This study examined the relationship among stress ...



NOTE: The nine mistakes in the paragraph are currently in bold. This can be used as an in-class exercise, a quiz, or an exam question, and of course can be edited for the needs of your class and the level of their writing. An explanation of each error can be found on the second page of this document.

Identify and correct the nine mistakes in scientific writing, APA style, and grammar

in this paragraph from the discussion section of a research report

This study examined the relationship among stress, personality, level of anger, and disease. The major hypotheses were found to be true {1}. Consistent with the work of Garon &{2} Mantel (1994), the data was{3} shown to yield a significant negative correlation between stress level and disease (p < .01). However, it is worth noting that the predicted effect of personality type was not significant. These results do not support previous research in this area (Garon et al., 1994) {4}. The ANOVA yielded the most significant{5} finding (p < .001) and confirmed the central hypothesis. These findings have important implications for health psychologists. Facilitating a one’s expression of anger can reduce stress which, in turn, may lower their{6} risk for disease. One desired criteria for the sample of subjects{7} was not met. The adults in the study were comprised of only 70 girls{8} but two hundred{9} men.

1. THE TRUTH ABOUT HYPOTHESES

Hypotheses are never “found to be true” because statistical tests that support hypotheses are probability statements. Appropriate language indicates that hypotheses are “supported”, “adopted”, or “accepted”.

2. PROPOER IN-TEXT CITATIONS.

The proper format for in text citation for two authors is Garon and Mantel. Garon & Mantel is only used for parenthetical citations (Garon & Mantel, 1994)

3 & 6 SINGULAR AND PLURAL: PARALLEL STRUCTURE.

Good writing requires that there be parallel structure between subject and verb; plural subjects should have plural verbs and singular subjects should have singular verbs. Several words commonly used in psychological writing have the appearance of being singular when they are plural.

Probably the most common error is the use of "data," a plural noun, with a singular verb

("data was . . . “). In the example, “the data were” is the correct form. (The singular form of “data” is “datum”.)

4. "Et al.”

Meaning “and others” in Latin, “et al.” is used only after a reference has been cited fully

once in the text and if there are three or more authors in the citation. Since the Garon and Mantel reference has only two authors, it is incorrect to use “et al.” here. The one exception to this rule occurs when the initial citation has six or more authors. In this case, “et al.” can be used on the every citation.

5. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF “SIGNIFICANCE”.

The term “significance” has multiple meanings, so it is important to be careful using the term.

Results are not “very," "almost," or “slightly” significant. A p-value of .01 is not more significant than .05 or less significant than .001. A statistical test is significant or it is not. For non-scientists, the term “significant” is synonymous with “important”, "meaningful," or "noteworthy." However, when scientists use the term “significant”, they typically have a quite different meaning in mind namely that a given result is “statistically significant.” It’s important for beginning scientific writers to realize that results that are statistically significant may not necessarily be noteworthy findings. Care must be taken that your reader is not confused about the way in which you use the term.

6. See # 3 above.

7. PARTICIPANTS ARE SUBJECTS TOO.

The terms "subject" and "sample” may be used when discussing statistics. In all other cases, "participant" or "respondent" is preferred because such terms convey a sense of active involvement in psychological research. Note, however, that this rule only applies when writing about people. Even though animals are vital for psychological research, it has not become necessary to recognize their active involvement and thus it remains acceptable to describe rats, mice, and cats as “subjects”.

8. BIASED LANGUAGE.

To reduce bias in writing, identify all participants appropriately. The terms “girl” and “boy” are only appropriate for those of high school age and younger. As the participants are identified as adults the proper term would be “women”. The imbalance of the terms “girl” and “men” suggests a bias against women on the part of the author.

9. IS IT TWELVE OR 12?

Numbers below 10 are spelled out (e.g., “two”), numbers 10 and above are generally written in numerical form (e.g., “200”). See section 3.42 of the APA manual for the exceptions to this rule

Adapted from:

A SELF-SCORING EXERCISE ON APA STYLE AND RESEARCH LANGUAGE

Marilyn Freimuth, Society for the Teaching of Psychology (APA Division 2)

OFFICE OF TEACHING RESOURCES IN PSYCHOLOGY (OTRP)

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