Psychological Adjustment in the Work Context



Psychological Adjustment in the Work ContextIOP26042012Contents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u 1.Influence & role of work PAGEREF _Toc360920963 \h 71.1.Work as a central life interest PAGEREF _Toc360920964 \h 71.1.1.Work as central influence on human life & wellbeing PAGEREF _Toc360920965 \h 71.1.2.Work values & Protestant work ethic PAGEREF _Toc360920966 \h 71.1.3.Other views on work PAGEREF _Toc360920967 \h 81.2.Functions & value of work PAGEREF _Toc360920968 \h 91.2.1.Work values & job satisfaction PAGEREF _Toc360920969 \h 91.2.2.Unemployment illustrates the value of work PAGEREF _Toc360920970 \h 101.2.3.Work affects psychological adjustment & maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360920971 \h 101.3.Changes & discontinuity in the work environment PAGEREF _Toc360920972 \h 101.3.1.Multiple factors determine the work context PAGEREF _Toc360920973 \h 101.3.2.Consequences of discontinuity and changes PAGEREF _Toc360920974 \h 111.4.Legacy of occupational maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360920975 \h 112.Theoretical explanations of psychological adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360920976 \h 122.1.Descriptive approaches PAGEREF _Toc360920977 \h 122.2.Contextual explanatory approaches PAGEREF _Toc360920978 \h 122.2.1.Systems interaction approach PAGEREF _Toc360920979 \h 122.2.1.1.Premises PAGEREF _Toc360920980 \h 132.2.1.2.Assumptions PAGEREF _Toc360920981 \h 132.2.1.3.Criticism PAGEREF _Toc360920982 \h 142.2.2.Person environment or organisational fit model PAGEREF _Toc360920983 \h 152.2.3.Sociocultural approaches PAGEREF _Toc360920984 \h 162.ponents of the systems interactional model PAGEREF _Toc360920985 \h 162.3.1.Individual employee PAGEREF _Toc360920986 \h 172.3.2.Feedback system PAGEREF _Toc360920987 \h 172.3.anisational structures PAGEREF _Toc360920988 \h 172.3.anisational behaviour & processes PAGEREF _Toc360920989 \h 172.3.5.Individual / human outputs PAGEREF _Toc360920990 \h 172.3.6.Culture PAGEREF _Toc360920991 \h 172.3.7.Environments PAGEREF _Toc360920992 \h 182.3.8.Dominant influences PAGEREF _Toc360920993 \h 182.3.9.Consequences for the individual & organisation PAGEREF _Toc360920994 \h 182.4.Classical psychological explanatory approaches PAGEREF _Toc360920995 \h 182.4.1.Medical (biological/organic) model PAGEREF _Toc360920996 \h 182.4.2.Psycho-analytical model PAGEREF _Toc360920997 \h 192.4.3.Behaviouristic models PAGEREF _Toc360920998 \h 192.4.4.Existential/humanistic/phenomenological approaches PAGEREF _Toc360920999 \h 192.4.5.Developmental model PAGEREF _Toc360921000 \h 202.4.6.Interpersonal, interactional & communication approaches PAGEREF _Toc360921001 \h 202.4.7.Stress model PAGEREF _Toc360921002 \h 202.4.8.Health psychology & related models PAGEREF _Toc360921003 \h 212.5.Describing work or occupational adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921004 \h 223.Meaning of psychological adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921005 \h 233.1.Meaning of psychological health PAGEREF _Toc360921006 \h 233.1.1.Concepts for states of psychological health & maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921007 \h 233.1.2.Pathogenic view PAGEREF _Toc360921008 \h 233.1.3.Salutogenic approach PAGEREF _Toc360921009 \h 243.1.4.Occupational adjustment & maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921010 \h 243.1.5.Lack of clarity about the meaning of psychological adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921011 \h 253.2.Definitions PAGEREF _Toc360921012 \h 253.2.1.Psychological health & adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921013 \h 253.2.2.Occupational maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921014 \h 253.3.Criteria for psychological adjustment & maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921015 \h 263.3.1.Criteria for psychological adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921016 \h 263.3.2.Physical functioning PAGEREF _Toc360921017 \h 263.3.3.Cognitive functioning PAGEREF _Toc360921018 \h 263.3.4.Emotional functioning PAGEREF _Toc360921019 \h 263.3.5.Social/interpersonal functioning PAGEREF _Toc360921020 \h 273.3.6.Moral functioning PAGEREF _Toc360921021 \h 273.3.7.Occupational functioning PAGEREF _Toc360921022 \h 273.3.8.Personality & behavioural integration PAGEREF _Toc360921023 \h 283.3.9.Criteria for psychological maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921024 \h 283.3.10.Specific criteria for work dysfunctions PAGEREF _Toc360921025 \h 293.4.Assessment & classification systems for psychological disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921026 \h 293.4.1.Importance of psychodiagnostic assessment PAGEREF _Toc360921027 \h 293.4.2.Diagnosis and assessment of employee and organisational behaviours and processes PAGEREF _Toc360921028 \h 303.4.3.Approaches and methods in occupational psychological health assessment PAGEREF _Toc360921029 \h 313.4.4.Diagnostic & classification systems PAGEREF _Toc360921030 \h 323.4.5.Classification of work dysfunctions PAGEREF _Toc360921031 \h 334.Determinants of occupational adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921032 \h 344.1.General nature of causation PAGEREF _Toc360921033 \h 344.2.Theoretical approaches to causation PAGEREF _Toc360921034 \h 344.3.Classification of etiological factors PAGEREF _Toc360921035 \h 354.4.Factors unique to the individual PAGEREF _Toc360921036 \h 354.4.1.Biological factors PAGEREF _Toc360921037 \h 354.4.2.Psychosocial factors PAGEREF _Toc360921038 \h 354.5.Factors in the work environment & task demands PAGEREF _Toc360921039 \h 404.5.1.Subjective experience of work PAGEREF _Toc360921040 \h 414.5.2.Individual’s perception of his role in the organisation PAGEREF _Toc360921041 \h 414.5.3.Work alienation/estrangement PAGEREF _Toc360921042 \h 414.5.4.Physical factors in work & psychological adjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921043 \h 414.5.anisational & management processes PAGEREF _Toc360921044 \h 414.5.6.Psychosocial factors in work environment PAGEREF _Toc360921045 \h 424.6.Stress & psychological maladjustment PAGEREF _Toc360921046 \h 424.6.1.Stress model PAGEREF _Toc360921047 \h 424.6.2.Moderating factors in stress process PAGEREF _Toc360921048 \h 434.7.Conflicting work & non-work roles PAGEREF _Toc360921049 \h 445.Disorders related to stress, anxiety, personality & bodily experiences PAGEREF _Toc360921050 \h 455.1.Classification of psychological disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921051 \h 455.2.Stress PAGEREF _Toc360921052 \h 455.3.Psychological stress disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921053 \h 455.4.Psychophysiological disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921054 \h 465.4.1.Bio-psycho-social processes involved PAGEREF _Toc360921055 \h 465.4.2.Specific psychophysiological disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921056 \h 465.5.Anxiety disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921057 \h 475.5.1.Generalised anxiety disorders (GAD) PAGEREF _Toc360921058 \h 475.5.2.Panic disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921059 \h 485.5.3.Phobic disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921060 \h 485.5.4.Obsessive-compulsive disorder PAGEREF _Toc360921061 \h 485.5.5.Work dysfunction PAGEREF _Toc360921062 \h 495.6.Personality disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921063 \h 495.6.1.Cluster A personality disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921064 \h 495.6.2.Cluster B personality disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921065 \h 505.6.3.Cluster C personality disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921066 \h 515.6.4.Work dysfunction PAGEREF _Toc360921067 \h 525.7.Somatoform & dissociative disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921068 \h 525.7.1.Somatoform disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921069 \h 525.7.2.Dissociative disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921070 \h 536.Disorders of moods, psychoses, substance abuse & other maladjustments PAGEREF _Toc360921071 \h 556.1.Mood disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921072 \h 556.1.1.Symptoms & processes PAGEREF _Toc360921073 \h 556.1.2.Depressive types PAGEREF _Toc360921074 \h 566.1.3.Bipolar types PAGEREF _Toc360921075 \h 566.1.4.Suicide PAGEREF _Toc360921076 \h 566.2.Schizophrenia & other psychotic disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921077 \h 566.2.1.Symptoms & processes PAGEREF _Toc360921078 \h 566.2.2.Schizophrenia PAGEREF _Toc360921079 \h 576.2.3.Other psychotic disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921080 \h 586.3.Substance related disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921081 \h 586.3.1.Substance induced disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921082 \h 586.3.2.Substance abuse disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921083 \h 596.3.3.Substance dependence PAGEREF _Toc360921084 \h 596.4.Pervasive developmental disorders & mental retardation PAGEREF _Toc360921085 \h 596.4.1.Autism PAGEREF _Toc360921086 \h 596.4.2.Asperger’s disorder PAGEREF _Toc360921087 \h 596.4.3.Rett’s disease PAGEREF _Toc360921088 \h 606.4.4.Childhood disintegrative disorder PAGEREF _Toc360921089 \h 606.4.5.Mental retardation PAGEREF _Toc360921090 \h 606.5.Psychological disorders of infancy, childhood & adolescence PAGEREF _Toc360921091 \h 606.6.Disorders involving gender & sexuality PAGEREF _Toc360921092 \h 606.6.1.Sexual dysfunctions PAGEREF _Toc360921093 \h 606.6.2.Gender identity disorder PAGEREF _Toc360921094 \h 616.6.3.Paraphilias PAGEREF _Toc360921095 \h 616.6.4.Sexual abuse PAGEREF _Toc360921096 \h 616.7.Cognitive disorders & disorders relating to age PAGEREF _Toc360921097 \h 616.7.1.Dementia PAGEREF _Toc360921098 \h 616.7.2.Delirium PAGEREF _Toc360921099 \h 616.7.3.Amnestic disorder PAGEREF _Toc360921100 \h 626.7.4.Neurological delusional & mood syndrome PAGEREF _Toc360921101 \h 626.7.5.Neuropsyhological personality syndrome PAGEREF _Toc360921102 \h 626.7.6.Other PAGEREF _Toc360921103 \h 626.8.Violence & abuse PAGEREF _Toc360921104 \h 626.8.1.Spouse or partner abuse PAGEREF _Toc360921105 \h 626.8.2.Child abuse PAGEREF _Toc360921106 \h 626.8.3.Forcible rape PAGEREF _Toc360921107 \h 626.8.4.Sexual harassment PAGEREF _Toc360921108 \h 627.Specific employee dysfunctions PAGEREF _Toc360921109 \h 637.1.Classification of psychological work dysfunctions PAGEREF _Toc360921110 \h 637.2.Psychological disorders PAGEREF _Toc360921111 \h 647.3.Impaired/dysfunctional work capacity PAGEREF _Toc360921112 \h 647.4.Under-commitment to work roles PAGEREF _Toc360921113 \h 647.4.1.Symptoms, processes & causes PAGEREF _Toc360921114 \h 647.4.2.Underachievement PAGEREF _Toc360921115 \h 647.4.3.Procrastination PAGEREF _Toc360921116 \h 657.4.4.Production impediments PAGEREF _Toc360921117 \h 657.4.5.Fear of failure & fear of success PAGEREF _Toc360921118 \h 657.4.6.Occupational & organisational misfits PAGEREF _Toc360921119 \h 667.4.7.Absenteeism behaviour PAGEREF _Toc360921120 \h 667.5.Over-commitment in work roles PAGEREF _Toc360921121 \h 667.5.1.Symptoms, processes & causes PAGEREF _Toc360921122 \h 667.5.2.Workaholism PAGEREF _Toc360921123 \h 677.5.3.Job/occupational psychological burnout PAGEREF _Toc360921124 \h 677.5.4.Obsessive-compulsive patterns in work performance PAGEREF _Toc360921125 \h 677.5.5.A-type personality PAGEREF _Toc360921126 \h 677.6.Emotion-based work dysfunctions PAGEREF _Toc360921127 \h 687.7.Personality dysfunctions at work PAGEREF _Toc360921128 \h 697.7.1.Symptoms, processes and possible causes PAGEREF _Toc360921129 \h 697.7.2.Poor motivation & negative conception of work role PAGEREF _Toc360921130 \h 697.7.3.Fear & anxiety response to work PAGEREF _Toc360921131 \h 697.7.4.Hostile & aggressive responses to work situation PAGEREF _Toc360921132 \h 707.7.5.Dependence & immaturity response to job requirements PAGEREF _Toc360921133 \h 707.7.6.Socially na?ve person PAGEREF _Toc360921134 \h 707.7.7.Health promotion PAGEREF _Toc360921135 \h 707.8.Employee maladaptive behaviours & misconduct PAGEREF _Toc360921136 \h 717.9.Career development problems PAGEREF _Toc360921137 \h 717.9.1.Problems in making career decisions PAGEREF _Toc360921138 \h 727.9.2.Problems in implementing career plans PAGEREF _Toc360921139 \h 727.9.3.Problems in organisational performance PAGEREF _Toc360921140 \h 727.9.4.Adjusting in and to organisation PAGEREF _Toc360921141 \h 737.10.Other life roles & work conflicts PAGEREF _Toc360921142 \h 737.11.Distorted perceptions PAGEREF _Toc360921143 \h 747.12.Executive pathology PAGEREF _Toc360921144 \h 747.12.1.Symptoms, processes & causes PAGEREF _Toc360921145 \h 747.12.2.Distressed executives PAGEREF _Toc360921146 \h 747.12.3.Impaired executives PAGEREF _Toc360921147 \h 747.13.The physically disabled & related problems PAGEREF _Toc360921148 \h 757.13.1.Real and ‘invented’ physical ailments PAGEREF _Toc360921149 \h 757.13.2.The physically disabled PAGEREF _Toc360921150 \h 757.13.3.HIV/Aids: generally and at work PAGEREF _Toc360921151 \h 75Influence & role of workWork as a central life interestLO1 Explain why work is said to be a central life interest.Work as central influence on human life & wellbeingWork is a conscious activity undertaken by people to satisfy their own and other’s needs ins a meaningful & worthwhile fashionPeople provide valuable products and services through their work activitiesWork enables us to provide for our needsWork contributes to perception of self-worthLeisure refers to voluntary activities outside work context, e.g. hobbiesWork values & Protestant work ethicValues: basic or fundamental convictions that certain ways of living, behaving, thinking and certain attitudes are preferable and will bring more advantages than othersInfluenced by environmental factors, incl. education, cultureWork values determine choices, how work is performed, how person copes with work problems and what they expect from workWork values can change depending on the work environment, e.g. tenure vs salary chasingProtestant work ethicWork is noble, virtuous and necessary – strong internal locus of controlDuty to develop our potentialSprangler’s typology (value types) Type of personDominant valueTheoreticalDiscover truthEconomicUsefulnessAestheticForm & HarmonySocialLove for peoplePoliticalPowerReligiousMystical unity with cosmosHolland’s work environment approachSelf-directed search – assess occupational interests and personality type/work type congruenceType of personPersonalityType of workRealisticShy, masculine & practicalApplied & practical/ technical types of work involving machines & toolsInvestigativeAnalytical, introspective, rational & criticalSystematic observation of phenomena. Researchers, mathematicians, geologists & economistsArtisticComplex, imaginative & more feminineExpressing & using artistic competencies. Actors, musicians, sculptors, designersSociableFriendly, sociable, cooperative & helpfulServing & helping others. Teaching, psychology, training, librarian.EnterprisingAdventurous, ambitious, self-confident.Influencing people & processes. Business, politics, management, law.RokeachInstrumental valuesValues instrumental to desirable ways of behaving to achieve terminal valuesE.g. Ambition, courage, honesty, politeness, responsibility.Terminal valuesEnd states of existenceE.g. Comfortable living, equality, freedom, happiness, self-respect, anisation – cultural values and climate factorsEmphasise & facilitate certain behaviours expected from employeesAuthority v submissivenessIndividualism v collectivismMasculinity v femininityProfit, development, participation, creativity, health & empowerment.Other views on workSome Christians – work is lifelong burden as a result of sinHedonistic/homeostatic – people are dispose towards getting pleasure and try to avoid painTraditional v contemporary work valuesTraditionalContemporaryStrong loyalty towards the organisationLess loyalty and fewer obligations towards organisation, more leisure timeNeed for money, status, promotion & job securityLess emphasis on work security, more emphasis on short term satisfactionStronger identification with work roles than with personal rolesGreater emphasis on personal roles and leisure timeFuture orientation and goalsNeed for stimulating work, participation in decision makingLongevity in careers and job expectationsCreative non-routine tasksBetter communication with managementGreater opportunity for personal growth and developmentZunker – changes in American values resulted in at least 4 different work ethicsProtestant work ethicCraft ethic (self-employed people, e.g. farmers & craftsman)Entrepreneurial ethic (people who create & build businesses)Career ethic (structured job in organisations)Self-development (self-fulfillment, personal growth, luxurious quality of life) Functions & value of workWork values & job satisfactionLO2 In an essay, discuss work values and indicate why you think that SA demonstrate a good or bad work ethicAtchinson – motivated employee’s personal involvement in work determined by:Recognition of work achievements & contributionsMastering / achieving goals & challengesPower over othersAffiliation with othersLO3 Appraise work satisfaction by considering the role of certain work-related values and possible motivating factorsWork condition is more important than physical conditions and include:Quality & meaningfulness of work content / job characteristicsInvolvement in decision makingCarrying greater responsibilityGetting feedback on work performanceDe-motivatorsConstant supervision, controls and constraintsLack of diversity and varietyLack of autonomy & decision making powersNon-challenging, boring, repetitive, meaningless workIsolation and insufficient involvement Lack of participation Motivating aspects of workInteresting workAdequate help and equipment to do the workSufficient information to be able to do the workAdequate authority to plan and execute work tasksAdequate compensationOpportunity to develop specific skillsWork securitySeeing the results in and of the workUnemployment illustrates the value of workLO4 Demonstrate the meaning & value of employment by comparing it with a state of unemploymentUnemploymentPersonal loss – doubt self-valueProcess of exclusion from ‘work society’Lack of earning powerValue of work according to unemployedImposes a time structureEncourages setting general life goalsProvide economic securityProvides personal status and identityEnforces goal-orientated activityFacilitates social contact with others outside the familyProvides a sense of teamwork and camaraderieWork affects psychological adjustment & maladjustmentLO5 Give examples of how the positive and negative aspects of work can impact in psychological adjustment in the work placeAdvantages of workSocial support & community feelingsSource of material rewards to satisfy physical and social needsProvides sense of mastery or self-efficiencyLife more predictableSense of self-worth through occupational prestigeSource of social identityAdd meaning to lifeAssist with development of problem-solving abilities and general coping powersDisadvantages of workUnfavourable working circumstances may overwhelm person – undermine self-worthWork can be demeaningOverloading – cannot complete tasks, struggle to copeMay demand obedience to unfair authority and amorality – undermine person’s sense of authority and identityExcessive competitiveness and hostilityMeaningless tasks – cynicism & alienationFail to provide adequate remunerationChanges & discontinuity in the work environmentMultiple factors determine the work contextPolitical & economic rules/agendas of government and organisationsTechnologyAvailable labour & skillsManagementConsequences of discontinuity and changesLO6 Using examples from SA, illustrate how change may influence psychological adjustment in the work place. LO7 Write a brief scenario to assess the implications of occupational maladjustment in SA and explain what you think can be done to change the state of affairsDiscontinuity – little stays the same for very long.Need more nontechnical competencies – continuous learning, taking responsibility, personal masteryHoward:Organisations require adaptive learningIntroduce effective technologies & management stylesDemand added value & responsibilities, updated knowledgeEmpower & involve employees to perform optimallyFear & anxiety about changePressure to keep up to date with changes in knowledge & skillsLess job opportunities – more specialisedVirtual working arrangementsTraining – on the job, just in time, coping skillsImpact on person’s self-conceptLess centralised controlStronger focus on psychological healthLegacy of occupational maladjustmentLO8 Construct a measure which can be adapted to assess the characteristics of work and the work environment with regard to employee healthPsychological health promotion = neglected serviceInvestment of financial & other resources may result in more productive employees – increased profit and not merely added cost.Theoretical explanations of psychological adjustmentDescriptive, contextual & explanatory models – use scientific norms/criteria to explain psychological healthClassical approaches – explain psychological disorders emphasising biological, cognitive, psychosocial, emotional and social behaviour and psychological processesDescriptive approachesUse certain subjective or less scientific norms/criteriaAvoid descriptive models based on external criteria, e.g. personal judgements, speculations & deviations from statistical dataNormative/ideal approachBased on idea that a condition of perfection is ideal form of behaviourView of mental health is based on value judgements – may differ Scientifically unattainableMoral modelBased on value judgements – describe behaviour as good or badLegal modelBehaviour is judged ito rules & regulationsEvaluate behaviour ito liability under law & responsibilitySubjective approachUse ‘self’ as norm to evaluate others as normal or abnormalOpen to perceptual errors, e.g. halo effect, stereotypes etc.Personal mental set influences assessment & counselling – important matters may be ignored as a result of focus on self Statistical modelAverage is regarded as normal, deviation is abnormalContextual explanatory approachesUse concepts & processes Supported by theory & research & related human behaviour & associated contextsTo explain psychological adjustment & maladjustmentInfluencing factors & assessment of psychological adjustment statusEmphasise the complex interaction of employee attributes in context of work and other surrounding environmentsSystems interaction approach(NB Figure 2.1)Individual & organisation & their behaviour are more than merely the sum of all their parts - dynamic interactionExplains interactive & circular relationships betweenEmployeesWork environmentExternal environments PremisesPeople are ‘self-systems’Modes of behaviour can be understoodFunctioning in context of wider systems that surround themOrganisation (functioning as a unity) is formed to achieve objective that individuals cannot achieve on their ownIndividuals join organisations to achieve objectives & to satisfy needs in a work context which would be impossible or difficult to achieve on their own.Interaction between individual & organisation contributes to meta-objectives for success, including:EfficiencyEffectivenessIndividual physical & psychological health + organisational healthAssumptionsLO2: Explain & compare the assumptions of contextual and explanatory psychological models wrt psychological health.Openness & accessibilityIndividual & organisation = open system – continuous & reciprocal exchange of stimuli. Intervention should be aimed at greater flexibility or determining boundaries.Context – consider role of individual & organisational behaviour in context of greater system. Refers to various types of influences and factors which may influence behaviour, e.g.History & past experienceSituational perceptionsCircularity – behaviour influences/affects next person. Take note of sequence of behaviour and fact that no event remains isolated. Causal relationship.Unity & structure –organised/structured to fulfil certain functions. System regulates joint action inside itself through process of integration & coordination. Main types of relationships are:Instrumental (tasks & production)SocioemotionalNegotiatingPowerRules – transactions formed in a system ito which work is divided, relationships are formed & communication takes place. Rigidity & vaguely defined rules - negative impact.Feedback, homeostasis & transformationFeedbackContinuous monitoring processes – establish, change or renew interaction between elements of the systemNegative feedback – system act to maintain status quoPositive feedback – information that causes the system to changeHomeostasisStabilityTransformation - developmentEquifinality & equipotentialityThe same initial status/ changes/ final results can be achieved from different starting points using different methods, depending on the dynamics of the problem and systemAnalysis need to establish crucial point for intervention for most effective methodRelate to system’s ability to try to achieve homeostasis by distributing energy and not concentrate on only one partSystemic influence on intervention systemsDiagnosis should explain symptom in context of relationships in the system. Continuous & systemic approachRelationship between helper, therapist and client – new subsystem (intervention system)Helper/therapist should be model for change – characteristicsAccept own strong & weak pointsOptimal health & adjustmentSensitivity, empathy, motivatingOpenness to sharing, listening and encouragingSystemic intervention directed at one member has repercussions (+/-) on entire group through feedbackCriticismShareef – strict adherence to systems theory:Estranges organisation from environmental contextCreates egocentric organisationsCreates & supports unnecessary sterile leadership stylesResults in narrow identities for organisationsShareef – ‘ecovision’Leadership style for innovationHolistic approach to environmentRealistic organisational identity – organisation knows itself and can adapt to environmental influences.Criteria for unhealthy systemRigid & closed – members are unable to develop insideMembers not free to function effectively outside system boundariesRigid functioning smothers growth & developmentDiffuse systems – not sufficient structureImbalance between change and growthPerson environment or organisational fit modelLO4: Explain employee-organisational fit and indicate those features in work environments which may impact on employee health.Behaviour (and adjustment) is a result of the type of congruence between the individual and the situation. Better fit – higher levels of job satisfaction & work commitmentObtain optimal fit between employees, their tasks & work environment result in:High levels of job satisfaction & performanceIncreased self-esteemLess stress, burnout, role ambiguity & role conflictReality principleLikelihood that employees will minimise needs/subordinate them to organisational/business objective of producing goods/deliver servicesSubrogation principleIndividual employee are only needed and employed as long as they serve the organisational objectives.Differential influence principleRole & function hierarchies (e.g. different job levels) are power differencesReflect differences in ability, knowledge, skill & competencyInvisible hand principleSelective tendency or preference in organisations Desired match between employees & jobsJob profile attract certain types of peopleOrientation programmes, selective/inclusive clubs & professional groupingEnvironmental influence principleOrganisations may also trigger certain problems in individualsInteractive principleWork stressors interact differently with different peopleOrganisation’s life cycleOrganisational & employee life cycle may influence each otherCorrespondence Between employee’s work personality, work values & similar attributes in work environment Main ingredients for work adjustmentCorrespondenceSatisfactionSatisfactorinessJob tenureSociocultural approachesPsychological/mental health is determined by the influence and norms of particular group – effect of socialisationMaladjustment = social deviant behaviour compared to value of relevant group (majority)Afrocentric approachLO5: Give reasons why an Afrocentric approach could be useful in explaining psychological adjustmentSufficient evidence – justify use of generic descriptions & explanations of personality & behaviourSome hold opinion: black Africans are more inclined to express psychological distress through somatic symptomsCulture-bound syndrome (CBS)Collection of symptoms & behaviours which are restricted to a specific culture of cultures as a result of that culture’s psychosocial characteristicsSA – sangomas & traditional medicine, belief in ancestorsE.g. pain – physical condition to be treated by doctor v anger of ancestors to be treated by sangomaAfrican values (Azibo – Nguzo Saba principles)Unity (umoja) – solidarity & harmony between people & groupSelf-determination – internal influences & self- knowledgeCollective work responsibility – connectedness with othersCooperative economics – share in wealthPurpose – individual’s goal-directedness, strongly connected to other people’s goalsCreativity – use intelligence, imagination & ingenuity to improve existing thingsFaith – leave something of value behindComponents of the systems interactional modelLO1: Demonstrate a systems understanding of occupational health by describing the various components of a systems model.Individual is self-system – bring individual qualities & characteristics to workInteract with organisation which has own specific & characteristic inputs Reciprocal, continuous & circular interaction – define behaviours etc.Lead to outputs and consequences for individuals and organisationRequire regular feedbackDominant influential factors – determine how individuals & organisation select interactions, observation & acceptance to derive maximum benefit from events.Individual employeeCan be described ito various systems, e.g. biological, social, marriage, family, religion, culture etc.Potential for organisation-qualities (capabilities, knowledge, skills) bring to workInclude: Self-identity, Biological & psychological uniqueness, relatives, behaviour styles, coping styles, values, needs.Feedback systemDetermines input for individual & organisationNew joiner, continuous organisational diagnosis & monitoring – alert management of potential adjustment problemsOrganisational structuresFormal aspects of organisation, e.g. departmental structure, job design, personnel function, control & evaluation function, physical locationDetermine employee behaviour in organisation – potential motivatorDysfunctional structure – conflict + negative attitudesOrganisational behaviour & processesCongruent behaviour + interaction+ objectives = effective resultsSocial-technical structure – take human factor into account, e.g. physical work environmentInclude: leadership, supervision, communication, group relations, problem solving, interpersonal relationships, planning & setting objectives. Individual / human outputsBehaviour resulting from interaction between individual & organisational systemQuality of behaviour – feedback – individual adjustment & ‘cost’ to organisationIncludes: clarity of objectives & roles, motivation & energy level, intrinsic & extrinsic satisfaction, dedicationCultureType of values that can be defined & maintained within certain sectors(or whole) organisationCharacteristics may includePersonal v impersonalTrust v mistrustAcceptance v prejudiceDetermine behaviour in organisationCharacterising individual & organisational relationship values systems: symmetrical (opposing interactions),complementary (differ, but accommodate), parallel (recognise independence, willing to share, support & participate on equal footing)EnvironmentsBoundaries not always clearEnvironments affect individuals differently, depending on contextWay in which problems are handled strongly influenced by support from environmentEnvironment may includeFamilySocial groupsMarket, Technological, Economy, PoliticalDominant influencesStrong influence in functioning of systemNegative influence, e.g. group thinkCan include coalitions between individuals & groupspersonal style & valuesmanagerial valuesexperiencesConsequences for the individual & organisationCan lead to achievement of goals or failureImportant diagnostic technique – what happened in interaction between individual and organisation and how did it happenConsequences for individual may include:Financial rewardsSelf-esteemIndependenceDevelopment & satisfactionConsequences for organisation may includeProfits & growthPersonnel turnover & absenceOrganisational healthClassical psychological explanatory approachesLO3: Indicate the psychological adjustment or health assumptions of at least four classical psychological approaches.Medical (biological/organic) modelPsychological health is equated to physical health. Maladjustment = medical illness & psychiatric pathologyEmphasis on heredity, physique, biochemical & neurological aspects of body, physical stress, nutritional problems etc.Diagnose ito symptoms & medicine prescribedHealth = absence of symptoms – body’s immune system can cope with stressorsPsycho-analytical modelAKA psychodynamic approach – Freud & JungEmphasis – unconscious psychological processes and conflictsMaladjustment & deviant behaviour does not always have organic basisUnconscious motivationManifests in various psychological & physical problemsFlows from past experiences, conflict between ID, EGO and Superego Negative defence mechanisms andSocial influencesDSM – feelings or unexplained experiences and symptomsFreud – people must inhibit pleasure striving ID to adhere to less pleasurable EGO realities of workBelieves healthy people outgrown past & gained insight into their motivation & modes of behaviour. Can therefore live in harmony with their needs & demands of environment & consciousBehaviouristic modelsDenies role of unconsciousCan only study human personality & psychological adjustment ito directly & overtly observable aspects of behaviourPersonality = sum of all stimulus-organism response associationsEnvironment is major influence – provides stimuli to which people respondBehaviour patterns formed through reinforcementDeviant behaviour – incorrect or faulty learningTreatmentUnlearn faulty behaviourAcquire self-controlExistential/humanistic/phenomenological approachesMaslow, Allport, RogersEmphasis: self-image as central concept, personal values, life goals & self-actualisation Positive approachPeople are fundamentally good have basic capacity for growth & self-actualisationAble to solve own problemsPersonality depends on how people experience their worldPeople believe about self consists of constructs formed by othersDiagnose & facilitate the intrinsic & environmental strengths & sources of healthPsychological health = way of healthPsychopathology – incongruence between self-esteem & demands of and experience of environmentExistentialism – people have choices & experience world uniquely ito personal inner perceptions and interpretationsAdjustment – congruence between job requirements and individual’s personal observations, attitudes & identification with work environment & work roles.Humanistic therapyHelp people gain insight into their problemsMake contact with own subjective feelings & present experiencesConscious of own potential & responsibility, types of choices that can be taken to achieve a meaningful existence.Developmental modelDevelopmental competencies – physical, cognitive, psychosocial & occupationalCritical periods/stages in personality developmentCareer developmentPart of general personality developmentDominant influence – parents & other important peoplePersons must be able to fulfil certain tasks & responsibilities at certain stages of career development to function optimally in work lifeDevelop self-image – choices & decisions congruent and realistic wrt self-knowledge Vocational adjustment – congruence between personal traits & organisational requirementsIntervention: Assist employees to acquire basic occupational competencies to solve emotional problems which can impair career & work performance.Interpersonal, interactional & communication approachesIntegrated into systems theoryAssumption: Personality functioning is function of the interactions & communication patterns formed in early attachment patters & existing in human relationshipsCurrent typical behaviour consists of behaviour patterns that developed through learning & experiences with othersBehaviour is optimal – behaviour style & relationships are sufficiently open and flexible to benefit them, their development and othersSymptomatic behaviour :Problems with interactionRigid patterns of communication & interactionTreatmentChange person’s behaviour in relationshipsStress modelRelates to people’s reactions to demands or stressorsEmphasise individual’s behaviour in adapting to or coping with stressors and stress consequences. Individual’s cognitive appraisal & perception of stressSelye’s General Adaption Syndrome (GAS) – body’s adjustment mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis during stressStress All individual’s physical & psychological responsesAimed at achieving & maintaining state of equilibriumExperiencePositive – eustressNegative – distressReactionsChronic (pervasive & enduring)Acute (onset due to unexpected or traumatic events)Stimuli – any demand/stressor that elicits a response or stress reaction (strain)ClassificationInternal (emotions, conflict, illness)Environmental (life events & daily hassles)External (natural disasters)Work stressors – role conflict, role ambivalence & role overloadCoping behavioursEffort by individual (physical, cognitive, social & psychological)Social support from othersInterventionTraining & education in stress management techniquesHealth psychology & related modelsBridge medical & psychological sciencesAKA bio-psycho-social modelEmphasise: People as systems consisting of interacting psychological, social and biological sub systems that all influence each otherHealthy behaviour patterns – focus on preventionBroad categories of health psychology (prevention of illness & improvement of health):Independent variables that correlate closely with health & sicknessBehaviour dispositions, e.g. type A, hardiness, optimismCognitive factors, e.g. attitudes, beliefs, perceptionsSocial & cultural influences, e.g. age, ethnicity, income, educationSpecific behaviour & life styles which may influence health & diseaseCoping reactions, e.g. use of alcohol, exercise, eatingResearch into specific psychosocial factorsStress & disease behaviourResearch into specific pathological conditionsCancer, coronary heart diseaseMaladjustmentDisturbance of homeostasis in a systemWhen problems are experiencedKey elements in health may include:CultureDevelopmentDrug & surgical interventionsGenetics & physiologyFamilyHealth care system & professionalsIndividual habits, personality, coping mechanismsPhysical environmentInfectious agentsInterventionBehavioural medicineImproving diagnosis, treatment & curing of specific diseases – psychological techniquesPsychosomatic medicineWhere emotional or psychological problems cause physiological symptoms & illness, e.g. hypertension and chronic painDescribing work or occupational adjustmentPerson-environment fit approachStress theory – explain work related problems & how to manage themCareer development approach – learning necessary tasks for life & workMeaning of psychological adjustmentMeaning of psychological healthLO3: Explain concepts which indicate wellness or a positive view towards psychological healthConcepts for states of psychological health & maladjustmentWork dysfunctions- not necessarily psychological disorders, but symptoms of these which will or may impair work performanceHealth status include physical, emotional and social aspectsHealth, wellness & wellbeing = umbrella concepts – comprehensive state of being healthy or general state of illness (if so specified)Psychological health Emphasise psychological or emotional health in positive senseSubjective wellbeingSubjective feelings & perceptions about own state of health Can include emotional & social aspectsLO1: Describe the meaning of psychological adjustment & maladjustment in psychological health in general.Psychological adjustment/normalityThinking, emotions behaviours indicating that person can cope adequately with tasks & demands in various life roles manage situations in certain circumstances at certain life stagesMaturityResponsibility, independence & decision makingMaladjustment/abnormalityImpairment in thinking, emotions, perceptions, social and physical behaviours which render person unable to function effectively in tasks or situationsRecognised by intensity, frequency an detrimental effect on person and relationships with othersDistinction can be vague – valid classification system, e.g. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – provide assessment criteriaPathogenic viewPsychopathology/abnormal psychology – discipline which studies psychological disorders and their treatment Negative emphasis inDescription of psychological maladjustmentClassification & description of psychological problems & disordersAssessment & treatment of the problemsEmbedded in medical & psychiatric view of illness/disease & its treatmentExamples:Clinical psychologyPsychopathologySalutogenic approachPsychological health & wellbeing – focus on positive aspects & how to develop sources of strength in wellbeing and in maladjustmentStrive to achieve psychological optimality in individuals and groupsContinual process of motivation and growth - actualise potentialOptimal state – person is balanced in self & various life roles, open to change and growthOptimality – more than just absence of symptoms or maladjustmentSalutogenesis – how and why people remain healthPeople generally exposed to same stressors, yet some remain healthySense of coherence – belief world and events are understandable, manageable and meaningfulFortigenesis, psycho-fortologyWhy people stay health, are able to cope and promote healthSalutogenic conceptsPersonal hardiness (Kobasa)Sense of coherence (Antonovsky)Learned resourcefulness (Meischenbaum)Locus of control (Rotter)Self-efficacy (Bandura)Optimism (Sheier & Carver)Type A & B (Friedman & Rosenman)Intrinsic personality dispositions – enable individual to behave & cope effectively in his environment, e.g. individualising, self-realisation, emotional integration, adulthood, wholenessCharacteristics of self-actualising (optimality) – MaslowSuperior perception of reality & acceptance of self and othersOrientated to problem-solving rather than being self-centredAutonomous & need for privacyDeeper, more intimate and enduring relationshipsDoes not conform, but form own opinionsBalance between biological, cognitive, emotional, social & moral components of behaviourOccupational adjustment & maladjustmentEmployee functions in work places with their own attributes etc.-becomes part of systemPositive – occupational health & adjustment, employee and organisational healthNegative – work psychopathology, work dysfunctions, psychological/emotional work disordersWork performance can be impaired as result of symptoms of psychological disorders and unhealthy work places.Lack of clarity about the meaning of psychological adjustmentVague criteriaComplexity of human behaviourDivergent historical & contemporary views on human behaviourDefinitionsPsychological health & adjustmentMental health Condition allowing development of individual (physical, intellectual & emotional)Free from undue pain, discomfort & disabilityConsistent behaviour patterns for openness & readiness for lifeSelf-motivated for growth & developmentWork personality – semi-autonomous area of general personality Occupational maladjustmentWork maladjustment – work performance impairment due to employee’s attributes & behaviours and interaction between employees & work environmentTerms generally used include occupational clinical psychology, work dysfunctions, work stress.Problems include work alienation and burnoutNarrow view – psychiatrically ill employee’s symptoms may interfere with effective work functioningComprehensive view – employee’s thoughts, feelings & behaviours may affect person at work and other life roles. Context of organisation and environmentOccupational maladjustment comprehensively defined as Work stress Interactive roles of management and workersStudyEtiological factors (stressors) in the individual & work situationOrganisation & external environment.Task of occupational mental health servicesDiagnosing & treating symptoms of workers Research – factors cause/support emotional maladjustmentTraining health workersConsulting with psychological & medical services and management about problem employeesAdvising departmentsLO2: Explain the meaning of psychological health in the context of workOccupational mental health is the scientific study of The causes, symptoms & characteristicsOf individuals, groups, organisations, management, work situation & external environmentsThat lead to and support or reward various forms of occupational maladjustmentPrevention & treatment of occupational health problemsManagement & promotion of work place health & psychological adjustmentCriteria for psychological adjustment & maladjustmentLO4: List the various types of general criteria used to indicate psychological health & maladjustment in general and with regard to work dysfunctionsLO5: Apply the criteria for psychological adjustment in general and occupational health specifically by answering questions, giving examples and analysing case studies.Criteria for psychological adjustmentStandards/characteristics against which human behaviour is evaluated to determine adjustment/maladjustment or make specific psychodiagnosisBased on psychological theory & researchWell-adjusted person characteristicsSelf-evaluationOpenness to experienceContact with reality/appropriateness of responseDistinguish maladjustment : intensity, frequency & impairment of person’s functioning in life rolePhysical functioningWell-adjusted person – physically active, healthy & fitEnergy & stamina to cope with stress & other physical demandsExperience normal physical desires & have freedom to control & satisfy themRealistically aware of somatic & physical functioning & will to improve unhealthy physical habits & behavioursCognitive functioningAppropriate & optimal use of cognitive abilities without undue influence from emotionsExperience world objectively & rationallyDisciplines & lenient in thinking & reasoningCognitive appraisals, assessments & judgments of self and others are realistic & optimistic – insight to meaning of life & problem solving.Emotional functioningOpen, aware, sensitive to own and other’s emotions, feelings & needsAccommodate & verbalise appropriatelyTake responsibility for emotions – emotional independenceSelf-insight & knowledge to form realistic self-imageEmotional maturity – accept & understand other people’s emotionsDecrease anxiety and lead to eustress (positive stress) Experience challenges instead of threatsSocial/interpersonal functioningSelf-acceptance – show optimistic & unconditional acceptance of & respect towards othersPrefer quality deep interpersonal relationshipsResponsibleSpontaneousNatural & openNot insecure or manipulatingCaring behaviourRespect Recognition, esteem & regard for human dignityEmpathyConsciously aware of, feel & understand others’ feelings & communicateHonesty (transparency)Congruence between what is said & done, true meaning communicatedConcretenessMake specific & factual statements rather that vague & general onesMoral functioningSet of integrated values to decide between wrong & right in various life rolesTake responsibility for decisionsReflect some of the following:Commitment to spiritual valuesHonestyKnow oneself and be selfResponsibility – conduct which benefits self and othersOccupational functioningWell-adjusted persons are sufficiently involved in their workPurposefulnessProductivityResponsibilityInitiativeConcentrationTime managementFocus on immediate demands, use past experience & cope with changeAssess & experience work roles realistically Cooperative & lenient towards diverse types of people & their contributions & opinionsPersonality & behavioural integrationWell-adjusted person – global sense of being in controlGood psychological health and adjustmentAutonomyAbility to integrate various aspects of self & environmentSufficient self-evaluation – know own capabilitiesSufficient contact with realityLearn from experienceEffectiveness – purposeful behaviour according to goalsEfficiency – realistic use of resourcesAppropriateness of behaviourFlexibility – use alternative methods & reasoningLiving in presentSelf confidenceSelf-knowledgeIntentionality – fulfil requirements of life within context & in terms of level of developmentCriteria for psychological maladjustmentPersonal disintegrationUnrealistic needs & constant dysfunction or impairment of abilitiesFeelings ofPersonal inadequacyLack of self-confidenceInferiorityPoor self-conceptImmaturityLack/little self-controlGroup disintegrationInefficient functioning in communitySocial unacceptabilityLack of social skills Social indifferenceDisorientationUnrealistic & inappropriate responses to environmental stimuliIntegration of the behaviour with previous experience, present & futureSubjective or psychological painSymptoms may include discomfort, stress, conflict & unhappinessIrrationality or unpredictabilityIllogical & bizarre behaviour which may includeIncoherent speech, delusions & hallucinationsCertain illness or condition requiring medical or psychiatric treatmentSiegman & Rosenhan – criteria characterising psychological maladjustmentMaladaptivenessSufferingPain, discomfort stressIrrationality & incomprehensibilityObserver discomfortIgnore or uneasy with common habits/customs, e.g. maintaining social distance or eye contactUnpredictability & loss of controlUnconventionality & vividnessBehaviour is strange and uncommonDeviations from ethical & moral codes of conductSpecific criteria for work dysfunctionsImpairment of work performance: general criteria:Attitudes towards & observation of own personalitySatisfaction/dissatisfaction with personal growthFeelings of mastery and efficiencyIntegration – ability to realistically assimilate & handle influences from environmentAutonomy – act by means of internal powersObservation of realityInterpersonal & social efficiencyGeneral welfare – emotional conditions, stress reactions, level of self-esteemAffective conditions – emotional manifestations incl. manic-depressions, anxiety and fearPhysiological conditions – response to situation, e.g. heart rateSpecific pathological conditions – e.g. schizophrenia, neurosesAdjustment & adaptabilityAssessment & classification systems for psychological disordersLO6: Demonstrate an understanding of the DSM and other systems for the diagnosis and classification of psychological disordersImportance of psychodiagnostic assessmentAccurate assessment required to assess employee’s capacity to workNeeds assessment for health promotionDiagnosis of problem areas in employeesCounselling & other treatmentCommunicate scientifically & meaningfully and act purposefully & fairly towards peopleDiagnosis and assessment of employee and organisational behaviours and processesDiagnosisClassification statementWhich places illness or disorder in a system (nosology) of disordersBecause of similarities in perceived symptoms & related attributesAccording to all the assessment informationTo determine causes, accurately determine relationship between impaired work behaviours & psychological disorders – employee individual attributes or result of interaction with work place.Require knowledge of assessment methods and possible causes of maladjustmentMethods of assessmentStatistical (Psychometric)More objectiveUse hard criteria & techniquesStandardised to provide numerical data to explain, compare & predict behaviourClinicalMore subjectiveEmphasis uniqueness & experience of each individualPsychological knowledge & competency of assessor to interpret subjective assessment data Understand & describe behaviourPsychodiagnostic evaluation/assessmentProcess of assessing & describing a person or groupUse many types of information from various sourcesBased on medical/pathological model – focus on causes, symptoms & maladjustmentConditions to allow purposeful interventionsUnderstand person’s history, status of cognitive behaviours, personality functioning, resources and pressures. Emphasise appropriateness of behavioursIdentify & describe enduring maladjustment behavioursAssess troubled person’s social context, including social responsibilities, support & coping resourcesPlan for improvements in health, where to do counselling, how long & by whom.Objections to psychodiagnosisExplain mental health symptomatically – too simplisticHealth problems are equated to illnessCause-symptom relationship is simplistic linear, individual is labelled as symptom-bearer, disregard contextBehaviour traits are rigidly interpreted & incorporated into a category or syndromePsychodiagnostician evaluated individual from predetermined ‘external frame of mind’ & denies personal needsDiagnosis – negative classification=illness, may result in attitude of helplessnessDiagnostic criteria is vague, subjective & overlappingDescription of health problems can become end in itself instead of understanding the reason for evaluation & purpose of client’s behaviourTreat different people with same techniquePsychometric requirements of assessment methods are questionedSensitivity – legal, ethical, moral & social issuesCurrent practices – Gestalt – consider whole person & organisation, integrate information without ‘labelling’ people. Emphasise health & growthApproaches and methods in occupational psychological health assessmentDiagnostic assessment directed at assessing psychological disordersAlso use criteria for good adjustment to compare findings from diagnostic assessmentCompares person’s previous functioning in various life roles with current levelsIdentify ‘gaps’ or deficiencies in personality, general functioning & work performanceSystemic & interactional diagnosisIntegration of interactional/transactional/communication approach and systems approachSystemic assessmentWay of understanding individuals, groups and their subsystems, attributes & relationship between these componentsAny information or method can be used provided data is systemically analysed & consideredSystemic diagnosisUnderstanding of a psychological problem or problem situationBy analysing the behaviour or processes of the related system and their interrelationshipsDynamic system – keep note of changes and ‘knock on effect’Use present behaviour as medium for analysisManifested in transactions/communication patterns occurring in relationship between members of systemObserve: what people talk about (content), how and relate (process)Organisational analysisExample of systemic/contextual assessmentUsed to evaluateOrganisational cultureClimate factorsStructural & functional processesDetermine dysfunctional organisational systems & effect on employees & groupsProblem analysisStructures, policies, proceduresValuesWorking conditions Behavioural processesImportant at planning stage of health promotion plansPerceived health needs of employees & organisationEvaluate effectiveness of plansGeneral conflict areas in organisational functioning:Power & authorityImpact of organisation & managementHow power is exercised and perceived by employeesMorale & cohesionEmployee & group perception of synergy & being a unitNorms & standardsRules & criteria for behaving & performing in organisationGoals & objectivesRole & communicationBlurred roles Information not reaching relevant employeesDiagnostic & classification systemsNot psychological tests or techniquesContain specific diagnostic criteria/attributes/profiles of psychological disordersDiagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)Used by clinical assessors to order assessment dataSpecific diagnostic criteria for specific categories & types of psychological disordersFairly reliable & valid across culturesContains only psychological disordersMultiaxial classification system based in all aspects of a person’s behaviour (Biological, cognitive, psychological, social & occupational roles)Axis 1: All possible clinical disorders, except personality disorders & retardationAxis 2: Personality disorders & mental retardationAxis 3: Medical conditionsAxis 4: Psychosocial causal factors/stressorsAxis 5: Global assessment of functioning (GAF) wrt psychological, social & occupational behaviours. (100pt rating)ContainsCauses of maladjustment, Context (e.g. duration), Common language for communicationPerson’s condition: acute (<6months), chronic (long standing)Descriptive terms for severity of symptoms: mild, moderate, severeUnpredictability : episodic & recurrentCharacteristics, symptoms & illness processImplications for treatment & preventionShould be culturally sensitiveOther classification systemsClassification according to personality traits5 factor model of personality Measure using personality questionnairesClassification according to positive psychological concepts of wellbeingInclude human strengths & coping resourcesKeyes & Grzywacz’s complete state of health modelConsists of psychological health & illnessHealth states?HighStrugglingFlourishing?????Mental illnessNo Psychological disorders?FlounderingLanguishing?Low?WellbeingValues in action - multiaxialWisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance & transcendenceAssociated with 24 character strengths & personality traitsClassification of work dysfunctionsTry to establish relationship between psychological disorders (DSM) and work dysfunctionsWork motivationOccupational developmentPerson-job fitWork stressDeterminants of occupational adjustmentGeneral nature of causationCausation = origin, formation or development of behaviourPathological (negative emphasis) + health (positive emphasis)Cause-effect relationship – consider all factorsSingle & multiple determinationGenetic and/or environmental determinationNecessary cause factorMust be present for the onset of certain psychological disorderExample: genetics causing certain physical diseaseSufficient causeFactor that will definitely cause a certain psychological disorderExample: unemployment – depression or anxiety disorderContributory causeFactors that may play a role in increasing chances that a certain disorder developDiathesis – factors which may create a predisposition to psychological disorder’s developmentModerating influencing factorsDetermine the onset of psychological problem or may increase/decrease the seriousness/impact thereof. Importance of stressors: number of demands, duration & proximity of stressors.Person’s stress appraisal or perception of daily hassles & life events (meaning or threatening)Person’s stress tolerance, internal & external sources of adjustmentInternal personality dispositions (hardiness, optimism etc.)External coping resources (e.g. social support)Disease-prone personality typeTimingDurationTheoretical approaches to causationTable 4.1 & 4.2 in Study GuideAccording to approachesFactors that cause work dysfunctionWork-related theoryCausal factorsWork motivationUnder(over) productive work motivation, negative attitudes & values, under (over) involvement, job dissatisfaction, management, working environment, under-achievement, conflicting interestsOccupational developmentPoor/undeveloped work attitudes & competencies, unresolved developmental conflicts, poor job and work knowledge, unrealistic expectations, attachment problems, incorrect career decisions, frustrated career achievements, career plateau, change in career prospectsPerson-job fitNon-correspondence, misfit in job & organisation, frustrated expectations, lack of competenciesWork stressWork demands overtaxing coping resources, disruptive physical & social working conditions, role conflicts, role overload/underload, role uncertainty, meaningless work, daily work hassles, disruptive work & life events, non-work influences, unemployment, job loss, external influences impacting on workClassification of etiological factorsBroad-based classificationFactors unique to the individualFactors in the work environment & task demandsStress & psychological maladjustmentConflicting work & non-work rolesChange, discontinuity & external influencesFactors unique to the individualBiological factorsGenetic potential & immune system – direct or predisposing factorsHuman biological systemResponsible for body’s internal response to illness & other factorsThrough process of self-regulation & feedbackRepresented by various immune functions (body defence system)Factors to consider includes ageing, activity levels and genotypeAlso consider biological-psychological-social relationshipsPsychosocial factorsPersonality attributes & behaviours which are not biological or physical in natureMay includeCognitive attributes & behaviours (intelligence, reasoning, problem solving)Traits & attitudes EmotionsInterpersonal behaviourValues & preferencesConsider possible causes of work stress, emotional symptoms & negative work attitudes & behavioursPerson’s psychological profile predominantly determined by learning experiences which differs from person to personPerson’s level of adjustment is function of their context of development & living.Development is influenced byNormative age-graded influences – usual biological & social changes at certain ages, e.g. going to school, puberty, marriage etc.Normative history-graded influenced – historical events & traumas e.g. war, events that may influence all/many people at the same time in same degreeNon-normative influences – events that happen to certain people only, e.g. job loss, divorce, illness.Symptomatic behaviour: Function of social environmentDominant interactive, relationship & communication patterns formed through interaction with environmental system & subsystems, e.g. family influencesInsecure attachmentsAmbivalent attachmentMixed feelings of acceptance & rejectionDemand more attention in relationshipsAvoidance attachmentFear & rejection of close relationshipsMay avoid commitmentDisorganised/disorientated attachmentConfused & contradictoryMay respond in secure manner with one person, but not with another.Secure attachments – positive, unthreatened relationships with othersImpact of secure attachment experiences during childhoodFamily system & extended system of relativesLearn cultural values, evaluate self-imageExperience career concepts & work attitudesInteraction between work & non-work rolesPsychological health problems & lack of social supportPositive, mediating & buffering factor in physical & mental healthSocial supportMeaningful relationships with other people at work & elsewhereManifest as: love, empathy, informational assistance (opinions), facts, feedback, and financial support.Social support perspectivesSocial integrationType & number of relationships with important others in social environmentInfluence of relationship qualityPsychological source of coping based on +/- perceptions of interpersonal relationshipsPerceived help & supportBased on individual’s perception that other resources (people & organisations) are available for information, advice, empathic and physical assistanceActual support behaviourAction that other people/organisations take to help and supportInfluenced byStress – may disturb relationshipsPersonality factors, e.g. anxiety, mistrust & poor self-imagePersonality style & traitsMental health: function of human development problemsPeople constantly engaged in developing biological, psychological & social functioning to maintain homeostasis and act efficientlyCrucial stages of development – require specific skills and developmental tasks – growthMust be able to accommodate stress of changing environmentImpact factorsDisinformationToo much informationUncertaintyDiscontinuityPsychological adjustment: expression of self-conceptSelf-conceptAll experiences & expressions of ‘I’, ‘me’ and ‘mine’ in relation to othersDeveloped through interactions within and with other systemsBecome familiar with self-identity – evaluate & value self as personProblems occur where people are unable to assimilate & accommodate changes in their existing constructs of themselvesPersonality in health & illnessPersonality -> Individual differencesCareful not to label persons or to attribute all problems to personality functioningPersonality can influence health and vice versaDirect influenceCertain psychological traits can lead to illness & adjustment problemsGenetic predispositions may impact significantly on adjustmentExamples: Coronary or cardiovascular diseases, cancer, asthmaAnxiety, neuroticism, aggression & proneness to guiltCoping mechanismsLocus of control – sense of control over eventsPersonal hardinessPositive thoughtsSense of coherence – events are understandable, controllable & meaningfulLearnt resourcefulnessSelf-efficacy – self-controlPersonality type prone to heart attack – Type ANegative emotions (e.g. depression, anger & hostility) can be liked to many diseasesRelationship between personality & healthUnhealthy behaviour, e.g. anxiety can lead to substance abuseRisk taking personality types – unsafe acts & behavioursDiseases can influence brain functioning & cause personality changeBiologically determined changesStyles of interaction, relationships & communicationRelationship typeSymmetrical – constant oppositionComplementary – behaviours fit together, e.g. aggressive (leader) & compliant (follower)Parallel (behaviour & control varies between symmetrical & complementary)Metacommunication – One party ‘allows’ the other party to be in control of a situation whereas the first party still have the control.Type of verbal & non-verbal communication used Congruency between verbal & non-verbalSelective listeningDisturbed communicationRigidity of communication levelsAmbiguity of communicationSymptomatic group behaviours include avoider, dependent, humiliator, denier, pleaser, intellectualist, blamer, martyr, dictator and moraliser.Symptomatic styles of communication includes cooperative-hyperconforming, self-humilating-masochistic, rebellious-suspicious behaviours.Individual’s career concepts & career developmentWork is anchor of person’s life – structures time & provides in needsUnemploymentCareer maturityLevel of person’s vocational developmentVocational attitudesDecision-making skillsFunction of person’s developmental history, age, sex, behaviour styles and socioeconomic factors.Job satisfaction – emphasis employer & self place on career developmentMidlife crises (30-40yrs)Ageing, question self-esteem & purpose of lifeMid-career transitionsCareer plateauingStumbling blocks in career developmentIndividual differences, e.g. level of intelligence, povertyDifference in own social circle, e.g. social isolationFamily obligationsMaladjustment & defence mechanismsUsed to control anxietyNormal ways of coping – problem when behaviour becomes dominantDefence mechanisms – comprehensive patterns of behaviour, usually unplanned/unconscious, which the person use to relieve/avoid emotional conflicts & resultant anxiety & stress. Direct, e.g. physical attacks, violenceInhibited, e.g. verbal sarcasm, refusal to work, strikesWithdrawalEgo defence mechanisms include:RepressionUnconsciously preventing threatening & painful impulses, thoughts and feelingsburied in the unconsciousfrom reaching the consciousor denying themProjectionAscribing one’s own thoughts, feelings, mistakes or motives to othersReaction formationBehaving in a manner which is exactly the opposite of one’s true (possibly undesirable) feelingsE.g. boasting about supervisor’s excellence whilst feeling jealousDisplacementDirecting negative emotions/attitudes away from original source to substitute person or objectE.g. person who is very strict at home may feel insecure at workFantasyFulfilling frustrated needs by imaginary achievements or wishful thinkingOvercompensationProtecting self-image or weakness by overemphasising certain aspectsIntellectualisation (isolation)Isolating/insolating threatening experiences/emotions by speaking rationally/intellectually about themRationalisationFinding logical, plausible, but false excuses to justify unacceptable/irrational behaviour or disappointmentsRegressionAvoiding painful feelings & experiences by reverting to earlier immature or less stressful behaviour A form of fixationIdentificationDefending against threatening feelings or low self-esteem by relating to someone or an ideaSublimationChannelling threatening/undesirable thoughts and impulses into acceptable outletsRelated to displacementFactors in the work environment & task demandsWork environment characteristics (7)Reality, differential influence, invisible hand principle, environmental influence, interactive principle, organisation’s life cyclePrinciple factors enhancing/decreasing occupational wellbeing (9)Opportunities For control,To use skills For social & interpersonal contactpresence of externally generated goals to give meaning to work, Variety of work experiencesClarity of and in work environmentSufficient financial rewardsPhysical security & safetyPerception of holding a valued position in the work environmentSubjective experience of workCognitive appraisal & subjective perceptionsIndividual’s perception of his role in the organisationEmployee role made up of his position, behaviour processes, communication & expectations defined between employee & organisationValue to each otherDependence & interaction between organisation & employeeDissatisfaction if:Role conflict or ambivalenceLittle responsibility & participation in decision-makingWork alienation/estrangementWorker’s emotional & cognitive experience that work lost its positive value, no longer part of work process & results – loose intrinsic meaningAssociated with lack of participation/career involvementSchizoid condition – develop unrealistic self-esteem & survive through defence mechanismsReactions may include aggression, alcoholism, depression and underachievementTypes of alienationHelplessnessLack of control & freedomIsolation/self-estrangementLack of self-esteem, aimlessness, work behaviour aimed at external factorsNormlessnessBelieve existing norms & values no longer adequateCultural estrangementExperience that own objectives, beliefs & values are not accepted/reinforces or rewarded.Physical factors in work & psychological adjustmentSustained concentration & physical exhaustionPhysical dangersTemperature (22-24oC) Noise & vibrationPhysical space arrangements (intimate, personal, social & public space)IlluminationPhysical & technological changesHow employee feel about the workplaceOrganisational & management processesOrganisation viewed as social technical systemEmployee behaviour controlled by various organisational structures & procedures, includingMission statements, policies, hierarchical structures, job levels, selection & promotion procedures, role & task description and disciplinary procedures.Process of accommodation – social contractManagement decisions & communicationPsychosocial factors in work environmentEmployee relationships – cultural learningCauses of relationship problemsIncompatibility of personalityDifferent expectations of employee & employerLack of supportSupervision too rigidIsolation from colleagues & other groupsStress & psychological maladjustmentStress modelStressors – causes/stimuli for stress reactionsChronic daily stressors (hassles & uplifts)Acute life eventsHassles & uplifts+/- events/routines which people experience often & repeatedly CausesPhysicalDecreased immunity, CHD, headaches, injuries, cholesterolDemographicsEthnic group, gender, socio-economic statusTask demandsWork load, role perception/ambiguity/conflicts, varietyOrganisationalManagement, structure, rewards, administrative proceduresExternal factors/environments/changePolitics, economy, technology, labour market, familyModerating factorsPersonal resourcesPersonality, coping skillsDemographicsEthnic group, gender, socio-economic statusJob relatedMotivation, rewards, social support, advancementExternal supportFamily and other resourcesConsequences of health problemsPersonalPersonality, emotional problems, illness, career frustrationEmotionalStress, fears, depression, family conflictWork performanceAbsenteeism, turnover, burnout, accidents, lower productivityConsequences of stressorsFrustrationArise when people are prevented from attaining their objectivesCause aggression & angerReaction determined by importance of objection, strength of need & duration of frustrationConflictArise when person wants to satisfy numerous needs at same time – choice anxietyApproach-avoidance conflict – strong negative and positive feelings about an objectiveDouble approach conflict – equally attractive optionsDouble avoidance conflict – equally unattractive optionsPressure to perform/conformBurnout – emotional exhaustionEating disordersModerating factors in stress processCoping mechanismsCoping = process to manage internal/external demands that exceeds resourcesAdaptive and adjustment reactionsBehaviour to handle daily problems, satisfy needs and alleviate anxiety/stress.Attachment behaviours, listening to music, eating, crying and exerciseProblem-focused copingDefine problem, generate & weigh up alternatives, plan, select best solutionDemands rational thinking & self-controlEmotion-focused copingTry to prevent negative emotions & stay in control through behavioural or cognitive strategiesBehavioural strategies – reactions e.g. exercise, accepting responsibility, substance useCognitive strategies – appraise stressful situations in order to solve problemSocial supportQuality of physical, social, psychological and emotional support from family and othersConflicting work & non-work rolesSpillover impact of work and non-work factors upon each other – interact & conflictEnvironmental systemOrganisation & work contextNon-work stress factors & sourcesPersonal systemType of position & job roleDemographic & personal factorsCognitive evaluationCoping actionIndividual adjustmentWork, morale & performanceAdjustment & healthDisorders related to stress, anxiety, personality & bodily experiencesClassification of psychological disordersClinical picture: main characteristics, symptoms & illness processCharacteristic diagnostic criteria:Main characteristic, e.g. anxietyFrequency and/or severity, duration of symptoms and age of onsetLevel of impairment by symptoms in occupational & other rolesPossibility that symptoms may be fakedMedical illness, substance abuse or other psychological disorder does not cause symptomsPossible associated symptoms or disordersStressEmotional arousal & related physiological/biological/emotional & cognitive reactionsStress phasesAlarm-and-mobilisation: prepare to counteract stress & its effectsResistance – rate of adaptive reactions increase (endocrine system)Exhaustion and disintegrationPsychological stress disordersStress disorders: acute & chronic stress reactions to adverse life events = adjustment disordersAdjustment disordersPerson shows sudden ‘abnormal’ response ,Is not adjusting/coping as well as previously or other people with similar life stressorsE.g. career changes, job loss, having children and divorceOccurred within 3 month periodDiverse symptomsMaladaptive emotional response (e.g. depression, fear, anxiety, anger)Maladaptive behaviours (e.g. aggression & fighting, unlawful behaviour, sleeplessness, drop in work performance)Maladaptive emotions & conduct which influence cognitive behaviours, which subsequently affects task performance & decision makingTo diagnose, Symptoms must develop within 3 months after the identified stressorDuration of adjustment disorder is usually less than 6 monthsAcute stress disorder & post-traumatic stress (PTSD)Severe stress disorders linked to specific acute life eventsManifest in emotional, cognitive & conduct adjustment problemsMediate by person’s pre-existing resiliency, coping skills & resources.Recovery usually complete when stressor fade or person learn to adaptAcute stress disorderSymptoms indicate impairment of previously good functioning wrt personal identity, awareness, memory & perception of realityOnset – within 4 weeks of traumatic eventSymptoms last for 2 days up to maximum of 4 weeksPTSDMore serious & longer lasting stress disorder (DSM classifies as anxiety disorder due to longer duration)More severe symptoms than adjustment & acute stress disordersOnset within 3 months, but can be delayedDuration of symptoms – longer than 3 monthsCharacterised by:Repeated experiences of anxiety about initial stressorLack of responsiveness to environment (apathy)Fright reactions, irritation, fatigue, insomnia, nightmares, loss of concentration, memory impairment, depression, withdrawal.Psychophysiological disordersBio-psycho-social processes involvedSignificant relationship between psychological/mental & physical healthManifest if homeostasis in human system is disturbed (body, mind, social)Stress riskPossibility person will get illEnhanced byFrequent & intense occurrence of traumatic events, important life events and transitionsExposure to chronic life and work hasslesRelated to person’s genetic/biological immunity, vulnerability & resilience to effects of dis-stressors.Moderated by person’s coping repertoiresCognitive appraisal of stress as harmful (-) or challenge (+)Personality dispositions (positivity, locus of control etc.)Coping styles (problem or emotion focused)Social supportNegative learning – learnt helplessness & ‘secondary gain’Specific psychophysiological disorders(AKA psychosomatic disorders)It is the manifestation of physical symptoms as a result of psychological stress & negative emotions. Examples includeCommon physical illnesses e.g. colds (stressors on immune & nervous system)Certain types of cancer & AIDSStomach ulcersChronic pain diseases, e.g. migraineCardiovascular diseases, including coronary heart disease (CHD)HypertensionEating disorders, obesity & sleeping disordersAnorexia – refusal to maintain minimum normal body weight, intense fear of gaining weightBulimia Binge eatingDiabetesAnxiety disordersMain characteristic – individual’s conscious & persistent experiences of undefined & vague feelings of gear, worry, apprehension and panic.Fear – feeling of being afraid of specific objectsPanic – unexpected, sudden and intense feelings and thoughts of fear & anxietyDifferent from personality disorders as person do not see their problem as part of himself. Ego-dystonic and therefore willing to seek help and want to changeSymptomsPhysicalTrembling, heavy perspiration, dizziness, tiredness, breathlessness, insomnia, cardiovascular diseases, stomach ulcers.Psychosocial behaviours (emotional expressions)Anxiousness, fear, apprehension, worry, tension, depression, irritation.Cognitive symptomsFeelings of losing control, threat, repeated negative thoughts, lack of concentrationVary from acute feelings of panic to more chronic (continuous) anxiety. Intensity can also vary.Main types of anxiety disorders:Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD)Obsessive-compulsive disorderPanic disordersGeneralised anxiety disorders (GAD)Chronic, consistent, prolonged, unexplained, vague intense fears which does not seem to have specific cause & not associated with specific object.Free-floating anxietyMore prevalent in womanCharacteristicsConstant & excessive state of worry & anxietyDiscomfort & inability to control the anxiety and worries3 or more of: restlessness, irritable, sleep disturbances, easily tired, muscle pains, inability to think properly and lapses in concentration, diarrhoea.Panic disordersDSM differentiates between panic attacks & panic disorders with or without agoraphobiaPanic attack – sudden & intense fear in which 4 or more of the following symptoms develop suddenly & reach peak levels within 10 minutesFeeling of choking, palpitations, perspiration, chest pains, nausea/stomach upset, dizziness, trembling, shortness of breath, depersonalisation, fear of losing control, numbness, hot flushes & fear of dying.Panic disorderRepeated, unexpected and recurrent panic attacks.Panic attacks followed by:Person worrying about recurrence of panic attacks (at least 1 month) and consequences of potential attackChanges in person’s behaviour Associated with depressive episodes, substance usePhobic disordersFear is related to particular object, idea, person or event, even though it does not pose danger.Fear is intense and out of proportionDSM categoriesSpecific phobiasAssociated with specific objects or situations, e.g. bugsVaries from mild to intense fearSocial phobiasPersistent fear and avoidance of social situationsAgoraphobiaPerson’s internal fears of being anxious in places and situationsMay involve fear of losing control in front of others.Onset – adolescence or late 20s/30sEndure for many yearsObsessive-compulsive disorderObsessions: Repetitive images, intrusive and mostly inappropriate thoughts and impulses that cause pulsions Recurrent stereotyped physical or mental acts which troubled person feels compelled to do, even if they do not want to. Recognise as bizarre & unrealistic.Mostly in response to obsessionsOCDFrequent, recurrent obsessive thoughts and/or compulsive actions and rituals which are not common worries normal people havePrimarily irrational, undesirable and unpleasant for individualsWork behaviourWork dysfunctionLower productivity, poor motivation, job dissatisfaction, poor self-esteem, helplessness, dependenceIntense anxiety may affect intellectual functioning, cognitive judgement, visual perception, accuracy. Personality disordersAKA character, conduct or social disordersRigid & poorly acquired patterns of behaviour or conduct, Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationshipsIneffective occupational performanceConsistent/enduring, deviant, exaggerated/maladaptive and inflexible inner experiences and behaviour patterns which negative influence other life roles and personsDSM Axis II: characterised by permanency and pervasiveness/endurance in personality style & behaviours over the life span.General diagnostic criteriaEnduring pattern of inner experiences & behaviour that deviates markedly from what is expected of people in their specific culture. Manifest in cognition/ emotions/ interpersonal functioning/ control of impulses.Behaviour pattern is inflexible & pervasive across many social & personal situationsExperience deviance as integral part of self (ego-syntonic)Deny devianceSeldom take responsibility for own mistakes – projectionDSM – 3 categories, (for diagnosis, at least 4 of critical diagnostic features present)Cluster ACharacterised by odd & eccentric behaviourCluster BCharacterised by dramatic, emotional & erratic behaviourCluster CCharacterised by anxious and fearful behaviourCluster A personality disordersOdd & eccentric behaviourParanoid personalitySymptoms (at least 4 present)Suspicion, mistrust and fear of being threatened, harmed or exploited by other people’s ideas, motives & actionsEgotistic behaviours, hypersensitivity, extremely sensitive to criticism & hold grudgesHumourless, cold, devious and scheming behavioursFear of losing control & mistrust – difficult to work withSchizoid personalityVery reserved, seclusive and socially withdrawn.No desire for/enjoyment of close relationshipsAlways electing to things on ownSeem to enjoy few things in life, if anyLittle or no desire to have sexual relationshipsIndifferent to praise & criticismDetachment, coldness, little emotion variationSchizotypal personalityIntense discomfort in interpersonal situations & impaired capacity to form close relationshipsDistorted thinking or perceptions and eccentric behavioursEccentric behaviour – superstitious, attracted to strange ideas, dressing out-of-the-ordinary, interpret events very differently from othersUnlike schizophrenic personalities, schizotypal personalities are in contact with realityCluster B personality disordersDramatic, emotional and erratic behaviourNarcissistic personality disorderPervasive pattern of fantasies, Excessive emphasis on personal importance, Need for attention & admirationLack of empathy for othersAppear self-assured, actually na?ve & insecureMostly unable to have binding relationshipProblems emphasised by behaviour arising from arrogance and perceived superiorityBecome anxious & frustrated if needs for attention & admiration is not metAntisocial personality (Psychopathic)Disregard and violation of other people’s rights.May manifest from 15yrs, only diagnose from 18Symptoms (at least 3 present)Failure to conform to norms, breaking rules and regulationsDisregard for own (and other people’s) safetyIrritability & aggressive behavioursManipulating & deceiving others for personal advantageConsistent irresponsibility, impulsiveness & failure to plan aheadLack of remorse or guilt after mistreating or hurting othersLack of depth in interpersonal relationships May have lifelong prevalenceHistrionic personality disorderDramatic/excessive behavioursAttention seekingEmotions often shallow, unpredictable and vary quicklyMay relate to somatic symptoms – consistent complaints about sickness without medical explanationBorderline personality disorders (BPD)Difficult to distinguish from histrionic & antisocial personalitiesManipulative, excessive dependency & demand to have exclusive relationship with a specific personSymptoms (at least 5 present)Intense, but unstable personal relationshipsImpulsive behavioursFrantic efforts to avoid real/ imagined social exclusionRecurrent suicidal behaviours, thoughts or gesturesTemporary stress related thoughts of paranoia or depersonalisationChronic feelings of being worthless & emptyDistorted self-imagePeriods of emotional instabilitySudden & inappropriate anger & loss of controlCluster C personality disordersAnxious & fearful behaviourObsessive-compulsive personality disorderManifests excessive & irrational concern with orderliness, perfection etc. at the expense of efficiency in doing thingsExcessive time and energyStruggle to delegateAvoidant personality disorderPersonal inadequacy, Social isolation & inhibition, Extreme sensitivity towards negative evaluationLow self-esteem, hesitant to start new tasksNegatively impact on development of interpersonal & cognitive competenciesDependent personality disorderAllow other people to decide for themExperience problems when making own decisions, unless closely counselled and reassured by othersFrequent fear of being left alone, Indiscriminately enter into relationships to avoid being aloneDifficult to disagree with others – fear of anger & rejectionDifficult to take the lead and initiative – lack of confidenceFeel helpless/uncomfortable/vulnerable when aloneWork dysfunctionPoor motivation & negative concept of work & work roleGeneral response of fear & anxiety at workGeneral response of open hostility and aggressiveness at workMainly dependent & immature work behavioursReactions at work that are socially naiveSomatoform & dissociative disordersDistortions in perception, beliefs and actions due to psychological conflicts transferred to bodily and other functionsSomatoform disorders‘Soma’ = bodySomatic disordersPatterns of behaviour which suggests the presence of physical diseaseNo medical explanationReally ‘experience’ their symptoms & believe physical symptoms to be real. Not faking it to get attention.Onset – after 30DSM – unexplained physical complaintsUndifferentiated somatoform disorder (complaints not accounted for by somatisation disorder)Body dysmorphic disorder (imagined/exaggerated defect in physical appearance)Unspecified somatoform disorder (when no other somatoform disorder can be diagnosed.DSM – 7 typesPain symptoms (4)Gastrointestinal (2)Sexual/reproductive (1)Pseudo-neurological (1)HypochondriaFear of having a serious disease, misconception of own physical symptomsPreoccupation with physical symptoms despite medical evidence to contraryPerson’s belief about illness not delusional or only about physical appearanceSevere distress & impairment in social & work rolesDisturbance last at least 6 monthsPerson does not recognise preoccupation as excessive or unreasonable.Conversion disorderApparent physical dysfunction/loss of control over motor/sensory functions without underlying organic pathologySymptoms involveSensory functions (e.g. loss of sensation, excessive sensitivity)Motor function (e.g. paralysis, blindness, deafness, autism)Sexual dysfunctionInternal symptoms (e.g. headaches, coughing)Symptoms not faked, but no medical or cultural explanation can be foundCan diagnose conversion disorder if medical reasons for symptoms cannot be found.Onset – early childhood or adolescencePain disorderComplaints of physical pain – cannot be accounted for by medical diagnosis.Associated with both physical & psychological causesDissociative disordersImpairment of the usually integrated functioning of consciousness, memory identity & realistic perception of the environmentDissociative amnesiaLoss of memory of important personal information.Can be result of severe traumatic events or intense psychological conflict.Loss not caused by medical illness, substance abuse or other psychological disorderImpact severely on social & occupational rolesSuddenly disappears once stressor passesDissociative fugueMemory loss associated with the followingPerson experience flight reaction/travel to new environment – begin new lifeUnable to recall personal information, past events and even own identityNot due to medical illness, substance abuse or other psychological disorderMay last from a few hours to monthsCause impairment in life rolesAfter recovery, unable to recall fugue experiencesVery rare, may be result of severe traumaDissociative identity disorderAKA multiple personality disorderAssumption of several totally different & independent personality statesDiverse emotional, thought, physical and behaviour processesPerson can change personalities time and again Experience loss of memory about personal informationTends to be chronic and recurrent, but may be episodicUsually preceded by stressful events Does not include fakingNot due to medical illness, substance abuse or other psychological disorderDepersonalisationRelated to multiple personalityPerson totally loose perception of self, believe they are someone elseBelieve bodies have changed May claim that self left bodyReality testing usually remains intact during such episodesSymptoms severely influence social & work-rolesMay experience somnambulism (sleepwalking) and trance-like stateRelated to the following, but can also manifest on ownSchizophrenia, panic disorder, acute stress disorderMay have early onset in childhoodDuration: few seconds to many yearsDisorders of moods, psychoses, substance abuse & other maladjustmentsMood disordersSymptoms & processesCharacterised by extreme moods – fluctuate between extreme excitement & deep depression Manifest separately or in extreme mania/excitement and/or extreme feelings of depression & sadness. Major depressive episodesCharacterised by daily occurrence or recurrence of the following symptoms (at least 5 over 2 week period):Sadness & depression without history of manic/elated mood statesLoss of interest in activities & pleasures of life that previously enjoyed (anhedonia)Weight loss/loss of appetiteInsomnia or sleeplessnessPsychomotor retardation or agitationLoss or energy & persistent fatigueFeelings of worthlessness or guiltDecreased cognitive & decision-making abilities, impaired concentrationRecurrent thoughts of death, suicidal ideas/attempts/plansPerson becomes socially withdrawn, unmotivated & ineffective in decision making. Very negative self-image & ridden by self-blame & guilt feelingsMay last months or years.Major manic episodesDistinct period of at least 1 week of elevated & irritable mood during which at least 3 of the following symptoms are present:Greatly increase sociability, more talkativeHighly inflated self-esteem, self-confidence & delusions of grandeurSeemingly high energy levels & decreased need for sleepRacing of thoughts & ideasConcentration problemsIncreased psychomotor agitation & goal-directed behaviourExcessive pursuit of pleasurable activities which may have painful consequencesEpisodes often very labile & unpredictableHypomanic episodes - hospitalisationDepressive typesCharacterised by depressive episodes most of the timeIncludeEmotions & social behaviours of gloominess, irritability, worry, hopelessness, negative-self-image, self-blame, withdrawalCognitive behaviours like mental sluggishness, indecisivenessMotor behaviours like slowness, inactivity, fatigue, insomniaDepressive episodes without manic symptoms - unipolarMajor depressive disorder (MDD)Characterised by only the major depressive episodes/symptomsSingle or recurrent episodesTotal loss of interest in life.No manic swings present Dysthymic depressive disorderMild but persistent/chronic form of depressionLast for longer periodsOnset on/after 21To be diagnosed, condition must be present at least 2 yearsPersistent symptoms include:Depressed mood, poor appetite, insomnia, low energy & fatigue, low self-esteem, poor concentration & feelings of despair.Bipolar typesCharacterised by mood swings between depressive and manic mood statesBipolar mood/affective disorder (manic-depressive)Alternating manic & depressive episodesShorter duration than MDDCyclothymic disorderNumerous hypomanic (very intense manic) episodes and numerous milder (but persistent) depressive episodes.SuicideAssociated with depressive episodesReal suicidal attemptsOther to manipulate people & to derive secondary gainsSchizophrenia & other psychotic disordersPerceived as most serious psychological disorder – disorganise person in various domains of functioning. Progressive impairment of work performanceSymptoms & processesNeurobiological disorderSerious distortions in thought & perceptual processes including perception of realityMain feature: impaired thought processesOnset: 16-25, seldom after 35, symptoms like disappeared by 50-60.Core ingredientsDelusionIdea/belief which is not related to truth/realityHallucinationInaccurate observation without the existence of corresponding stimuli, e.g. hearing voicesCharacteristics – disorders ofLanguage & communications, Cognition (delusions)Perception (hallucinations)Emotional disequilibrium & inappropriate emotionsIdentity disorientationUnrealistic relationship with others & worldProcess schizophrenia (Type 2 schizophrenia)Condition that develop over a long periodSocial withdrawal, emotional blunting, intellectual deterioration Poor response to treatmentReactive schizophrenia (Type 1 Schizophrenia)Sudden onset Slight loss of associations, delusions, hallucinationsRespond well to medicationsSchizophreniaParanoid schizophreniaPreoccupation with absurd & illogical delusionsPersecution/grandeurAuditory hallucinationsCatatonic schizophreniaMotor disturbances + 2 additional symptomsExcessive purposeless activity, bizarre voluntary movements, mutism (refusal to speak), echolalia (speech repetition) & extreme negativism (refusal to cooperate)Disorganised schizophreniaSevere disintegration of the personalityTotal emotional blunting/inappropriate emotions, infantile/vulgar/bizarre reactionsIncoherent speech & thinkingDelusions + hallucinations may be present – fragmented formUndifferentiated schizophreniaMixture of main schizophrenia features, but criteria for paranoid, disorganised & catatonic not metProcess of becoming schizophrenic or increased demands schizophrenicSymptoms includeDelusions of importance, hallucinations, emotional excitement, turmoil, confusion, incoherenceResidual typeAbsence of prominent delusions & hallucinationsShow some negative symptoms, e.g. disorganised speech & impaired motor behaviourAttenuated symptoms – eccentric behaviour, odd beliefs & unusual experiences.Other psychotic disordersDelusional disorder (paranoia)Presence of one or more non-bizarre delusions that exist/persist for at least a month.Behaviour is not impaired, odd or bizarre.Emotional moods are brief & related to delusionsTypes:Jealousy, grandiose, persecutory, erotomaniac, somatic type, mixed typeSchizoaffective disorderCombination of psychosis & mood disordersDiagnose if delusions and hallucinations are present at least 2 weeksCharacterised by:Uninterrupted period of illnessSome episodes of major depressive / manic moodsSimple deteriorative disorderStill under researchProgressive deterioration of functioning over at least 1 year periodSubstance related disordersRefer to all disorders related to the taking/abuse of a substance. Develop over time as a result of persistent abuse and physical & psychological dependence on substanceSubstance induced disordersDisorders/symptoms caused by use/abuse of psychoactive substancesAnxiety, hallucinations, amnesia, depressionDelirium, dementia, sexual dysfunction, sleep disorderPsychoactive – cause disturbances in motor, cognitive, emotional & social behaviours Substance abuse disordersMaladaptive use/behaviours wrt psychoactive substances & may include abuseResult in clinically serious impairment/distress – 1 year periodPersistent/recurrent substance abuseResult in failure to fulfil social/academic/occupational roles & responsibilitiesIn physically dangerous situations (e.g. driving)Recurrent legal problems as result of substance abusePersistent substance abuse despite experiencing recurrent social & interpersonal problemsSubstance dependenceCharacterised by physical & psychological effects of tolerance & withdrawalTolerance – need more to achieve same result, body becomes tolerantWithdrawal – substance not used after long period of dependencySymptoms include: vomiting, nausea, sleeplessnessDevelops into compulsive behavioursObtaining & using substance + recovering from effectsPhysiological + psychological dependenceDirect consequencesintoxicationIndirect consequencesPhysical ailments, decreased sensory & motor abilities, poor emotional control, poor social judgement & interpersonal relationships, decreased motivation and work performanceEffect on workAbsenteeism, illness, slow reaction times, uncontrollability, moodiness, inaccuracy, accidents, inability to be trained, dependence, insecurityPervasive developmental disorders & mental retardationDisorders mainly associated with childhood.Long lasting & usually permanent impairment of cognitive, emotional & social functioningDifficulty with social interactionAutismSevere impairment of social interactionChildren lack spontaneity, avoid being heldMarked impairment in speaking and other forms of communicationAdhere to strong, often non-functional, routinesAsperger’s disorderLeast disruptive – children display normal cognitive developmentLimited social interactionSignificant impairment in social & occupational functioningMarked impairment in use f non-verbal behaviours, e.g. eye contactRett’s diseaseSeemingly normal development in early childhoodFrom 5 months – progressive decrease in head growthDeterioration in intelligence & language development Loss of psychomotor & body movementsLoss of social interactionChildhood disintegrative disorderApparent normal development up to 2yrs2-10yrs: significant losses of previous functionsLanguage impairment, social interaction, self-help & adaptive skillsMental retardationSub-average intellectual functioning (IQ 70 and less) & impairment of adaptive functioningMild (50/55-70), moderate (35/40-50/55) severe (20/25-35/40), profound (below 20/25)Fail to achieve age-appropriate levels in communication, self-care, social & interpersonal skillsPrimarily caused by genetic & biological factors, infections, substance abuse, injuriesPsychological disorders of infancy, childhood & adolescenceChildhood problems generally characterised by:Externalising behaviour: disruptive (often aggressive) conduct & behaviour which may be harmful to child & environmentInternalising behaviour: intrinsic emotions e.g. anxiety, fear, panic, depressionDisorder typesOppositional & defiant disorderPatterns of negative & hostile behaviours, e.g. loses temper, argueConduct disorderPersistent disruptive behaviour, violates norms and others’ rightsAttention deficit/hyperactivityAnxiety, depression, enuresisEating & learning disordersUnresolved issues – impact on adult behaviourDisorders involving gender & sexualitySexual dysfunctionsImpairment of sexual desire & related physiological changes in sexual response cycle and/or pain during sexual intercourseSexual disorders includeSexual desire disorders – hypoactive v aversionSexual arousal disorder – female arousal, male erectileOrgasmic disorder – premature ejaculation disorderSexual pain disorderSexual dysfunction due to person’s general medical condition Gender identity disorder Strong & persistent cross gender identificationPerception of being the other sexParaphiliasPersistently & intensely derives sexual urges, fantasies or behaviour from non-human objectsSuffering pain & humiliation self or partnerExhibitionism, masochism, voyeurism, paedophiliaSexual abusePaedophilia, rape, incestCognitive disorders & disorders relating to ageCharacteristic symptom: marked changes in thinking & memoryResult from impairment of cerebral or neurological functioningType of psychological/behavioural disorder caused by cognitive disorderDetermined mainly by nature & locality of brain lesionsDementiaChronic (long-lasting) cognitive disorderCharacterised by general decline in social & occupational functioning. Specific symptoms include:Reduced memory & learning abilityLanguage disturbance (aphasia)Reduced motor abilities (apraxia)Inability to recognise previously well-known objects despite good sensory abilities (agnosia)Pathological ageing – Alzheimer’s diseaseMarked loss of intellectual abilitiesSevere changes in personality & behaviourDeliriumAcute cognitive disorder, develop suddenlyCharacteristicsGeneral disorientation/reduced consciousness of what is going on in environmentReduced perceptual abilitiesChange in and reduced capacities for memory, language & concentrationAmnestic disorderMemory impairmentNeurological delusional & mood syndromeDelusions & false beliefs & severe mood disturbancesMay follow/accompany organic pathologySubstance abuse, injuries, tumoursNeuropsyhological personality syndromeGeneral change in personality & behaviourResult from brain damageImpaired social judgement, reduced motivation, fewer inhibitions or control over own behaviour, uncontrolled emotional expressionOtherEpilepsy - chronic cognitive syndrome – recurrent seizuresCognitive disorders related to substance abuseCognitive disorders resulting from serious head injuryMemory, orientation, learning comprehension & judgement, emotional control, emotional blunting/apathy, irrational behaviour, appropriate & ethical conduct, receptive & expressive language, visual-spatial abilityViolence & abuseSpouse or partner abusePersistent (more than once a year) physical& psychological aggressive acts & threats that cause Physical injuryEmotional pain or fearMay require medical treatment Child abusePhysical aggression, sexual abuse, neglect & emotional crueltyForcible rapeUse of violence, force or threats to have sexual intercourseAlso include coercion – statutory rape or mentally retarded personSexual harassmentSexual coercion in which person in subjected to unwelcome sexual talk/remarks, sexual proposals, gestures, touching & demand for sexual favoursSpecific employee dysfunctionsClassification of psychological work dysfunctionsWork dysfunctionImpaired work performance Due to employee’s intrapsychic attributes & behaviours, possible disorders & emotional problems, orForm of distorted interaction between employee & working environmentNo widely accepted classification of work dysfunctionsDSM fails to take the following into accountExistence of specific work-related emotional disordersDisordered work environments/collective work-related problemsWork dysfunction classificationsAlso include individual emotional/psychological behaviour & may cover psychopathology, BUT focused on person’s interaction with work environmentDeal with group behaviour (organisational health)May regard undesirable work environment as problem in itselfOrganisational development phases relate closely to individual’s occupational developments and adjustment problemsAlso describe employee performance & adjustment in work organisationFit between employee & work environmentDetermine whether performance impairment are caused by psychopathology in person, or interaction with work environmentIndividual employee problems (SU 7)Psychological disordersUnder-commitmentOver-commitmentWork-related fears, anxieties and depressionImpaired work personality traits & typesMaladaptive behaviours & misconductWork & non-work conflictsDistorted perceptionsPhysical illnessManagerial emotional problemsCollective/organisational problems (SU 8)Dysfunctional group dynamics in organisationsProblematic organisational cultureImpaired work group or team functioningAuthority-follower problemsCulturally estranged & minority employeesPersonnel turnover & absenteeismDysfunctional internal organisational environmentIncompatibilities in organisational mission & strategiesDysfunction in organisational structures & functionsOrganisational design & work-design problemsUnhealthy work conditionsPersonnel turnover & absenteeismInability to effect organisational transformation & restructuringMacro-organisational/environmental problemsUnemploymentChange pathologyPsychological disordersFully diagnosed psychological disorders – usually unable to work effectivelyIf treated, may function partially depending on severity of disorderInteraction between disorder & work performanceWork environment may influence disorder (onset, frequency, severity) and vice versa.Impaired/dysfunctional work capacityRefer to all types of stress-related & emotional problems which have a detrimental (-) effect on employee’s work performance & behavioursMay includeWork motivation, attitudes, willingness to be involved in work, emotions, personality dispositions & behavioursType of work orientationSocialisation & reinforcement of work & productive rolesWork ethics, values & attitudes acquired Capacity to workCareer maturityAcquisition of necessary skills, knowledge, abilities & attributes.Influenced by job characteristics & demands of work environmentUnder-commitment to work rolesSymptoms, processes & causesRelatively less effectiveness in the reasonable expected quantity & quality of employee performanceCompetency/proficiency profile & record of past work performanceUnderachievementIndividual – not satisfy job requirements & expected standards ito skills & actual potential to performPersistent long term inability to performDisplay certain of following behaviours:Resistance to change, moodiness, disorganisation, feelings of being indispensable, isolation, inability to communicate, poor sense of responsibility, intolerance, apologetic attitude, highly strung, unimaginative, defensiveBlind spot syndrome – ignorant of own limitations‘lack of just one more skill type’ attributes poor performance to lacking skillsMay be influenced by personality & behavioural styles ProcrastinationAvoid initiating or completing tasks, assignments or decisions by a specific perceived date. No obvious reason for delay.Get lost in process/steps to execute taskAcademic procrastinationNeurotic procrastination – personality trait/behaviour characteristic : indecision in other life rolesResult in stress to complete at last minute, inferior resultPotential causesConditioned or acquired fear/anxiety about mistakes& criticismLow self-esteemFeelings of depressionProcrastination traitPersonality factorsPassive-aggressiveness, rebelliousness, obsessive-compulsionTypesSeriously disturbed (highly neurotic & rebellious)Extraverted (neurotic)Underachievers (false reports on progress)DepressionIntellectually curious (take on too many tasks)Production impedimentsTemporary inhibition in a person’s work role & related failure to perform to expected standards & own potential/abilities, e.g. mental blockVoluntary or involuntaryVoluntaryPlanned slow-downs in wok processes, passive attitudinal actions or aggressive, rebellious behavioursInduced by labour disputesInvoluntaryCaused by mental blocks, emotional problems. Logical explanation not easily foundDistress, discomfort & frustration usually solved when reason/cause identified & managedFear of failure & fear of successFear of failure (FOF)Afraid of rejection if fail to achieve certain goalsLead to crammed work schedules, work addiction & continuous efforts to impress othersFear of success (FOS)Avoidance of tasks & achievements or diminishing achievements(Un) consciously fear & experience anxiety about harmful consequences of successReal/perceived perception that others are dissatisfied with person’s achievementsAssociated with low self-esteem, anxiety, fear of being evaluated & strong competitivenessOccupational & organisational misfitsLack of congruence between person’s characteristics & expectations of chosen occupationMay be result of:Poor career decisions in early life (misinformation or lack of information)Poor decision making/ lack of opportunitiesJob scarcityAbsenteeism behaviourNon-attendance of work during scheduled working hoursWithdrawal behaviours – avoid work environmentPhysical absencePsychologically absentEscaping/switching to more attractive non-workReliable measures:Duration or time lostFrequency or total number of absenteeism occurrencesAttitudinal index ( 1 and 2 day absences)Personnel turnover general dissatisfaction with organisation or industrial variablesAttitude to managerial practices, nature of working conditions, remuneration, perception of managerial fairness.Over-commitment in work rolesSymptoms, processes & causesIntense over-involvement in & very strong identification with work & work values. May result in physical &psychological health problemsOvertax coping resourcesReasons for/causes may include:Anxiety arising from low self-esteemBeing highly competent & unduly high aspirationsPossessing creative gifts Obsessive-compulsive personalityBehaviour patternsNeurotic success compulsionsUnbalanced work-lifePositive striving behaviours as a result of over-ambitionWorkaholismObsessive-compulsive addiction to work rolesIrrepressible need to workWork continuously without necessarily achieving anythingStress reaction to time pressures & defence mechanismSeriously doubts own abilities & use hard work to compensatePrefers work to recreationJob/occupational psychological burnoutPhysical, mental, emotional & psychological overloadPatterns of over-commitment which influence employee’s work behaviour, physical & mental healthLoss of concern for peoplePhysical & emotional exhaustionBio-psycho-social state of fatigue – energy for most purposeful activities are depletedStatesDepersonalisationLower sense of accomplishmentEmotional exhaustionSymptomsPhysicalFatigue, sleep disturbances, stomach illness, lingering coldsPsychologicalFeelings of anger, boredom, frustration, depression, guilt, resentment, apathyAttitudes of cynicism, self-doubt, indifference, moodinessBehaviouralCritical, clock-watching, poor communication, derogatory perceptions, unnecessary risks, substance abuse.Obsessive-compulsive patterns in work performanceCan be observed in the following types of work behavioursOverly structured tasks: orderliness & neatnessStarting work tasks over & over again (link to procrastination)Parsimonious (show meanness), in using available resources & express withholding behaviours ( not giving/sharing information)Assume too many responsibilities & even doing other employee’s tasksA-type personalityCertain way of reacting to the work situation, performing tasks & coping with stressClosely associated with cardiovascular diseasesDestructive emotions & real/perceived inability to control eventsConstantly want to be in controlDiagnostic behaviour patternsIrrepressible tendency towards urgency, attempt to do several things at onceTraits: impatience, restlessness, doing everything quicklyIntense drive to achieve & aspire to greater thingsConscientious in work roles, even at expense of non-work rolesHigh ambition, strict performance criteria, willingness to work hard, suppression of tension, working long hours, displaying over responsible behaviour, link production to self-esteemStrong competing behavioursHigh levels of emotional expression anxiety, quick & strong emotional reactions, pervasiveness of angry & hostile behaviour, sensitive to criticismInterpersonal relationships often disturbed Hostility, aggression, anger, egotism, difficulty in accepting leadership and other’s opinionType AType BType CCompetitiveWork addictionTime urgencyDrivenHurry, impatient, irritablePerfectionistHostile, angryAggravated emotionsDifficult interactionsPoor coping skillsLess competitiveBalanced, less achievement orientated,Less work committedLess time urgencyMore relaxed & patientEasier relationshipsGood coping skillsCommitted behaviour & accept challengesBetter planned & purposefulMore in controlSelf-confidentCompetentCalmCaring, but assertiveCreativeEffective coping skillsEmotion-based work dysfunctionsDepression effectInaccurate work, perceptual weakness, retarded work rate, inability to learn productively, poor memory.Deep depressionFeelings of insecurity, uselessness, self-pity, suicidal Low production & poor decision makingAnxietyTrait – afraid & anxious about work & work rolesPerformance anxiety – afraid of not being able to do tasksJob may provoke anxietyHealth promotionStrong emphasis on self-management techniques – self-help to control emotionsPersonality dysfunctions at workSymptoms, processes and possible causesWork personality stylesDevoted (Dependent)Dramatic (Histrionic)Self-confident (Narcissistic)Adventurous (Antisocial)Solitary (Schizoid)Sensitive (Avoidant)Leisurely (Passive aggressive)Conscientious (Obsessive-compulsive)Idiosyncratic (Schizotypal)Mercurial (Borderline)Vigilant (Paranoid)Classification of occupational maladjustmentPoor motivation & negative role conceptFear & anxietyHostile & aggressiveDependence & immaturitySocially naivePoor motivation & negative conception of work roleBasic personality structure not contain built-in cultural norms for work due to education & backgroundCommunity & work = threat to egoLittle/no sense of responsibilitySymptoms:Absence, arriving late, poor production, passive/indifferent attitude towards workImmediate need satisfactionSevere: antisocial personality type (psychopath)Fear & anxiety response to workCultural norms about work have been strongly (perhaps too strongly) impressed on individualMotivation to achieve & overcommitImpeded by feelings of anxiety, fear, tension, discomfort, distress & fear of interpersonal relationshipsSymptoms may includeVarying standards of achievement, withdrawal symptoms, depression, absence, accident record, obsession with successful performancePotential disordersStress, anxiety based disorders, psychophysiological disorders & depressionHostile & aggressive responses to work situationRegard work as restrictive & punitiveAs a result of possible negative cultural influence, personal shortcomings & limited abilitiesImmediately prepared to defend self & attack othersSymptomsAbrasive, moody, frequently angry, negative, inclined to argue & do things to annoy others, impulsive, poor interpersonal relationshipsPotential disordersParanoid schizophrenia, paranoid personality, explosive personality & passive-aggressive personality typesDependence & immaturity response to job requirementsUncertain about own capabilities & retains childlike need for the support/help of othersConstantly try to satisfy authority figures, only work effectively under supervisionDisplay little initiative & independencePotential disordersSchizoid, histrionicTreatment – rehabilitation workshops: assertiveness & independent behaviourSocially na?ve personCultural norms about work have not been impressedNever perceived work & work requirements realisticallyLittle exposure or lack of abilitySymptomsAccept working conditions, little initiative, unpredictable feelings for others, fail to realise effect of their behaviourGenerally ignorant of how to act sociallyReserved (apathetic)Lack of vitality, indifference towards everything, emotionally unresponsive, non-involvement & nonchalanceSelf-deprecatoryCritical & distrust self, own capabilities & qualities Like to talk about their weaknessesHealth promotionReward/punish behaviourBehaviour & cognitive restructuringEmployee maladaptive behaviours & misconductRecurrent/persistent behavioursInterpersonal behaviour stylesManagerial-autocratic, obedient/dependent, self-deprecatory-masochistic, rebellious-suspicious, aggressive-sadistic, competitive-narcissistic Exhibit behaviour that is difficult to cope withPassive-aggressive (silent judgement of others, avoid tasks/responsibilities)Hostile-aggressive (explosive, insulting & attacking, biting sarcasm)Procrastination (perfectionists or idlers)Negative-complaining (complain & blame others, sabotage good ideas)Arrogant (think know all & take credit for other’s ideas)Passive anti-social (lying, distort information)Litigation & claiming against employer to obtain/retain economic benefitsSexual harassmentRevenge characteristicsCertain events spark/precede more serious revenge actions (e.g. reduction in person’s status, violation of norms, rules & promises)Heating up behaviours – exaggerated emotions, thinking patterns, perceptions linked to harmful behaviours or eventsCooling down – venting feelings, dissipation (express emotions without doing harm), fatigue, explosion (destructive & harmful acts e.g. sabotage)Can be positive : whistle blowingReminiscent of paranoid schizophrenics Career development problemsCareer maturityLevel of person’s vocational development, attitude and decision-making skills at different stages in life.Function ofDevelopmental history, age, sex, behaviour styles & socio-economic factors Vocational uncertainty causesAdjustment & control problems, indecision, incongruence between personal attributes & job requirements, inter & intrapersonal conflictsJob satisfaction & ability to adjust to job determined by emphasis on career developmentPhasesJob entryExploring & establishing careerDeclining (may include midlife crises)RetirementProblems in making career decisionsGetting started in a jobLacks awareness that a decision is needed, Do not understand decision-making processObtaining informationGenerating, evaluating & selecting alternativesFormulation of plans to implement decisionsProblems in implementing career plansPersonal attributes of the individualfailure to undertake the steps necessary to implement planfailure or inability to successfully complete the steps required for attaining goalsadverse circumstances or changes in family situationCharacteristics external to the individualUnfavourable socioeconomic & cultural conditionsUnfavourable situation in the organisation, central yo implementation of career plansFamily situationProblems in organisational performanceDeficiencies in skills, abilities or knowledgeinsufficient skills, abilities, and/or knowledge during career or job entry (i.e. is under-qualified and therefore unable to perform satisfactorily)gradual deterioration of skills, abilities, and/or knowledge over time in the job because of temporary assignment to another position, leave, and/or lack of continual practice or development of the skillfailure to modify or update skills, abilities, and/or knowledge to stay abreast of job changes (i.e. job obsolescence in the wake of new technology, tools, and knowledge)Personal factorspersonality characteristics (eg values, interests, work habits) congruent with the job debilitating physical and/or emotional disordersadverse off-the-job personal circumstances and/or stressors (e.g. family pressure, financial problems, personal conflicts)on-the-job occurrence of interpersonal conflicts specific to performance requirements (eg getting along with supervisor, co-workers, customers, clients)Conditions of organisational environmentambiguous or inappropriate job requirements (e.g. lack of clarity of tasks, work overload, conflicting tasks)deficiencies in the operational structure of the organisationinadequate support facilities, supplies, or resources (e.g. insufficient lighting, ventilation, tools, support personnel, materials)insufficient reward system (e.g. compensation, fringe benefits, status recognition, opportunities for advancement)Adjusting in and to organisationInitial entry into the jobignorant of organisational rules and proceduresfailure to accept or adhere to organisational rules and proceduresinability to assimilate large quantities of new information (e.g. information overload)discomfort in a new geographic locationdiscrepancies between individual's expectations and the realities of the organisational environmentChanges over timechanges over the life span in one's attitudes, values, lifestyle, career plans, or commitment to the organisation lead to a lack of harmony between the individual and the environment e.g. physical and administrative structure, policies, procedureschange in the organisational environment which leads to a lack of harmony between the individual and the environmente.g. changes in structure, policies and proceduresInterpersonal relationshipsinterpersonal conflicts arising from differences of opinion, style, values, mannerismsoccurrence of verbal or physical abuse or sexual harassmentOther life roles & work conflictsSpill-over effectInteraction between work & other life rolesSatisfaction, dissatisfaction & maladjustment extends into the other areaCompensation modelPeople compensate for unhappiness at home by seeking satisfaction at work & vice versaSegmentation approachesPeople develop separate work personalityKeep work & personal experiences apartMutually supportive functions – mitigating influencesSelf-esteemAttitudes to own & other person’s jobDivision of work & social roles at homeFlexible working & leave schedulesWomen in the labour marketDistribution of choirs , dual careerWork-family conflictsTime-based (too little time)Stress based Behaviour based (behaviour expected in one area is incompatible with other area)Distorted perceptionsPersistent, inaccurate perceptions of work related factors, events & peoplePerceptions have virtually no basis in realityDistinguish between true perception & blatant lying, blaming or other forms of anti-social behavioursJob dissatisfactionPhysical illness, stress, frustration, accidents, absenteeism, job changes, fear of failure, lower standards of performanceWork group’s cohesion & moraleExecutive pathologyAll levels of supervision & management in organisationsSymptoms, processes & causesMale management stylesStrong personal identification with work & managerial rolesStrongly business & achievement orientatedFemale management stylesWork & managerial position only one of many life rolesWork at steady pace & don’t mind unscheduled interruptionsFlow & leniencyDistressed executivesStill functioning well in various life rolesExperience temporary distress & occupational dysfunctionWork stressors: work overload & time constraintsSymptoms:Burnout, marital problems, problems with authority, aggression & hostilityIf severe: long hours, work compulsiveness, illness, insomniaImpaired executivesNo longer able to function properly in various life rolesPhysical and/or psychological illnessSubstance abuse, anxiety, depression, schizophrenia, marital problemsLoose contact with reality, behave incoherently, inappropriately & unpredictableWork behaviourIndecisiveness, forgetfulness, apathy &confusion, poor judgement, overreacting, aggressiveness The physically disabled & related problemsReal and ‘invented’ physical ailmentsPhysical illnessOccupational physical diseasesRelated to causal factors in work place, e.g. poisoning & pollutionFaked illnessConsciously or unconsciously prefer illness to being healthyManipulative – attentionSecondary gainsThe physically disabledCaused by genetic & related metabolic factors, organic brain damage, accidents, toxic & nutritional factorsCan be aggravated by community & employerFrustrations related toExperiences during training, job opportunities, discriminatory management practicesUnjust attitudes & perceptions of disabled employeesQuality of disabled employee’s work experienceNature of task & roleOrganisational climateGeneral attitude about workHIV/Aids: generally and at workAcquired immunodeficiency syndromeNot only medical/health problemEconomic, educational, socio-economic, legal & moral and work problem ................
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