AP Psychology History and Research Formative Assessment …
left250002514600AP Psychology History and Research Formative Assessment Packet900007300AP Psychology History and Research Formative Assessment Packetrighttop400001000001683664351020*Reminder: Some content may be out of order. Using the index may help you locate the information in a different area of the text.4000020000*Reminder: Some content may be out of order. Using the index may help you locate the information in a different area of the text.-3371857177405Name ______________________________________________/155 points020000Name ______________________________________________/155 points40195503895725Module 1 – Psychology and Its History (16 points)Ask Yourself (3 points):Were you surprised to learn that psychology is a science? How would you defend that point if someone else now asked you about this?How do you think psychology might change in the future as more women contribute their ideas to the field?Before the course, how would you have characterized the influence of Freudian theories in psychology? Would you have placed this influence in a historical or modern context?Test Yourself (5 points):Describe what’s involved in critical thinking.What event defined the start of modern scientific psychology?Why did introspection fail as a method for understanding how the mind works?The school of _____________________ used introspection to define the mind’s makeup; ____________________ focused on how mental processes enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.From the 1920s to the 1960s, the two major forces in psychology were ____________________ and ____________________ psychology.Multiple Choice (5 points):1. _____ By seeking to measure “atoms of the mind,” who established the first psychology laboratory?a. Edward Bradford Titchenerb. Margeret Floy Washburnc. Wilhelm Wundtd. G. Stanley Halle. William James2. _____ Which philosopher proposed that nerve pathways allowed for reflexes?a. Socratesb. Rene Descartesc. John Locked. Aristotlee. Plato3. _____ Who coined the term tabula rasa (blank slate) to help explain the impact experience has on shaping an individual?a. Francis Baconb. Rene Descartesc. Edward Bradford Titchenerd. Mary Whiton Calkinse. John Locke4. _____ Which of the following best describes research types of Wilhelm Wundt’s first psychology laboratory?a. Testing ESP using a wall to observe auras above participants’ head.b. Using a brain-scanning device to determine the impact events have on brain function.c. Measuring the reaction time between hearing a sound and pressing a button.d. Studying helping behavior, based on the premise that people are good.e. Making careful observations of animal spirits.5. _____ With which of the following statements would John. B. Watson most likely agree?a. Psychology should study the growth potential in all people.b. Psychology should study the unconscious mind.c. Psychology should focus on observable behavior.d. Psychology should study mental thought processes.e. Psychology should study how culture and beliefs impact an individual.Practice FRQ (3 points):Analyze how curiosity, skepticism, and humility enable you to distinguish between gut intuition (feeling like you know something) and the scientific attitude (seeking to verify what you know with evidence).Module 2 – Today’s Psychology and Its Approaches (18 points)Ask Yourself (3 points):Think of one of your own unique traits. How do you think that trait was affected by the influences of nature and nurture?How have your cultural experiences influenced your development?Of all of these helpful principles, which ones seem most relevant and important for improving your own life and studies?Test Yourself (8 points):How did the cognitive revolution affect the field of psychology?What is natural selection?What is contemporary psychology’s position on the nature-nurture issue?When you signed up for this course, what did you think psychology would be all about?What advantage do we gain by using the biopsychosocial approach in studying the psychological events?The ____________________ ____________________ perspective in psychology focuses on how behavior and thought differ from situation to situation and from culture to culture, while the ____________________ perspective emphasizes observation of how we respond to and learn in different situations.The ____________________ ____________________ describes the enhanced memory that results from repeated retrieval (as in self-testing) rather than from simple rereading of new information.What does the acronym SQ3R stand for?Multiple Choice (4 points):1. _____ Which of the following is a major issue in modern-day psychology?a. Evolutionary-biologicalb. Social-cultural-biopsychosocialc. Nature-nurtured. Psychodynamic-cognitivee. Social-cultural-behavioral2. _____ Which of the following perspectives is most likely to address how the encoding, storing, and retrieval of information might alter our thoughts?a. Evolutionaryb. Psychodynamicc. Humanisticd. Cognitivee. Biological3. _____ Which of the following perspectives would be most likely to examine the unconscious motives of a person who is overly aggressive on the basketball court?a. Psychodynamicb. Social-culturalc. Behaviorald. Evolutionarye. Humanistic4. _____ Positive psychology, which studies the ideas behind human flourishing, is connected to which psychologist?a. John Lockeb. Martin Seligmanc. Charles Darwind. Sigmund Freude. John WatsonPractice FRQ (3 points):Six months ago, Carlos emigrated from Mexico to the United States. Although fluent in English and an honor student in Mexico, Carlos has had difficulty completing his assignments since moving to the United States. His parents don’t understand why he is not succeeding like he did in his last school. Carlos has quit participating in family traditions.Explain how each of the following psychological perspectives might explain Carlos’ behavior:PsychodynamicCognitiveSocial-cultural7 Faces of Psychology (14 points)For each of the following statements indicate which of the seven psychological perspectives is most likely to agree with it. Psychoanalytic (P), Behavioral (B), Humanist (H), BioPsychology (BP), Evolutionary(E), Cognitive (C), or Sociocultural (S). 1. ______ The mind can be viewed as an information processing system.2. ______ Behavior is driven by forces we do not understand and are not aware of.3. ______ All human thought and behavior can be reduced to activity at the neural level.4. ______ Humans are innately good and strive to reach their fullest potential.5. ______ This approach is most concerned with the ramifications of the fact that most psychological research is conducted on subjects from America.6. ______ Psychology should be the scientific study of behavior which is observable and measurable. 7. ______ Human behavior is a result of selective adaptation.8. ______ Individuals need empathy, unconditional positive regard, and acceptance in order to be successful.9. ______ Behavior is influenced by the effects of reinforcements and punishments. 10. ______ Expectations and analysis of past experiences influence future human behavior. 11. ______ Personality development is determined by experiences in very early childhood.12. ______ Human societies vary in the importance they give to care and respect of the elderly. 13. ______ An important factor in the selection of romantic partners is their likelihood that they will bear healthy offspring.14. ______ Variance in levels of pain tolerance is most directly influenced by endorphins and neurochemicals. Module 3 – Subfields in Psychology (13 points)Ask Yourself (2 points):Before taking this course, where would you have pictured psychologists working? Which work setting has surprised you the most so far?Which of psychology’s subfields were you aware of before taking this course? Which ones seem most interesting to you?Test Yourself (2 points):Match the specialty below with the description:1. _____ Clinical Psychology2. _____ Psychiatry3. _____ Community Psychologya. Works to create social and physical environments that are healthy for all.b. Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders but usually does not provide medical therapy.c. Branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders.Name each of these subfields: (a) focuses on people and their work environments: (b) studies how people change over the lifespan; (c) considers the human thinking involved in perceiving, remembering, speaking, and decision-making; and (d) focuses on diagnosing and treating psychological disorders.Multiple Choice (7 points):1. _____ Who among the following would most likely study the interaction of people, machines, and physical environments?a. Human factors psychologistb. Personality psychologistc. Industrial-organizational psychologistd. Counseling psychologiste. Educational psychologist2. _____ Psychiatrists differ from clinical psychologists in that theya. help people cope with challenges and crises.b. conduct research.c. explore how we view and affect one another.d. experiment with how people perceive, think, and solve problems.e. are medical doctors licensed to prescribe medication.3. _____ Which of the following psychologists most strongly emphasize that human behavior is powerfully influenced by the interaction between people and their physical, social, political, and economic environments?a. Communityb. Evolutionaryc. Educationald. Industrial-organizationale. Rehabilitational4. _____ Which of the following psychologists would be most likely to investigate biological, psychological, cognitive, and social changes over a lifetime?a. Educationalb. Experimentalc. Sociald. Cognitivee. Developmental5. _____ A psychologist investigates the methods teachers use to enhance student learning. In which of the following subfield is the psychologist most likely working?a. Educational psychologyb. Experimental psychologyc. School psychologyd. Social psychologye. Forensic psychology6. _____ A psychologist works with children whose parents are divorcing. She helps them develop skills they need to cope with the situation. Which of the following psychologists is most likely to be helping these children?a. Industrial-organizationalb. Socialc. Researchd. Counselinge. Community7. _____ Dwayne is interested in helping people make good decisions regarding their physical well-being. Dwayne should consider a career as a(n)a. community psychologist.b. social psychologist.c. forensic psychologist.d. industrial-organizational psychologist.e. health psychologist.Practice FRQ (2 points):Hurricane Matthew hit Haiti in 2016, causing a staggering loss of life and infrastructure and billions of dollars in damage. How might each of the following types of psychologists contribute to making like better in Haiti following the hurricane?Clinical psychologistsSocial psychologistsSubfields in PsychologySubfield:Definition/Type of Work:WorkplaceClinical psychologistWorks with diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disordersUniversities, hospitals, private practice, drug rehabCognitive psychologistResearch oriented and often study mental processesUniversities, hospitals, lab settingsCommunity psychologistDevelops & presents programs to help maintain mental health & the relationship between individuals and their communityCommunity mental health centers or educational centersCounseling psychologistWorks with people who exhibit trouble coping with everyday problemsEducational settings, clinics, private practice, hospitalsDevelopmental psychologistStudy how people change over time and the developmental stages across the human lifespanUniversities, government-funded programsEducational psychologist Studies issues related to how people learnUniversities, government-funded programsEnvironmental psychologistInterested in relationship between human behavior & physical environmentsUniversities, government-funded programsForensic psychologistApplies psychological principles to legal issuesLegal system, government, private businessPositive psychologistResearches human strengths and virtues and focuses on positive emotionsUniversities, governmentHealth psychologistInterested in promotion and maintenance of good health, as well as prevention of illnessHospitals, universitiesIndustrial/Organizational psychologistWorks with psychological issues that are related to business and workGovernment, private business, universitiesNeuropsychologist/ BiopsychologyInvestigate relationship between body & behavior, as well as central nervous system disordersHospitals, universitiesPsychometric psychologistConcerned with numerical methods & techniques used in psychology (testing, scoring, & analyzing info)LaboratorySchool psychologistWorks to overcome educational difficulties – works with individual students 1 on 1 or in small groupsElementary, middle, and secondary schoolsSocial psychologistStudies how society influences individualsUniversitiesSports psychologistHelps athletes refine focus & improve motivation that accompanies competitionTeams, private businessPractice with Subfields of Psychology (17 points)Directions: For each of the descriptions of the work of psychologists below, identify the specialty it describes. Each will be used once.___________________________ Helped implement a program in the inner city to lower the rate of teenage pregnancy.___________________________ Works with a young woman who is having trust issues in her relationships___________________________ Studies how a label of ADD or ADHD affects the functioning of children in all levels of school___________________________ Employed by a testing company to generate a revised form of an intelligence test___________________________ Designs a program that helps people stop smoking and focus on healthy choices___________________________ Studies worker productivity and implements a program at Motorola that helps increase worker motivation___________________________ Researchers conduct surveys worldwide to determine which nations have the happiest citizens and why.___________________________ Works with returning veterans that have been diagnosed with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder___________________________ Helped design the new construction of a freeway system in California that would lessen the impact of noise and pollution for the residents in the area___________________________ Conducts research on the effect of prejudice on newly-arrived immigrants ___________________________ Tests students for learning disabilities___________________________ Works in a research laboratory that specializes in finding a cure for Alzheimer’s Disease___________________________ Studies the emotional changes that occur as a child matures ___________________________ Works at the university of Chicago doing research on how Multiple Sclerosis is related to destruction of the myelin sheath on neurons___________________________ Works in court of law evaluating the mental competence of defendants___________________________ Is often hired by professional athletes who have anxiety and fear of failure during performances.___________________________ Help designers create better airplane instrument panels that reduce errors.Module 4 – The Need for Psychological Science (9 points)Ask Yourself (1 point):Do you have a hard time thinking you may be overconfident? Could overconfidence be at work in that self-assessment?Test Yourself (1 point):Why, after friends start dating, do we often feel that we knew they were meant to be together?Multiple Choice (4 points):1. _____ After the student council election, a friend tells you he could have guessed who would be elected president. What psychological phenomenon might this illustrate?a. Common senseb. Critical thinkingc. Hindsight biasd. Overconfidencee. Perceiving order in random events2. _____ While taking a standardized test with randomly scrambled answers, you notice that your last four answers have been “c.” Which of the following is true concerning the probability of the next answer being “c”?a. It is higher. Once a streak begins, it is likely to last for a while.b. It is lower. Since answers are distributed randomly, “c” answers become less common.c. It is unaffected by previous answers. It is as likely to be “c” as any other answer.d. You should check your previous answers. Four “c’s” in a row is impossible.e. It is higher. Test constructors trick students by keeping the same answer many times in a row.3. _____ The tendency to exaggerate the correctness or accuracy of our beliefs and predictions is calleda. hindsight bias.b. overconfidence.c. critical thinking.d. skepticism.e. reliability.4. _____ Which of the following is an example of hindsight bias?a. Armend is certain that electric cars will represent 80 percent of vehicles in 20 years and only reads research studies that support his hypothesis.b. Liza underestimates how much time it will take her to finish writing hr college application essays and as a result fails to meet an important deadline.c. Experts predicting world events with 80 percent confidence turned out to be correct less than 40 percent of the time.d. Alliyah, after reading a definition on one of her flashcards, turns the card over to see the term and then tells herself she knew what the answer was all along.e. Dr. Grace overestimates how effectively her new treatment method works because she fails to seek out any evidence refuting her theory.Practice FRQ (3 points):A local basketball team has won three championships in a row and is on a winning streak going into the final game. Explain how their fans might use the following to explain a loss in the final game: Hindsight biasOverconfidenceThe tendency to perceive patterns in random eventsModule 5 – The Scientific Method and Description (15 points)Ask Yourself (3 points):Will what you’ve learned about these theories and replication change the way you will read about research results, such as in your news feed?From your observations of people, can you think of a “case study” that has taught you something about people in general?Can you recall a misleading survey you have experienced or read about? What survey principles did it violate?Test Yourself (5 points):What does a good theory do?Why is replication important?We cannot assume that case studies always reveal general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?What is an unrepresentative sample, and how do researchers avoid it?What are some strengths and weaknesses of the three different methods psychologists use to describe behavior—case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys?Multiple Choice (4 points):1. _____ Why is an operational definition necessary when reporting research findings?a. An operational definition allows others to replicate the study.b. An operational definition provides more context and includes many examples of the concept described.c. An operational definition is easier to translate into multiple languages than a dictionary definition.d. An operational definition uses more scientific language than a dictionary definition.e. An operational definition is not necessary since a dictionary definition will work as well for replication.2. _____ A researcher looking for gender differences in 3-year-olds observes a preschool class and records how many minutes children of each gender play with dolls. She then compares the two sets of numbers. What type of descriptive research is she conducting?a. Case studyb. Experimentc. Random sample methodd. Naturalistic observatione. Survey3. ______ Which of the following questions is best investigated by means of a survey?a. Are people more likely to vote Republican or Democrat in the next election?b. Are violent criminals genetically different form nonviolent criminals?c. Does extra sleep improve memory?d. What is the best study technique for AP exams?e. What role does exercise play in weight loss?4. _____ A testable prediction that drives research is known as a(n)a. theory.b. hypothesisc. operational definition.d. genes.e. random sample5. _____ Researchers are interested in finding out if voters are more likely to vote for congressional candidates who have more pleasant facial expressions. Starting at a random point, the researchers contact every hundredth person on the voter list to ask about candidate-facial expressions. Which method are the researchers using in choosing the people they will call?a. Random sampleb. Periodic samplec. Biased sampled. Surveye. Operational definition6. _____ An individual with an exceptional memory is identified. For any given date, she is capable of recalling major events, the weather, and what she did that day. What research method is being used if a psychologist conducts an in-depth investigation of this individual using questionnaires, brain scans, and memory tests?a. Naturalistic observationb. Surveyc. Interviewd. Case Studye. Theory method7. _____ Which of the following is most important when conducting survey research?a. Choosing a representative sampleb. Choosing a large samplec. Choosing a biased sampled. Choosing a sample that includes every member of the populatione. Choosing a sample whose answers will likely support your hypothesisPractice FRQ (3 points):Dr. Cheema is interested in studying the prevalence of cheating on exams at her local high school. Describe one disadvantage of using each of the following research methods to study this topic:Case studyNaturalistic observationSurveyModule 6 – Correlation and Experimentation (17 points)Ask Yourself (3 points):Can you think of a popular media report you’ve read that confused correlation with causation?Can you think of a time when you may have been tricked by the placebo effect?If you were to become a research psychologist, what questions would you like to explore with experiments?Test Yourself (5 points):You hear the school basketball coach telling her friend that she rescued her team’s winning streak by yelling at the players after an unusually bad first half. What is another explanation of why the team’s performance improved?What measures do researchers use to prevent the placebo effect from confusing their results?By using random assignment, researchers are able to control for ____________________ ____________________, which are other factors besides the independent variable(s) that my influence research results.Match the terms below with their description:1. _____ double-blind procedure2. _____ random sampling3. _____ random assignmenta. helps researchers generalize from a small set of survey responses to a larger populationb. helps minimize preexisting differences between experimental and control groupsc. controls for the placebo effect; neither researchers nor participants know who receives the real treatmentWhy, when testing a new drug to control blood pressure, would we learn more about its effectiveness from giving it to half of the participants in a group of 1000 than to all 1000 participants?Multiple Choice (6 points):1. _____ Which of the following is an example of negative correlation?a. People who spend more time exercising tend to weigh less.b. Teenage females tend to have fewer speeding tickets than teenage males.c. Students with lower IQ scores tend to have lower grades.d. As hours studying for a test decrease, so do grades on that test.e. Students’ shoe sizes are not related to their grades.2. _____ In an experiment to test the effects of room temperature on test performance the independent variable isa. the scores on the test before the experiment begins.b. the scores on the tst a the end of the experiment.c. whether the teacher was male or female.d. the temperature of the room.e. the style of test (multiple choice versus essay).3. _____ Researchers have discovered that individuals with lower income levels report having fewer hours of total sleep. Therefore,a. income and sleep levels are positively correlated.b. income and sleep levels are negatively correlated.c. income and sleep levels are inversely correlated.d. income and sleep levels are not correlated.e. lower income levels cause individuals to have fewer hours of sleep.4. _____ Which of the following correlation coefficients represents the strongest relationship between two variables?a. +0.30b. +0. 75c. +1.30d. -0.85e. -0.055. _____ The purpose of random assignment is toa. allow participants in both the experimental and control groups to be exposed to the independent variable.b. ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the research.c. eliminate the placebo effect.d. reduce potential confounding variables.e. generate operational definitions for the independent and dependent variables.6. _____ In a drug study, neither the participants nor the person distributing the pills knows who is receiving the new drug and who is receiving the placebo. This type of research design is said to be a(n) _____ study.a. correlationalb. confoundingc. double-blindd. single-blinde. illusoryPractice FRQ (3 points):Ms. Ledbetter wants to determine if the new review activity she developed will improve student performance on unit exams. She randomly separates 160 students into two groups. Group A reviews for the unit exam in the traditional manner they have always used. Group B participates in the new review activity. After reviewing, both groups are given the same unit exam and their scores are compared. Explain how the following terms relate to this study:Independent variableDependent variableControl groupModule 7 – Research Design and Ethics in Psychology (10 points)Ask Yourself (1 point):Were any of this module’s questions your questions? Do you have other questions or concerns about psychology?Test Yourself (1 point):How are animal subjects and human research participants protected?Multiple Choice (4 points):1. ______ What must a researcher do to fulfill the ethical principle of informed consent?a. Keep information about participants confidential.b. Provide financial compensation to the participants.c. Protect participants from potential harm.d. Provide participants with enough information about a study to enable a rational decision about whether to participate.e. Provide participants with a postexperimental explanation of the study.2. _____ Which ethical principle requires that at the end of the study participants be told about the true purpose of the research?a. Institutional review board approvalb. Informed consentc. Confidentialityd. Debriefinge. Protection from physical harm3. _____ The laboratory environment is designed toa. exactly re-create the events of everyday life.b. re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions.c. re-create psychological forces under random conditions.d. minimize the use of animals and humans in psychological research.e. provide the opportunity to do case study research.4. _____ Which of the following animal studies is most likely to receive approval?a. Do monkeys who smoke get cancer?b. Are dogs who are abused violent?c. Will rats deprived of food for 1 week survive?d. What are the effects of raising kittens in isolation?e. Can dolphins learn simple language?Practice FRQ (4 points):Researchers interested in studying stress gave 150 high school seniors a very difficult math exam. After the test, the researchers measured stress by examining physiological changes with extensive medical testing that included drawing blood samples. When the test was over, they shared the results with the students but did not publish individual data. Explain whether or not this study conforms to each of the ethical standards:Informed consentDebriefingConfidentialityProtection from harmModule 8 – Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life (13 points)Ask Yourself (1 point):Find a graph in a popular magazine ad. How does the advertiser use (or abuse) statistics to make a point?Test Yourself (3 points):The arithmetic average of a distribution of scores is the ____________________. The score that shows up most often is the ____________________. The score right in the middle of a distribution (half the scores above it; half below) is the ____________________. We determine how much scores vary around the average in a way that includes information about the ____________________ of scores (difference between highest and lowest) by using the ____________________ _____________________.Can you solve this puzzle? The registrar’s office at the University of Michigan has found that usually about 100 students in Arts an Sciences have perfect grades at the end of their first term at the university. However, only about 10 to 15 students graduate with perfect grades. What do you think is the most likely explanation for the fact that there are more perfect grades after one term than at graduation?____________________ statistics summarize data, while ____________________ determine if data can be generalized to other populations.Multiple Choice (5 points):1. _____ What is the range of the following: 12, 25, 33, 40, 80?a. 68b. 98c. 33d. 38e. 1902. _____ Which measure of central tendency is most influenced by outliers (data that is extremely different from other data in the set)?a. Meanb. Medianc. Moded. Standard deviatione. Histogram3. _____ A researcher calculates statistical significance for her study and finds a 5 percent chance that results are due to chance. Which of the following is an accurate interpretation fo this finding?a. This is highly statistically significant.b/ This is the minimum result typically considered statistically significant.c. This is not statistically significant.d. There is no way to determine statistical significance without replication of the study.e. Chance or coincidence is unrelated to statistical significance.4. _____ Descriptive statistics ___________ while inferential statistics __________.a. indicate the significance of the data; summarize the datab. describe data from experiments; describe data from surveys and case studiesc. are measures of central tendency; are measure of varianced. determine if data can be generalized to other populations; summarize datae. summarize data; assess if data can be generalized5. _____ In a normal distribution, what percentage of the scores in the distribution falls within one standard deviation on either side of the mean?a. 34 percentb. 40 percentc. 50 percentd. 68 percente. 95 percentPractice FRQ (4 points):The following data set includes information from survey research in a psychology course regarding how many hours each student in the class spent preparing for the exam.StudentNumber of hours reported studying122336485969721Examine the data and respond to the following:RangeModeMedianExplain why the teacher may wish to calculate the standard deviation for this set of data.History and Research Unit Review Practice FRQ’s (13 points)1. Jacob’s parents are encouraging him not to major in psychology because they worry he might not want to spend his life around mentally ill people. Help Jacob explain to his parents that psychologists do other types of work, by describing the specific focuses of each of the following types of psychologists (4 points):Educational psychologistsIndustrial-organizational psychologistsForensic psychologistsCommunity psychologists2. Dr. Tabor wanted to investigate the relationship between sleep and levels of alertness. She gave surveys to 150 college freshmen in her introduction to psychology course, asking them to report how many hours they slept each night during a 2-week period. Each day at the end of class, Dr. Tabor also had the participants rate their level of alertness on a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being the most alert. Dr. Tabor compared the average amount of sleep reported by each participant along with their average score on the alertness scale on a graph to examine the data. The resulting correlation coefficient for Dr. Tabor’s data was +0.89. Explain how each of the following concepts might apply to Dr. Tabor’s research. (5 points)Random sampleScatterplotWording effectsPositive correlationOperational definition3. Dr. Pauling wanted to study whether vitamin C affects self-esteem. He recruited 200 people who came to his lab. Participants were told that they were about to take part in a harmless research study, and they needed to sign a release form in case there were harmful side effects from the vitamin pills. The 100 participants on the right side of the room received a pill with vitamin C and the others on the left received a pill with caffeine. Dr. Pauling then gave each group a list of questions to answer in essay form about their self-esteem. When they were finished, he thanked the participants and sent them on their way. After compiling his findings, Dr. Pauling printed the names of the students and their results in the campus newspaper so they would know the results of the test. Dr. Pauling concluded that vitamin C had a positive effect on self-esteem. Identify four ethical violations in Dr. Pauling’s study. (4 points) ................
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