanford prison experiment |

| |Social | |

|Bowlby |Behaviorist/ |Studied attachment (secure attachment in early years = ability to form close personal rel’s later on) |

| |Object Relations | |

|Ainsworth |Behaviorist/ |Categories babies as securely attached, insecure-avoidant, or insecure-ambivalent (insecurely attached |

| |Object Relations |don’t deal with new experiences as well, may have problems with relationships later in life) |

|Chomsky |Cognitive (linguistic) |Deep structure of language and the idea of a built-in language acquisition device: Critical theory |

| | |hypothesis for lang. acquisition |

|Darwin |Evolutionary |Form follows function; motivation is explained by biological necessity |

|Aristotle |Greek |Studied the soul; identified reason and physical faculties as separate elements |

|Plato |Greek |Described levels of consciousness in his “Cave” |

|Ekman | |Found that facial expressions of emotions are constant across cultures (but that display rules differ) |

|Festinger |Cognitive |Cognitive dissonance |

|Heider |Cognitive |Pioneer of attribution theory |

|Carol Gilligan |Cognitive/ Developmental |“Stages of moral care”; developmental theory for women |

| | |preconventional – individual survival |

| | |conventional “self sacrifice is good” |

| | |postconventional – nonviolence (don’t hurt self or others) |

| | |(Basic difference is that you start out by serving others, then realize that you are a person, too (like |

| | |the mother in The Hours) |

|Hermann Ebbinghaus |Cognitive |One of the first researchers on memory; came up with the idea of using strings of nonsense syllables to |

| | |research memory |

|Titchner |Structuralist |Founder of structuralism, the analysis of mental structures (early schools) |

|Wundt |Introspection |Founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig; observed and recorded your own perceptions, |

| | |thoughts, feelings |

|James |Functionalist |Like Darwin, this early theorist studied how an individual adapts to and functions in their environment |

|Hilgard |Cognitive/Behaviorist |Developed the idea of the hidden observer during hypnosis |

|Hull |Behaviorist/Cog |Drive-reduction theory |

|Izard |Cognitive |Found that facial expressions of emotions are constant across cultures |

|Kagan |Cognitive/ Developmental |This current psychologist emphasizes the effects of culture on development of both intellect and |

| | |personality, and says that personality can change over the course of one’s life |

|Koffka |Gestalt |Published an early textbook on Gestalt psychology (which studied perception, and how humans combine parts|

| | |into wholes) |

|Koehler |Gestalt |Published an early textbook on Gestalt psychology (which studied perception, and how humans combine parts|

| | |into wholes) |

|Lee |Cognitive |Identified 6 different types of love |

|Locke |Philosopher |Tabula rasa |

|Elizabeth Loftus |Cognitive |Debunked many ideas about repressed memories |

|James Marcia |Cog/ |Four statuses of identity, related to identity crisis (identity achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, |

| |Developmental |identity diffusion (i.e. confusion)) |

|Schacter |Cog |Two-factor theory of emotion: generalized arousal and appraisal |

|Martin Seligman |Cog |Developed the theory of learned helplessness; also known for his research on optimism |

|Selye |Cog |Stress |

|Sternberg |Cog |This guy liked things to come in 3’s – he has a triarchic theory of love (intimacy, passion, commitment) |

| | |and of intelligence (creative/experiential, analytic/componential, and practical/contextual) |

|Gardner |Cog/Dev |Multiple intelligences |

|Thorndike |Behaviorist |He built puzzle boxes for hungry cats and discovered the law of effect (in learning new tasks, you repeat|

| | |only the (random) responses that are reinforced) |

|Binet |Cog |Developed the first modern intelligence test, still the basis of modern IQ tests |

| |Developmental and Testing | |

|Wechsler |Cog |Developed two new scales that are more popular today (gives more detailed results), the WISC and WAIS |

|Wundt |Cog |Structuralism: first PSI lab in Germany |

|Mary Cover Jones |Behavioral |The “mother of behavior therapy,” she was a pioneer in counter-conditioning, including a 3 year old boy |

| | |named Peter. (counter-conditioned a boy who was pretty normal except for excessive fear reactions) |

Bottom of Form

Know: Freud, Horney, Jung, Adler, Erikson, Cattell, Myers-Briggs, Rorschach, OCEAN

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PERSONALITY

Personality: patterns of feelings, motives, and behavior that set people apart from one another.

Raymond Cattell: Said that certain traits could be easily identified when determining personality. These are called surface traits.

ν      Said these surface traits appear in clusters known as source traits. 

 

Gordon Allport said 4,500 of these exist back in the '30s.

Factor analysis -- narrowing a large number of groups into smaller subsets.

Cattell got it down to 16. 

 

Today, most center around these basic five traits on a sliding scale:

Openness

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

 

Twin studies (esp. at U. Minn) are most used to determine the nature v. nurture debate about personality. They focus on identical twins (monozygotal) reared apart in an attempt to isolate genetic traits. 

 

Bandura says Personality is a result of Reciprocal Determinism; the outcome of cognitive, environmental and behavioral factors in an individual's life.  

 

PSYCHOANALYTIC APPROACH:

ν      Says that people are born with certain biological drives, such as aggression, sex, and the need for superiority.

SIGMUND FREUD – The father of psychoanalytical psychology.

ν      Said conscious ideas and feelings occupy only a small part of the brain.

ν      Most of our deepest thoughts are pushed far into the brain without our knowledge.

FREUD’S THREE BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

Id – represents basic needs and wants. Does not understand limitations. Only knows what it wants and wants it right then.

Ego – The “common sense” part of the mind. Knows that in the real world, we can’t always get what we want. Or, in other words, is the reality principle.

Superego – Functions as the moral principle. Incorporates standards and values. Works as the conscious and makes you feel guilty for feelings or actions that go against accepted values.

** The Ego serves as the balance between the Id and Superego.

 

Psychosexual Stages of Freud

Stage Approx. Ages Erotic Focus Key tasks and Experience

Oral 0-1 Mouth (sucking, biting) Weaning (from breast or bottle)

Anal 1-3 Anus (expelling or retaining feces) Toilet Training

Phallic 3-6 Genitals (masturbating) Identifying with adult role models: coping

With crisis

Oedipal/Elektra

Oedipus complex: Male child loves mother; hates father. The child is jealous of father “hogging” mother’s time. They cope with these threatening feelings through identification with their father, thereby incorporating many of his values and developing a sense of gender identity.

Elektra complex: The opposite of Oedipus for females. During this time, girls develop Penis Envy; wish they were boys. Accept the fact they will not have a penis, and they begin to develop gender identity.

Latency 6-12 None (sexually repressed) Expanding social contacts

Genital Puberty Genitals (being sexually intimate) Establishing intimate

relationships, contributing to society through working.

 FREUD’S DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Repression – pushing anxiety-causing feelings and emotions into the unconscious.

EXAMPLE: Roseanne Barr claims she was molested as a young girl, but she did not remember it until she went into psychotherapy. Then, she realized she had no memories of the incident because she had buried them in her unconscious mind.

Rationalization – Finding justification in unacceptable happenings or behavior.

EXAMPLE: An alcoholic might rationalize that he feels better after a day of work when he has a beer, even though family and friends have told him he has a drinking problem.

Displacement – The transfer of an impulse from a threatening object to a less threatening object. Or, “taking it out” on someone else.

EXAMPLE: Jeremy was blessed out by Coach Owens after failing to win a sprint event at a track meet. Instead of yelling back at Coach Owens, Jeremy went over to Nick and cussed him out for no apparent reason.

Regression – When an individual is under a great deal of stress and returns to behavior that is characteristic of earlier stages of development.

EXAMPLE: Whenever Ralanda doesn’t get her way in high school, she throws temper tantrums much like she did when she didn’t get her way as an infant.

Projection – People deal with unacceptable behavior or thoughts in their own life by pointing them out in others. In other words, people find their own faults in others.

EXAMPLE: A man who has been having a 15-year affair with a woman points out how pathetic his brother-in-law is when he is caught cheating as well.

Reaction Formation – People act in the opposite way of their true feelings.

EXAMPLE: Joey has a huge crush on Kendra, but instead of showing her any type of intimacy, he hits her upside the head on the way down the hall. (Name one day you don’t see this happen at Hillside!)

Denial – When a person refuses to accept the reality of anything that is bad or upsetting.

EXAMPLE: Tina refuses to believe that her boyfriend didn’t graduate from high school even though his high school counselor has shown her his transcripts proving it is so.

Sublimation – Channeling impulses into socially acceptable behavior.

EXAMPLE: Steve loved to get into fights, but kept getting into trouble, so he joined a boxing league.

** Freud argued that, when used in moderation, defense mechanisms were normal and healthy. When a person refuses to accept the underlying causes, the defense mechanisms become unhealthy. AT SOME POINT, PEOPLE MUST FACE THE NEGATIVE FEELINGS TO REMAIN HEALTHY.

OTHER PSYCHOANALYSTS

Carl Jung – Father of analytic psychology. Said that people use their own conscious as well as a collective unconscious, which is a storage of human concepts shared by people of all different cultures.

ν      The collective unconscious is a collection of archetypes, or, the ideas and images of a collective human experience.

EXAMPLES:

The Supreme Being The Hostile Brother

The Young Hero Fairy Godmothers

The Fertile and Nurturing Mother Wicked Witches

The Wise Old Man Rebirth and Resurrection

Each of these show up in folklore, mythology and religions across the world.

ν      Jung also argued that the human conscious is controlled by a sense of self. It can be categorized by the following:

Thinking Intuition

Feeling Sensation

The more an individual is able to use these four in harmony, the more healthy their sense of self will be. Jung called that process individuation.

Alfred Adler – Believed that our drive to become who we are deals with inferiority complex. That means we all deal with feelings of inadequacy and insecurity.

-- Adler says this inferiority complex is natural because we all start out in this world as small children surrounded by dominant adults.

ν      He also came up with the concept of sibling rivalry, where brothers and sisters try and outdo one another to feel more secure.

Karen Horney – believed that anxiety levels and personality are formed due to

relationships with parents. The more a parent shows indifference toward a child, the more feelings of insecurity. Hostility follows the feelings of insecurity.

Erik Erikson – Proposed the psychosocial theory of psychology to a new level. Said relationships begin at the infant level, and relationships determine personality for the rest of a person’s life.

 Personality Testing

ν       MMPI-2

ν       Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - 2

ν       567 item true/false self-report inventory

ν       designed to assess clinical dimensions of personality such as health concerns, depression, antisocial behavior, schizophrenia, social discomfort, alcohol / drug abuse, mania, paranoia, and many other areas

ν       Rorschach Test

ν       well known inkblot test (“What might this be?”)

ν       Responses coded on multiple dimensions

ν       Responses are a reflection of subject’s unconscious

ν       TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

ν       ask person to make up a story -- what led up to the scene, what is going on, what happens next, and how the characters are thinking and feeling

ν       idea is to infer the motivations, needs, and strivings of the subject on the basis of the content of the stories

ν       Myers-Briggs

ν       Most common test given today

ν       Based on Jung’s ideas that innate tendencies lead to patterns of behavior

ν       Breaks down answers into 16 different personality types falling under the following categories:

Perceiving/Judging Thinking/Feeling

Introverted/Extraverted Sensing/Intuition

 

I. Psychoanalytic Theorists

Sigmund Freud - personality is determined by passing through psychosexual stages and the interplay between the id, ego and superego

Defense mechanisms - attempts to maintain the unconscious urges of the id in the unconscious

Repression - memories that are so traumatic they are pushed into the unconscious

Sublimation - taking out id impulses in a socially acceptable way

Displacement - transferring id impulses from one person to another

Denial - failing to admit the existence of certain facts

Reaction Formation - having a thought or impulse that is so threatening one becomes over enthusiastic in the opposite direction

Rationalization - making excuses for behavior or failure

Intellectualization - making excuses by using high level terminology so one does not have to feel emotion

Identification - associating yourself with others in order to feel better about yourself

Regression - acting childish to get your way

Carl Jung - psychoanalytic psychologist who felt Freud's focus on sex and aggression were too limiting

libido - "life force" which guides our behavior

archetypes - inherited universal human concepts (mom, god, hero,

anima - male's female side,

animus - female's male side

schemas - patterns, frameworks or outlines which we place our archetypes

collective unconscious - inherited part of our conscious that holds archetypes persona - mask or role people hide behind to hide personal f - J~ or tn~e personality

introversion (tendency to reflect on your own experiences) v. extroversion (tendency to focus on the external world) develops in people

Karen Horney - people are driven by a need for love and acceptance, personality is built up by fighting rejection, no love=anxiety building up in the unconscious

womb envy- women do not have penis envy but men envy women because they cannot bear children

Alfred Adler - people are born helpless and dependent and may develop an inferiority complex, as one attempts to fit into society, one strives for superiority for fulfillment

Trait Approach

Traits - inclinations or tendencies that make a person behave and think

1) traits are stable and predictable

2) these traits appear in many situations

3) people differ in the amounts of traits

Gordon Allport's Trait Theory - people have central and secondary traits that make up personality

Cardinal trait - one dominant personality trait (found very rarely)

Central trait - characteristics that control behavior most of the time

Secondary trait - traits specific to situations

Common traits - traits found in everyone

Raymond Cattell's Factor-Analytic Approach - there are 16 clusters of traits that mathematically correlate with one another & represent a dimension of personality

Hans Eysenck's Biological Trait Theory - 3 biological traits form personality

1. Psychoticism - cruelty, coldness and rejection of social customs

2. Introversion - (caused by over arousal of the nervous system) v. extroversion (low nervous system arousal)

3. Emotionality - Stability - from one extreme (neuroticism) of anxiety to the other of calm, stable temperament

Blg-Five Model - these five factors are found in a wide range of cultures - CANOE

O Openness

C Conscientiousness

E Extraversion

A Agreeableness

N Neuroticism

Cognitive-Behavioral Approach - also called Social Learning says personality is learned from observing others in social situations

BF Skinner - personality is created in response to various stimuli

Julian Rotter's Expectancy Theory - expectations and the values placed on them guide behavior

Internals - expect their own behaviors will control events

Externals - expect external forces to control them

Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory - behavior, thought and environment influence~ and are influenced by each other

self-efficacy - a learned expectation that you can perform well regardless of previous" failure

Walter Michel's Person-Situatlon Theory - identifiable features (person variables) make people different, these include competencies, perceptions, expectations, subjective values and self-regulation

1. Traits affect behavior only in relevant situations

2. Behaviors due to traits can alter situations, which promotes new behavior

3. People w/ different traits chose different situations

4. Traits are more influential in certain situations

Phenomenological (Humanistic) Approach - people are guided by personal values and the desire to grow and fulfill one's potential ("Be all you can be")

Carl Roger's Self Theory - people construct an image of who they are based on their desire to grow (self-actualization) and from feedback from others

Positive Regard - you feel good about yourself when others do as well

Abraham Maslow - said self~actualization is a need not just a capacity

Deficiency Orientation when people focus on unmet needs for material things, th i renders life meaningless, disappointing and boring '

Growth Orientation - being satisfied w/ what you have, what you are and what you can do, more likely to have peak experiences - joy over being alive and meeting your potential

There are three tools in assessing personality

1. Observations 2. Interviews 3. Personality Tests

A. Objective Tests - pencil and paper self-reports, MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) NEO-PI-R (Neurotieism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory Revised)

B. Projective Tests - unstructured stimuli that can be interpreted in many ways to reflect a person~s desires, fantasies, conflicts, etc. TAT (Thematic Apperception Test), Rohrschach Inkblot Test

Name: __________________________ Date: _____________

|___ 1. |The text defines personality as: |

|A) |the set of personal attitudes that characterizes a person. |

|B) |an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. |

|C) |a predictable set of responses to environmental stimuli. |

|D) |an unpredictable set of responses to environmental stimuli. |

|___ 2. |Which of the following places the greatest emphasis on the unconscious mind? |

|A) |the humanistic perspective |C) |the trait perspective |

|B) |the social-cognitive perspective |D) |the psychoanalytic perspective |

|___ 3. |According to the psychoanalytic perspective, a child who frequently “slips” and calls her teacher “mom” probably: |

|A) |has some unresolved conflicts concerning her mother. |

|B) |is fixated in the oral stage of development. |

|C) |did not receive unconditional positive regard from her mother. |

|D) |can be classified as having a weak sense of personal control. |

|___ 4. |A major difference between the psychoanalytic and trait perspectives is that: |

|A) |trait theory defines personality in terms of behavior; psychoanalytic theory, in terms of its underlying dynamics. |

|B) |trait theory describes behavior but does not attempt to explain it. |

|C) |psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the origins of personality in childhood sexuality. |

|D) |all of the above are differences. |

|___ 5. |According to Freud's theory, personality arises in response to conflicts between: |

|A) |our unacceptable urges and our tendency to become self-actualized. |

|B) |the process of identification and the ego's defense mechanisms. |

|C) |the collective unconscious and our individual desires. |

|D) |our biological impulses and the social restraints against them. |

|___ 6. |Id is to ego as ________ is to ________. |

|A) |reality principle; pleasure principle |C) |conscious forces; unconscious forces |

|B) |pleasure principle; reality principle |D) |conscience; “personality executive” |

|___ 7. |A psychoanalyst would characterize a person who is impulsive and self-indulgent as possessing a strong ________ and a weak ________. |

| |A) id and ego; superego B) id; ego and superego C) ego; superego D) id; superego |

|___ 8. |Which of the following is the correct order of psychosexual stages proposed by Freud? |

|A) |oral; anal; phallic; latency; genital |C) |oral; anal; genital; latency; phallic |

|B) |anal; oral; phallic; latency; genital |D) |anal; oral; genital; latency; phallic |

|___ 9. |According to Freud, ________ is the process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their ________. |

|A) |reaction formation; superegos |C) |identification; superegos |

|B) |reaction formation; egos |D) |identification; egos |

|___ 10. |Jill has a biting, sarcastic manner. According to Freud, she is: |

|A) |projecting her anxiety onto others. |C) |fixated in the anal stage of development. |

|B) |fixated in the oral stage of development. |D) |displacing her anxiety onto others. |

|___ 11. |The Oedipus and Electra complexes have their roots in the: |

| |A) anal stage. B) oral stage. C) latency stage. D) phallic stage. |

|___ 12. |According to Freud, defense mechanisms are methods of reducing: |

| |A) anger. B) fear. C) anxiety. D) lust. |

|___ 13. |Suzy bought a used, high-mileage automobile because it was all she could afford. Attempting to justify her purchase, she raves to her friends about|

| |the car's attractiveness, good acceleration, and stereo. According to Freud, Suzy is using the defense mechanism of: |

| |A) displacement. B) reaction formation. C) rationalization. D) projection. |

|___ 14. |Neo-Freudians such as Adler and Horney believed that: |

|A) |Freud placed too great an emphasis on the conscious mind. |

|B) |Freud placed too great an emphasis on sexual and aggressive instincts. |

|C) |the years of childhood were more important in the formation of personality than Freud had indicated. |

|D) |Freud's ideas about the id, ego, and superego as personality structures were incorrect. |

|___ 15. |The personality test Teresa is taking involves her describing random patterns of dots. What type of test is she taking? |

| |A) an empirically derived test B) the MMPI C) a personality inventory D) a projective test |

|___ 16. |Seligman has found that humans and animals who are exposed to aversive events they cannot escape may develop: |

| |A) an internal locus of control. B) a reaction formation. C) learned helplessness. D) neurotic anxiety. |

|___ 17. |Projective tests such as the Rorschach inkblot test have been criticized because: |

|A) |their scoring system is too rigid and leads to unfair labeling. |

|B) |they were standardized with unrepresentative samples. |

|C) |they have low reliability and low validity. |

|D) |it is easy for people to fake answers in order to appear healthy. |

|___ 18. |Which of Freud's ideas would not be accepted by most contemporary psychologists? |

|A) |Development is essentially fixed in childhood. |

|B) |Sexuality is a potent drive in humans. |

|C) |The mind is an iceberg with consciousness being only the tip. |

|D) |Repression can be the cause of forgetting. |

|___ 19. |Which of the following was not mentioned in the text as a criticism of Freud's theory? |

|A) |The theory is sexist. |

|B) |It offers few testable hypotheses. |

|C) |There is no evidence of anything like an “unconscious.” |

|D) |The theory ignores the fact that human development is lifelong. |

|___ 20. |Professor Minton believes that people strive to find meaning in life because they are terrified of their own mortality. Evidently, Professor Minton|

| |is a proponent of: |

|A) |terror-management theory. |C) |the humanistic perspective. |

|B) |psychodynamic theory. |D) |the social-cognitive perspective. |

|___ 21. |Recent research has provided more support for defense mechanisms such as ________ than for defense mechanisms such as ________. |

|A) |displacement; reaction formation |C) |displacement; regression |

|B) |reaction formation; displacement |D) |displacement; projection |

|___ 22. |The humanistic perspective on personality: |

|A) |emphasizes the driving force of unconscious motivations in personality. |

|B) |emphasizes the growth potential of “healthy” individuals. |

|C) |emphasizes the importance of interaction with the environment in shaping personality. |

|D) |describes personality in terms of scores on various personality scales. |

|___ 23. |Andrew's grandfather, who has lived a rich and productive life, is a spontaneous, loving, and self-accepting person. Maslow might say that he: |

|A) |has an internal locus of control. |

|B) |is an extravert. |

|C) |has resolved all the conflicts of the psychosexual stages. |

|D) |is a self-actualizing person. |

|___ 24. |In promoting personality growth, the person-centered perspective emphasizes all but: |

| |A) empathy. B) acceptance. C) genuineness. D) altruism. |

|___ 25. |According to Rogers, three conditions are necessary to promote growth in personality. These are: |

|A) |honesty, sincerity, and empathy. |C) |high self-esteem, genuineness, and acceptance. |

|B) |high self-esteem, honesty, and empathy. |D) |genuineness, acceptance, and empathy. |

|___ 26. |The school psychologist believes that having a positive self-concept is necessary before students can achieve their potential. Evidently, the |

| |school psychologist is working within the ________ perspective. |

| |A) psychoanalytic B) trait C) humanistic D) social-cognitive |

|___ 27. |Wanda wishes to instill in her children an accepting attitude toward other people. Maslow and Rogers would probably recommend that she: |

|A) |teach her children first to accept themselves. |

|B) |use discipline sparingly. |

|C) |be affectionate with her children only when they behave as she wishes. |

|D) |do all of the above. |

|___ 28. |For humanistic psychologists, many of our behaviors and perceptions are ultimately shaped by whether our ________ is ________ or ________. |

|A) |ego; strong; weak |C) |personality structure; introverted; extraverted |

|B) |locus of control; internal; external |D) |self-concept; positive; negative |

|___ 29. |Which of the following is a common criticism of the humanistic perspective? |

|A) |Its concepts are vague and subjective. |

|B) |The emphasis on the self encourages selfishness in individuals. |

|C) |Humanism fails to appreciate the reality of evil in human behavior. |

|D) |All of the above are common criticisms. |

|___ 30. |Dr. Gonzalez believes that most students can be classified as “Type A” or “Type B” according to the intensities of their personalities and |

| |competitiveness. Evidently, Dr. Gonzalez is working within the ________ perspective. |

| |A) psychoanalytic B) trait C) humanistic D) social-cognitive |

|___ 31. |Trait theory attempts to: |

|A) |show how development of personality is a lifelong process. |

|B) |describe and classify people in terms of their predispositions to behave in certain ways. |

|C) |determine which traits are most conducive to individual self-actualization. |

|D) |explain how behavior is shaped by the interaction between traits, behavior, and the environment. |

|___ 32. |The ________ classifies people according to Carl Jung's personality types. |

| |A) Myers-Briggs Type Indicator B) MMPI C) Locus of Control Scale D) Kagan Temperament Scale |

|___ 33. |Isaiah is sober and reserved; Rashid is fun-loving and affectionate. The Eysencks would say that Isaiah ________ and Rashid ________. |

|A) |has an internal locus of control; has an external locus of control |

|B) |has an external locus of control; has an internal locus of control |

|C) |is an extravert; is an introvert |

|D) |is an introvert; is an extravert |

|___ 34. |Which two dimensions of personality have the Eysencks emphasized? |

|A) |extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability |

|B) |internal-external locus of control and extraversion-introversion |

|C) |internal-external locus of control and emotional stability-instability |

|D) |melancholic-phlegmatic and choleric-sanguine |

|___ 35. |Nadine has a relatively low level of brain arousal. Trait theorists would probably predict that she is: |

| |A) an extravert. B) an introvert. C) an unstable person. D) both a. and c. |

|___ 36. |Because you have a relatively low level of brain arousal, a trait theorist would suggest that you are a(n) ________ who would naturally seek |

| |________. |

| |A) introvert; stimulation B) introvert; isolation C) extravert; stimulation D) extravert; isolation |

|___ 37. |In studying personality, a trait theorist would most likely: |

|A) |use a projective test. |C) |use a personality inventory. |

|B) |observe a person in a variety of situations. |D) |use the method of free association. |

|___ 38. |A psychologist at the campus mental health center administered an empirically derived personality test to diagnose an emotionally troubled student.|

| |Which test did the psychologist most likely administer? |

| |A) the MMPI B) the TAT C) the Rorschach D) the Locus of Control Scale |

|___ 39. |The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a(n): |

|A) |projective personality test. |

|B) |empirically derived and objective personality test. |

|C) |personality test developed mainly to assess job applicants. |

|D) |personality test used primarily to assess locus of control. |

|___ 40. |The Big Five personality factors are: |

|A) |emotional stability, openness, introversion, sociability, locus of control. |

|B) |neuroticism, extraversion, openness, emotional stability, sensitivity. |

|C) |neuroticism, gregariousness, extraversion, impulsiveness, conscientiousness. |

|D) |emotional stability, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness. |

|___ 41. |For his class presentation, Bruce plans to discuss the Big Five personality factors used by people throughout the world to describe others or |

| |themselves. Which of the following is not a factor that Bruce will discuss? |

| |A) extraversion B) openness C) independence D) conscientiousness |

|___ 42. |Recent research on the Big Five personality factors provides evidence that: |

|A) |some tendencies decrease during adulthood, while others increase. |

|B) |these traits only describe personality in Western, individualist cultures. |

|C) |the heritability of individual differences in these traits generally runs about 25 percent or less. |

|D) |all of the above are true. |

|___ 43. |A major criticism of trait theory is that it: |

|A) |places too great an emphasis on early childhood experiences. |

|B) |overestimates the consistency of behavior in different situations. |

|C) |underestimates the importance of heredity in personality development. |

|D) |places too great an emphasis on positive traits. |

|___ 44. |With regard to personality, it appears that: |

|A) |there is little consistency of behavior from one situation to the next and little consistency of traits over the life span. |

|B) |there is little consistency of behavior from one situation to the next but significant consistency of traits over the life span. |

|C) |there is significant consistency of behavior from one situation to the next but little consistency of traits over the life span. |

|D) |there is significant consistency of behavior from one situation to the next and significant consistency of traits over the life span. |

|___ 45. |Dayna is not very consistent in showing up for class and turning in assignments when they are due. Research studies would suggest that Dayna's |

| |inconsistent behavior: |

|A) |indicates that she is emotionally troubled and may need professional counseling. |

|B) |is a sign of learned helplessness. |

|C) |is not necessarily unusual. |

|D) |probably reflects a temporary problem in another area of her life. |

|___ 46. |Today's personality researchers focus their work on: |

|A) |basic dimensions of personality. |C) |grand theories of behavior. |

|B) |the interaction of persons and environments. |D) |a. and b. |

|___ 47. |In high school, Britta and Debbie were best friends. They thought they were a lot alike, as did everyone else who knew them. After high school, |

| |they went on to very different colleges, careers, and life courses. Now, at their twenty-fifth reunion, they are shocked at how little they have in|

| |common. Bandura would suggest that their differences reflect the interactive effects of environment, personality, and behavior, which he refers to |

| |as: |

| |A) reciprocal determinism. B) personal control. C) identification. D) the self-serving bias. |

|___ 48. |Which perspective on personality emphasizes the interaction between the individual and the environment in shaping personality? |

| |A) psychoanalytic B) trait C) humanistic D) social-cognitive |

|___ 49. |Because Ramona identifies with her politically conservative parents, she chose to enroll in a conservative college. After four years in this |

| |environment, Ramona's politics have become even more conservative. Which perspective best accounts for the mutual influences of Ramona's |

| |upbringing, choice of school, and political viewpoint? |

| |A) psychoanalytic B) trait C) humanistic D) social-cognitive |

|___ 50. |With which of the following statements would a social-cognitive psychologist agree? |

|A) |People with an internal locus of control achieve more in school. |

|B) |“Externals” are better able to cope with stress than “internals.” |

|C) |“Internals” are less independent than “externals.” |

|D) |All of the above are true. |

|___ 51. |Research on locus of control indicates that internals are ________ than externals. |

| |A) more dependent B) more intelligent C) better able to cope with stress D) more sociable |

|___ 52. |Research has shown that individuals who are made to feel insecure are subsequently: |

|A) |more critical of others. |C) |more likely to display a self-serving bias. |

|B) |less critical of others. |D) |less likely to display a self-serving bias. |

|___ 53. |(Close-Up) During a class discussion, Trevor argues that the recent “positive psychology” is sure to wane in popularity, since it suffers from the |

| |same criticisms as humanistic psychology. You counter his argument by pointing out that, unlike humanistic psychology, positive psychology: |

|A) |focuses on advancing human fulfillment. |C) |is not based on the study of individual characteristics. |

|B) |is rooted in science. |D) |has all of the above characteristics. |

|___ 54. |In studying personality, a social-cognitive theorist would most likely make use of: |

|A) |personality inventories. |C) |observing behavior in different situations. |

|B) |projective tests. |D) |factor analyses. |

|___ 55. |Which of the following is a major criticism of the social-cognitive perspective? |

|A) |It focuses too much on early childhood experiences. |C) |It provides descriptions but not explanations. |

|B) |It focuses too little on the inner traits of a person. |D) |It lacks appropriate assessment techniques. |

|___ 56. |Which of the following statements about self-esteem is not correct? |

|A) |People with low self-esteem tend to be negative about others. |

|B) |People with high self-esteem are less prone to drug addiction. |

|C) |People with low self-esteem tend to be nonconformists. |

|D) |People with high self-esteem suffer less from insomnia. |

|___ 57. |The behavior of many people has been described in terms of a spotlight effect. This means that they: |

|A) |tend to see themselves as being above average in ability. |

|B) |perceive that their fate is determined by forces not under their personal control. |

|C) |overestimate the extent to which other people are noticing them. |

|D) |do all of the above. |

|___ 58. |Which of the following groups tends to suffer from relatively low self-esteem? |

| |A) women B) ethnic minorities C) disabled persons D) none of the above |

|___ 59. |An example of the self-serving bias described in the text is the tendency of people to: |

|A) |see themselves as better than average on nearly any desirable dimension. |

|B) |accept more responsibility for successes than failures. |

|C) |be overly critical of other people. |

|D) |do both a. and b. |

|___ 60. |James attributes his failing grade in chemistry to an unfair final exam. His attitude exemplifies: |

|A) |internal locus of control. |C) |the self-serving bias. |

|B) |unconditional positive regard. |D) |reciprocal determinism. |

|___ 61. |Regarding the self-serving bias, psychologists who study the self have found that self-affirming thinking: |

|A) |is generally maladaptive to the individual because it distorts reality by overinflating self-esteem. |

|B) |is generally adaptive to the individual because it maintains self-confidence and minimizes depression. |

|C) |tends to prevent the individual from viewing others with compassion and understanding. |

|D) |tends not to characterize people who have experienced unconditional positive regard. |

Answer Key

|1. |B |

|2. |D |

|3. |A |

|4. |D |

|5. |D |

|6. |B |

|7. |D |

|8. |A |

|9. |C |

|10. |B |

|11. |D |

|12. |C |

|13. |C |

|14. |B |

|15. |D |

|16. |C |

|17. |C |

|18. |A |

|19. |C |

|20. |A |

|21. |B |

|22. |B |

|23. |D |

|24. |D |

|25. |D |

|26. |C |

|27. |A |

|28. |D |

|29. |D |

|30. |B |

|31. |B |

|32. |A |

|33. |D |

|34. |A |

|35. |B |

|36. |C |

|37. |C |

|38. |A |

|39. |B |

|40. |D |

|41. |C |

|42. |A |

|43. |B |

|44. |B |

|45. |C |

|46. |D |

|47. |A |

|48. |D |

|49. |D |

|50. |A |

|51. |C |

|52. |A |

|53. |B |

|54. |C |

|55. |B |

|56. |C |

|57. |C |

|58. |D |

|59. |D |

|60. |C |

|61. |B |

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