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Chapter Six

Public Opinion and Political Socialization:

Shaping the People’s Voice

Learning Objectives

Having read the chapter, the students should be able to do each of the following:

1. List some of the major factors influencing the formation of public opinion and identify the factors which tend to have the strongest and more permanent influence.

2. Describe the different methods used to measure public opinion and discuss why some are more accurate than others.

3. Describe the frames of reference, particularly ideological classifications and group characteristics, which help to explain how Americans think politically.

4. Assess the degree to which American policy makers are responsive to public opinion, and comment on how this question relates to the issue of representation in American politics.

5. Describe how partisan thinking influences opinions about issues and candidates.

Focus and Main Points

The focus of this chapter is on public opinion and its influences on the American political system. A major theme is that public opinion is a powerful yet inexact force in American politics. The author explores the nature of public opinion and discusses the process and agents of political socialization. He also analyzes how Americans think politically. Primary ideas include the following:

• Public opinion consists of those ideas held by ordinary citizens which government officials take into account in making public policy. Public officials have many means of gauging public opinion, such as elections and mass demonstrations, but have increasingly relied upon public opinion polls.

• The process by which individuals acquire their political opinions is called political socialization. This process begins during childhood via family and school, where Americans obtain many of their basic political values and beliefs. Socialization continues into adulthood, during which peers, political leaders, events, and the news media are major influences.

• Political opinions are shaped by several frames of reference. Some of the most important are ideology, group attachments, political culture, and partisanship. These frames of reference are the basis for political consensus and conflict in the general public.

• Public opinion has an important influence on decision makers but ordinarily does not directly determine the actions of policy makers. Public opinion works primarily to impose limits and directions on policy choices made by government officials.

Chapter Summary

Public opinion can be defined as those beliefs held by ordinary citizens which policy makers take into account. Officials have many ways of assessing public opinion, such as the outcomes of elections, but have increasingly come to rely on public opinion polls. There are many possible sources of error in polling, and surveys sometimes present a misleading portrayal of the public’s views. Yet a properly conducted poll can provide an accurate indication of what the people think and can dissuade political leaders from believing that the views of the most vocal citizens (such as demonstrators and letter writers) are also the views of the general public.

The process by which individuals acquire their political opinions is called political socialization. During childhood the family and schools are important sources of basic political attitudes, such as beliefs about the parties and the nature of the U.S. political and economic systems. Many of the basic orientations that Americans obtain during their childhood remain with them in adulthood; but socialization is a continual process. Major shifts in opinion during adulthood are typically the consequence of changing political conditions; for example, the Great Depression of the 1930s was the catalyst for wholesale changes in American opinions on the proper role of the federal government in the domestic economy. There are also short term fluctuations in opinion that result from new political issues, problems, and events. Individual opinion in these instances are affected by prior beliefs, peers, political leaders, and the news media. Events themselves are also a significant short term influence on opinions.

Individual opinions gain power to the extent that others share a similar view. Public opinion thus has the force of numbers. The frames of reference that guide Americans’ opinions are their cultural beliefs, such as individualism, which result in a range of acceptable and unacceptable policy alternatives. Opinion can also stem from a shared ideology, although most citizens do not have a strong and consistent ideological attachment. Individuals develop opinions as a result of shared party loyalty or a shared group circumstance, notably religion, income, occupation, region, race, gender, or age. Partisanship is perhaps the major source of political opinions. However, party loyalty as a frame of reference has declined in recent decades.

Public opinion has a significant influence on policy makers but seldom determines public policy in a particular instance. Public opinion serves to constrain the policy choices of officials. Some policy actions are beyond the range of possibility because the public will not accept change in existing policy or will not seriously consider policy that seems clearly at odds with basic American values. Evidence indicates that officials are reasonably attentive to public opinion on highly visible and controversial issues of public policy.

Major Concepts

1. public opinion (p. 185)

2. public opinion poll (p. 189)

3. sample (p. 189)

4. population (p. 189)

5. sampling error (p. 189)

6. probability sample (p. 190)

7. political socialization (p. 191)

8. age-cohort tendency (p. 193)

9. agents of socialization (p. 193)

10. ideology (p. 197)

11. liberals (p. 197)

12. conservatives (p. 198)

13. libertarians (p. 198)

14. populists (p. 198)

15. party identification (p. 204)

Lecture Outline

This lecture outline closely follows the text in its organization. The instructor can use this outline as a lecture aid.

The author focuses on public opinion and its influence on the American political system in this chapter. A major theme is that public opinion is a powerful and yet inexact force in American politics. The nature of public opinion, the related subject of political socialization, and Americans’ political frames of reference are explored and the chapter concludes with an examination of the influence of public opinion on policy.

The case of the unfolding of public opinion about the war in Iraq in 2003 is illustrative of the influence of public opinion on government. Public opinion rarely forces officials to take a particular course of action.

I. The Nature of Public Opinion

• Public opinion is important in a democracy, since the government springs from the will of the people.

• Public opinion is seldom exact on how to accomplish an agreed-upon goal. The division of the American people into many publics precludes the existence of a single undifferentiated public opinion. Americans divide into publics based on their level of attention to politics. As issues vary pluralist, elitist, or majority opinion may prevail.

• What role public opinion should play is a matter of debate. Public opinion is limited in its influence because of differing, contradictory, and uninformed opinion.

• The concept of public opinion refers to those openly expressed opinions of ordinary citizens which officials consider in making public policy.

• Public opinion is often measured through polling, based on interviews with a sample of individuals to estimate the views of the larger population they represent. The poll’s accuracy is indicated by sampling error which is a function of sample size. Probability samples are more accurate than nonprobability samples.

• Any poll can contain substantial errors if conducted incorrectly (common errors include poorly worded questions). Poll results are described in terms of the direction, intensity, and stability of opinion.

II. Political Socialization: How Americans Learn Their Politics

The process by which people acquire their political opinions, beliefs, and values reflects both childhood and adult influences. Notable characteristics of political socialization include the importance of childhood learning, its cumulative nature, and the reality that widespread political change is rare, and is almost always preceded by a catastrophic event.

• Family childhood experiences have important effects on opinions because they have a near-monopoly on the attention of the young children.

• Adult life tends to reinforce basic beliefs learned in childhood; however, dramatic change in national conditions (e.g. war, depression) can substantially alter political beliefs, particularly those of the young—the age-cohort tendency.

• Schools have a major impact on the development of children’s basic political beliefs.

• Peer groups can play an important role particularly in the maintenance of existing opinions. Many people are reluctant to take stands inconsistent with their peers.

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• The mass media are important in shaping the public’s perception of the world. The news media are especially important in defining people’s views on major issues.

• Political leaders and institutions, particularly the president and political parties, can guide opinion formation. New or unexpected events or developments, such as the Great Depression or the Vietnam War, can influence opinion on issues and leaders.

• Churches and religion are a more powerful influence in the United States than other western societies. Churches are influential regarding society’s obligations to the poor, the unborn, and children.

III. Frames of Reference: How Americans Think Politically

Americans evaluate political alternatives through four major frames of reference.

• The American political culture is formed around basic shared political beliefs that give direction and uniformity to opinion.

• Ideology influences a relatively small part of the population, though it is particularly significant in the case of political activists. Liberal and conservative ideologies can provide powerful symbols that influence opinion. Populism and libertarianism are a blend of the two.

• Groups are a more important reference than ideology for Americans. The personal circumstances of religion, class, region, race, gender, and age are influential forces.

• Partisanship can be influential. While party loyalties are not as strong as in previous eras, most voters still identify with one party or the other, but their loyalty is relatively weak.

IV. The Influence of Public Opinion on Policy

Public opinion affects public policy in a variety of ways. It can block or force some action or define the acceptable boundaries of policy. It can emerge in response to policy, or can influence officials to adopt popular policies.

Complementary Lecture Topics

Below are suggestions for lectures or lecture topics that will complement the text. In general, these topics assume that students will have read the chapter beforehand.

• According to the author, the level of the public’s knowledge about many policy issues is very low. How might an argument supporting a large public role in government maintain that public opinion guides government action despite this fact? How might a proponent of an alternative theoretical approach use this reality to argue that government officials should act as trustees and overlook constituent opinion?

• Public opinion can dramatically shift in the face of major upheaval. Pearl Harbor, the Great Depression, and the 2001 terrorist attacks are good examples of this phenomenon. Are there any events that may occur which could have a similar effect? Consider issues such as the federal deficit, declining American economic power, environmental pollution, increasing drug use and criminal violence, a burgeoning elderly population, AIDS, or any other issue that might seem appropriate.

• According to the author, public opinion has a powerful though inexact influence on government. Discuss this idea, using historical and current issues as examples.

• Some people are more knowledgeable, interested, ideological, and hence more politically active than others. What accounts for these variations in politicization, and what can be done to increase the level of political awareness in the general population? What are the likely policy consequences if the situation remains unchanged?

• If party loyalties were to decline over the next few decades, what would such a development mean for the comparative strengths of the two major parties and the way national campaigns would be handled? Also, would public opinion be more receptive to the formation of a new party?

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